Vol.

78, 1972] 477

CIDER MAKING AND CIDER RESEARCH: A REVIEW*

By F. W. Beech
(Long Ashton Research Station, University of Bristol)

Received 2nd May, 1972

Over the last twenty years there has been a progressive improvement in the
fermentation methods employed by the cider industry. The mixed microfiora,
typical of traditional cider making and derived in the main from the processing
equipment, was first controlled by the rational addition of sulphur dioxide to the
juice. This, together with the maintenance of a rigorous standard of hygiene in the
pressing equipment, led to the need for pure yeast cultures. The process has been
further improved by the increasing adoption of fermenting vessels made with imper
vious surfaces and the use of sterile concentrated juice which can be stored until
required for dilution and fermentation.
These changes have been based largely upon chemical, biochemical and micro
biological research into all aspects of the process. Future research is directed
towards the control of the flavour of the final cider.

Introduction This review will be confined to the fermen

During the entire existence of this Journal
there have been but three papers describing
the technology*, microbiology8 and bio
chemistry of cider making48, the last in 1935,
and only a handful on specialized aspects of
the topic since then7'35-88'40'81. It seems
appropriate, therefore, to review the present
state of the industry and the relevant scienti
fic knowledge that has been accumulated
over the last 25 years. During this period
the industry has progressed from being run
empirically to a point where control of the
flavour of the final product is a possibility.
Scientifically the industry now has many
features in common with brewing, although
initially the two were totally dissimilar,
apple juice being fermented with a naturally-
occurring mixed microflora1. The use of
concentrated juice, analogous to the brewer's
syrups, and pure yeast cultures, is now wide
spread'6. At the same time brewing com
panies have become involved financially with
the cider industry leading to the greater use
of management techniques in the latter.
In the next stage of integration there will be
even more benefits to be gained from the
brewer's extensive knowledge of marketing
strategy.
tation of apple juice. The corresponding
product, perry, made made from pears, has
been described elsewhere78.
Apples
The cider apples traditionally used in the
process are grown in south-west England",
north-west France50 and Spain and formerly
the Channel Islands08—areas romantically
associated with the remnants of the Celtic
culture. These areas contained literally
thousands of cultivars9, each adapted to a
restricted area. Their names were redolent
of the area, their discoverer, fruit character
istic or the supposed qualities of the cider
made from them. Nowadays, to give econ
omies in the nurseries, only a very limited
number of cultivars (Yarlington Mill, Dabinett
and Buhners Norman) are grown, suitable
for any site in the south-west95. For a
number of reasons, the area devoted to the
cultivation of cider apples has decreased
annually for many years until now the total
area devoted to cider apples in Great Britain
(12,300) roughly equals that in Somerset in
195197. The cider makers, alive to the
dangers of losing their prime raw material,
have financed schemes to plant new

* Based on a paper read to the Scottish Section of the Institute of Brewing on Oth November, 1071.

478 beech: cider making
orchards8-88. The old type of orchard planted
with standard trees, really an adjunct to
cattle raising and dairying, is unsuitable for
intensive cultivation. Further, such trees do
not give any crops for at least the first 20
years, an impossible situation in modern
economics. Some 10,000 acres of new orch
ards will be needed finally, each capable of
yielding at least 10 tons per acre within 7
years of establishment, in place of the once
national average of 30 cwt for mature trees.
The most efficient layout for such an intensive
cider orchard has still to be finalized. The
layout will probably be similar to that of
modern dessert apple orchards, not the
short-stemmed bush trees on vigorous root-
stocks advocated in the 1940's, but probably
the much smaller pyramid or spindle trees60.
At present the new orchards now in bearing
are planted with bush trees on less intensive
rootstocks at 150-200 to the acre, compared
with 50 for standards. Concurrent with
developments in orcharding, experimental
harvesting machines have been developed
based either on rotating rubber fingers or on
suction*. The close plantings now advocated
preclude the use of tree shakers and catcher
frames98. It will be interesting to see
whether the new concept of the fully-automa
ted meadow orchard, based on fruiting
shoots only, will be adopted first for cider
rather than dessert apples. At present it is
being used as a model for correlating the
many branches of research needed for its
realization.
The principal characteristic of cider apples
is their content of phenolic compounds, so
that they are normally classified on this
feature and on their acidity9. Thus, bitter-
sweets contain more than 0-2% (w/v) of
of "tannin" as measured by the Loewenthal
titration91 and less than 0-45% (w/v) titrat-
able acidity, calculated as malic acid.
Bittersharps, grown much less commonly,
would have the same range of tannin and
greater than this level of acidity. Sweets and
sharps would have the corresponding acidities
but less than 0-2% tannin. Cull fruit,
formerly Bramley's Seedling but now more
generally Cox's Orange Pippin, corresponds
more closely to the sharp cider apple cultivars,
the latter generally having a higher sugar
content and a more aromatic character.
The tannin content of the juice, besides
having a notable effect on the flavour,
equivalent to the brewer's hops, also inhibits
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[J. Inst. Brew.
the enzymic solubilization of the fruit
pectin78-94. The consequent dryer texture of
the apples allows them to be harvested and
stored in bulk without excessive damage13
and their juice to be expressed more readily.
All cider factories now have concrete silos
or yards with underground channels of re-
circulated water. When the apples are fully
ripe, they are pushed or washed into the
channels and conveyed to a central pond, out
of which rises the elevator bands or Archi
medean screws leading to the apple mills.
The water soon becomes dirty with soil, grass,
leaves and broken tissue. To avoid excessive
water consumption it is screened coarsely to
remove debris, chlorinated and continually
refreshed with clean water provided by sprays
on the fruit being removed from the collec
tion pond. The overflow of dirty water with
a high B.O.D. from dissolved sugars is first
allowed to settle and then passed through
percolating filters to a river, or is discharged
on to the land via sprays or drainage channels.
The Cider Making Process
Cider is made from apple juice as a result
of two fermentations. The first, carried out
by yeasts derived providentially from the
processing equipment or added deliberately16,
converts sugar to ethanol and the higher
alcohols. The second, a conversion of l(—)-
malic acid to L(+)-lactic acid and carbon
dioxide by lactic acid bacteria34'64, present
adventitiously in the juice and factory, can
occur concurrently with the yeast fermenta
tion. More commonly it is delayed until the
fully fermented stored ciders reach 15° C in
the early summer of the following year*3.
The cycle of cider making operations is
shown in Fig. 1.
This cycle, perhaps more than anything else,
illustrates how far cider making has moved
away from the popular farmyard image it
still has for many members of the public.
Apples are reduced to a fine pulp in a grater
type mill made of stainless steel. The
juice, having a pH value in the range of 3*0-
4-4, is very corrosive and requires equipment
to be made of 18/8/2 stabilized stainless
steel, epoxy-coated steel, glass or non-
resinous wood. Plastics and suitably formu
lated fibreglass can also be used, provided
they have been tested previously for freedom
from flavour taints and gaseous exchange
with the atmosphere.
 20500416, 1972, 6, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/j.2050-0416.1972.tb03485.x by Swansea University, Wiley Online Library on [04/10/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
Vol. 78, 1972] beech: cider making 479

Fig. 1.—Flow diagram of the process of cider making.

Apples purchased
apple concentrate

Milling and Pressing

pectin.

; Pomace.
concentrated aroma

cattle food'

concentrated juice

sulphur dioxide
• dilution
sugar and yeast

fermentation to dry ness

■ purchased cider

blending and storage

, filtration ■ -»- sweetened and pressure

fermentation

chill and carbonate

flash pasteurization or sterile filtration -

Draught cider Bottled cider Keg cider

The pulp is pumped or dosed automatically
into the press for juice extraction. Presses
are of three types:—the traditional rack and
cloth or pack press, with one- or two-bed
single pressing action or three-bed double
pressing action; the Bucher-Guyer HP500
mechano-hydraulically operated plate hori
zontal cage press4; the Speichim screw
horizontal cage press. The Ensink con
tinuous belt press is used successfully in the
Netherlands for pressing the very pectinous
pulp from stored dessert apples61, but it has
not yet been tried in England. Such pulps
are also being treated experimentally with
multi-enzyme mixtures to make juice extrac
tion more economical on these and other

480 beech: cider making
traditional, type presses70-'1. The mode of
operation of the presses is described in the
references85.63.79.80.8* in addition to those that
have been cited in this paragraph.
In England the residue or pomace from
both the single pressing pack press and the
screw press is disintegrated and repressed.
The cage press is operated long enough to
extract all the readily-available juice in one
cycle. The final pomace from both sources
is either dried in hot air to 12% moisture and
used subsequently for pectin manufacture, or
sold wet for ensiling as cattle food. Juice
extraction in France is more mechanized with
the pomace from the cage or screw press
being extracted continuously with water25'66.
Finally the extracted pomace is de-watered
in two Colin screw presses, dried and stored
for the manufacture of pectin. The diluted
juice is either blended with fresh juice or, if
the fruit and processing conform to the
regulations52, it can be fermented and dis
tilled for Calvados: otherwise it is diverted
to the manufacture of industrial alcohol.
The freshly pressed juice may be fermented
directly, but increasing quantities are being
concentrated53 and stored for later conversion
to juice or cider in the factory, or for sale as
concentrate to other factories. Prior to
concentration, the juice is heated to 95° C at
atmospheric pressure and some 10-15% of
its volume removed by evaporation, con
densed, and reconcentrated a further 10
times to give an apple aroma essence8. The
essence containing all the volatile apple
aroma can be stored safely at 0° C20-100 and
is used in the manufacture of apple juice,
soft drinks and confectionery.
The hot, partially-concentrated juice is
cooled to 40° C, treated with a complex of
fungal pectin-destroying enzymes and left
two hours for the pectin to be broken down
to mono-, di- or tri-galacturonic acid units
and methyl alcohol. Failure to remove the
pectin leads to the formation of jelly during
concentration when the sugar, add and pectin
levels reach critical values. Gelatin is
added during the enzyming process to assist
clarification, which may be supplemented by
passing the de-pectinized juice through a
continuous self-desludging centrifuge. Con
centration is effected under a vacuum of
approximately 80 mm and at 45° C until the
soluble solids content reaches 70%. Avoid
ing contamination of the juice with iron and
copper salts, cooling immediately after
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[J. Inst. Brew.
concentration and cool storage prevent the
development of browning81.01. Care must be
taken during storage to prevent condensation
of moisture on to the surface of the concentrate
as this encourages the growth of osmophilic
yeasts. In Switzerland considerable quanti
ties of apple juice are concentrated to ca 40%
soluble solids without depectinization, cooled
to and stored at 0°C after injection with car
bon dioxide at a pressure74 of 3 kg/cm8.
Even so, the "half concentrate" may need
prior flash pasteurization to prevent the
growth of lactic acid bacteria and psychro-
philic yeasts. Juice flash-heated to 110° C
for 5 s is stored at ambient temperature in
sterile tanks in France, where cool storage of
sterile juice is also practised, with or without
carbon dioxide impregnation.
Fresh juice or the concentrated juice recon
stituted with the required amount of water
is treated with amounts of sulphur dioxide10
appropriate to the pH and the level of sul
phite-binding compounds in the juice29.
This is discussed in detail later under Juice
treatment. The sulphited juice, sometimes
adjusted to a standard specific gravity with
sugar, is left overnight for the ionic species of
sulphur dioxide to equilibrate59. In the
1950's and early 1960's when this process was
developed, the juice was then fermented by
Saccharomyces species naturally present in the
factory24. In recent years the standard of
cleanliness throughout the factories has
become much more rigorous so that the
addition of a pure yeast culture is now
obligatory15. The sulphur dioxide, besides
inhibiting spoilage yeasts and bacteria, also
prevents excessive oxidation of the juice com
ponents, the sum total of its action being the
production of fresh-flavoured ciders free from
taints. In the fermentation of reconstituted
juices the anti-oxidant action is more import
ant since correctly-made concentrates are
virtually sterile.
Fermentation is allowed to proceed natur
ally under an air-lock at ambient temperature.
The first pressed juices ferment violently in
the warmth of early September but later
fermentations are more protracted as the
weather becomes inclement. Originally,
wooden vats were used throughout the
industry, then there was a fashion to use
concrete tanks lined with a special bitu
minous plastic preparation, but unfavourable
rating assessments have prevented further
installations. Instead, very large tanks, up

Vol. 78, 1972] beech: cider making
to 1,000,000 gallons in capacity, are now
fabricated on site from steel plates and
lined internally with a sprayed-on epoxide
resin coating that is thermally polymerized.
Pressure tanks lined with glass or epoxy
resin are built in specialist factories and
delivered to the site. Stainless steel, fibre-
glass and high density polythene are used for
fabricating smaller vessels.
When fermentation ceases, the ciders are
left for a time to give the yeast time to
settle, and then they are racked and/or
centrifuged to fill the storage tanks, which
were formerly the fermentation tanks.
During storage, which may last 12-18
months, there is a blending of the new
cider and also between new and older ciders
in an attempt to moderate any excessive
changes in the flavour of established pro
ducts27. Because no temperature control is
exerted during storage, the acidity of nearly
all ciders is reduced by malo-lactic fermenta
tion when the temperature reaches 15° C.
This necessitates the addition of synthetic
DL-malic acid just before the blend is bottled.
Blending is also necessary to produce ciders of
different alcohol contents and additions of
sugar syrups are made to vary the degree of
sweetness.
Nearly all the cider blends are clarified by
centrifuging or kieselguhr nitration. There
is still a specialized market for uncarbonated,
hazy cider but this is passing more and more
into the province of the farm cider maker.
Clear or cloudy, naturally-conditioned cask
cider is produced by the addition of a
flocculating or non-flocculating yeast to a
cider sweetened sufficiently to give the
required degree of carbonation1. A flocculat
ing yeast is used to produce the equivalent
cider in bottle form. The necessary concen
tration of carbon dioxide is allowed to
develop while the cider is held in a pressure
tank, any necessary additions of sugar, acid,
etc. are injected and the whole contents of
the tank filtered and bottled under pressure.
In France it is known as the Charmat process
and is used in many parts of the world for
the production of certain sparkling wines.
Other types of bottled cider are chilled and
carbonated artificially, sterilized by sterile
filtration or flash pasteurization under pres
sure at 82° C for 15-30 s and bottled in a
sterilized counter-pressure filling machine:
keg ciders are treated in a similar manner.
Sulphur dioxide is always added to these two
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481
types of cider just prior to bottling, in order
to counter any chance infections derived
from the bottles or filling equipment.
Unfortunately, the maximum level of 200
ppm total sulphur dioxide3 is insufficient to
prevent the development of Saccharomycodes
ludwigii, a persistent infection of cider
factories. It often resists longer holding
times during pasteurization by its habit of
forming dense clumps of cells, the innermost
members of which are effectively insulated
from the high temperature.
Uncarbonated cider is being sold more and
more in glass jars and polythene containers.
Flash pasteurization and cold filling allow the
growth of species of mould having heat
resistant spores82. Sterilization is now effec
ted by heating to 82° C, holding 15 s, cooling
to 63° C and filling at that temperature: the
contents then cool to ambient naturally.
Alternative methods of stabilization used in
the smaller factories include sterile filtration
and in-jar pasteurization at 68° C for 30 min.
All still (uncarbonated) ciders in these types
of container must contain free sulphur
dioxide, be virtually free of iron salts and
have an airtight cap. Failure to observe any
one of these precautions leads to the develop
ment of browning and oxidation hazes.
Other than cask cider, well-made bottle, keg
and jar cider should have a shelf life of at
least a year.
Cider Research
Research into the process of cider making
over the last 20 years was concerned initially
with a study of juice composition and then
with the changes that take place during
fermentation; now a study is being made of
the factors that control flavour formation in
ciders. Chemical, biochemical and micro
biological studies have been used, usually in
combination rather than in isolation. It is
not the purpose of this review to describe
every detail of the research: such accounts
have been published by Beech17, Beech &
Davenport19, Burroughs30, Carr & Whiting41,
Nursten & Williams68, Pollard & Timberlake76
and Whiting & Coggins89.
Juice Composition
Chemical.—Apple juice differs from wort in
having a lower pH, a much lower soluble
nitrogen content and a virtual absence of any
sugars other than mono- and di-saccharides.

482
The cider maker cannot control the composi
tion of his juice in the manner open to the
brewer. The exact composition of each
juice varies according to its variety, its
source, the orchard husbandry, the season's
climate and the maturity of the fruit when it
was pressed78. The extent of such variations
for both cider and dessert apples has been
given by a number of authors. A comparison
of some typical values for the major para
meters of cider apple juice and wort is given
in Table I.
TABLE I
Comparison of Average Analyses for
Apple Juice" and Wort"
Characteristics Apple Juloo
Original gravity 1045-1061
Titratable oddity (m.eq./lltre) 22&-130
pH 3-0-4-4
"Tannin" (% w/v) 008-0-64
Soluble nitrogen (mgN/lOOral) 3-7-14-8
The average proportions of sugars present in
cider apple juice, as percentages of the total
sugar content, are 74% fructose, 15% sucrose
and 11% glucose45. There are only small
quantities of the polyol, sorbitol88, and traces
of the pentoses, arabinose and D-xylose, so
that there is very little residual gravity in
fully fermented ciders, although there can be
in perries. The major acid is l(—)-malic,
but cider apple varieties commonly contain
shikimic, quinic, chlorogenic and p-coum-
arylquinic acids87'88'88"63: traces of a number
of other acids have been reported. D-Galac-
turonic acid is probably derived from micro-
bial action on protopectin in the fruit.
Soluble pectin consists of polymers of galac-
turonic acid esterified with methanol. The
pectin is hydrolyzed to pectic acid in the
juice by the fruit enzyme pectin esterase.
"Tannin" or the phenolic compounds in the
juice, consist of epi-catechin, dimeric and
possibly trimeric pro-anthocyanidin and the
phenolic acids described above92. Phloridzin,
which is now known to occur in greater
quantities than was previously realized86,
also contributes to the bitterness of the
juice, whereas chlorogenic acid does not to
any significant extent. The precise flavour
contribution of each component of the
phenolic fraction is now being studied
intensively. The enzymic and non-enzymic
oxidations undergone by the phenolics when
the fruit is damaged or ruptured have been
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BEECH: CIDER MAKING [J. Inst. Brew.
described. The anti-oxidant action of SOa
is due in part to its inactivation of the
phenolase enzymes84.
The soluble nitrogen content of cider
apple juice is largely made up of asparagine,
aspartic and glutamic acids. Smaller
amounts of oc-alanine, y-amino butyric acid,
isoleucine, methylhydroxyproline, serine and
valine are usually present, while traces of
/3-alanine, arginine, glycine, lysine, methio-
nine, phenylalanine, pipecolinic acid, proline
and threonine may also be present. Protein,
purines, nucleosides and nucleotides can
usually be detected88-31.
Not only does apple juice contain only one-
eighth of the soluble nitrogen and thiamine
contents of wort, its poverty as a medium of
Wort fermentation is further emphasized by the
1 020-1-050 seeding rates employed. Even under ideal
6-11
6-3-5-0 conditions, apple juice is rarely pitched with
more than 1 x 10° cells/ml, whereas 6-15
60-05
times as much would be normal in brewing62.
Hence the lower nitrogen apple juice must
support a greater degree of yeast growth,
which leads to rates of fermentation in terms
of weeks rather than days as in brewing.
Factories based on concentrated juices now
fortify the "mix" before fermentation with
ammonium sulphate and thiamine to give
more rapid and consistent rates of fermenta
tion.
Microbiological.—The microflora of the
ripe apple ready to harvest consists of
Aureobasidium puttulans, species of Rhodoto-
rula, Torulopsis, Candida, Metschnikowia and
Kloeckera apiculata1*^. They can be found
both on the skin and within the fruit tissue,
but their mode of entry is as yet not com
pletely understood12'48-49. Saccharomyces
species and other sporulating yeasts are
rarely found. The number of yeasts and
yeast-like organisms seldom exceeds 500 per
g of sound fruit*4. Small numbers of acid-
tolerant bacteria, predominantly Acetomonas
spp, are usually present. Lactic acid bac
teria are even more rare, while non-acid-
tolerant bacteria are quite common but have
not been identified as yet3'38.
Cider apples are allowed to fall naturally
and are generally harvested by hand, but
machine harvesting is becoming quite com
mon. The grass, soil, etc under the trees are
heavily contaminated with micro-organisms
so the count on the fruit rises rapidly,
particularly if the skin is damaged. The
tissue is then invaded, not only by moulds

Vol. 78, 1972] beech: cider making
and yeasts, but more importantly by Aceto-
monas species that produce 2-5-diketo com
pounds42 from glucose and fructose. These
compounds are important throughout the
process of cider making since they combine
with the sulphur dioxide used to control the
microflora and render it ineffective. The
numbers and complexity of the microflora
increase with each stage of harvesting, trans
port and storage, mainly with Kloeckera
apiculata.
The most dramatic change is observed when
comparing the microflora of apples being
elevated to the mill and that of the juice
issuing from the press12. Increases of several
orders of magnitude were not uncommon up
until the early 1960's, some factory juices
having counts of 1-2 x 10° yeast cells/ml.
More important still the increase occurred in
Saccharomyces, Hansenula and Pichia spp.
Similar results have been obtained in Contin
ental, Israeli and Russian fruit juice factories.
The precise composition of this factory flora
varied from one factory to another: even
when Saccharomyces cerevisiae was present
throughout all the factories, there were still
differences amonst the strains isolated from
each factory24. Not surprisingly some fac
tories were plagued with filtration problems
from non-flocculating yeast, aroma of hydro
gen sulphide, etc. Concurrent with this
increase in yeasts there were similar increases
in the numbers of Acetomonas, Acetobacter
and lactic acid bacteria39: Zymomonas anaero-
bia has also been found in apple pulp40.
Aerobacter spp., tolerant of pH 4-8, have been
isolated from harvested apples68 but so far
not beyond that stage.
With the realization that the microflora
could be controlled in part by a rigorous pro
gramme of cleanlines in the press house,
there has been a marked reduction in the
yeast count of the raw juice. Values of 2 x
lO^ml are now common. At the same time
the count is being further reduced by
abandoning rack and cloth presses and replac
ing them with properly designed presses
made of stainless steel. Within the last
three years press halls have been changed
completely in character, becoming show
places full of gleaming machinery instead of
being awash with a tide of pomace particles.
Juice treatment.—Preceding and concurrent
with these changes, there has been a better
understanding of the use of sulphur dioxide
for controlling the microflora of the juice.
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483
Unlike brewing, where wort boiling is an
essential part of the present process, steriliz
ing apple juice by heating causes clarification
problems. The pectin esterase of the juice
is destroyed, preventing de-methylation of
the pectin, which in turn prevents the action
of the yeast polygalacturonase which attacks
pectic acids only. There is also denaturation
of any protein present in the juice so that
even the addition of pectin-destroying
enzymes, while allowing clarification to take
place, does not give optimum filtration rates
afterwards. If the juice is flash pasteurized,
addition of a small amount of anti-oxidant,
such as sulphur dioxide, appears to be
desirable, but the whole problem of juice
oxidation needs careful re-examination. Even
without these difficulties, so long as cider
makers continue to use wooden vats, it will
be impossible to realize the full benefit of
flash pasteurization.
For all these reasons, sulphur dioxide,
combined with a careful cleaning programme,
has proved the least objectionable method of
control so far; a similar situation exists in
wine making. The optimum amount of
sulphur dioxide required in a juice is deter
mined primarily by the pH, since it is claimed
that undissociated sulphurous acid is the
principal inhibitory agent87. Its presence has
never been demonstrated and sulphur dioxide
may well exist mostly in the molecular state
in water at low pH. Some sulphur dioxide
reacts with dissolved oxygen so that in
practice 75 ppm is needed in juices between
pH 3-0-3-3, otherwise a much lower level
would be sufficient. Between pH 3-3-3-5,
100 ppm are necessary, and 160 ppm between
3*5 and 3-8. The maximum legal limit is
200 ppm total sulphur dioxide, hence juices of
pH greater than 3-8 are normally blended
with those of lower pH or malic acid is added
to them before sulphiting. The juice is left
overnight to allow the different ionic forms of
sulphur dioxide to equilibrate. Adequacy of
sulphiting can be checked by determining the
free sulphur dioxide content of the juice next
morning. From toxicity tests on cider
yeasts it was shown thatforeffectivesulphiting
a minimum residual free sulphur dioxide con
tent of 30 ppm at pH 3-5, the average juice pH
level, was necessary. From Table II it can
be seen that effective sulphiting reduces the
yeast population by some 98%: Kloeckera
apiculata, which gives a musty, almost acetic
taste to cider, is a suitable indicator organism
 20500416, 1972, 6, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/j.2050-0416.1972.tb03485.x by Swansea University, Wiley Online Library on [04/10/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
484 beech: cider making [J. Inst. Brew.
TABLE II Further, because of the effect of pH, the
Effect of an Optimum Addition of Sulphur required amount of free sulphur dioxide will
Dioxide on the Microflora of an Apple vary over the whole range of juice pH's.
Juicb pH 3-8
This is illustrated in Fig. 3, the lower line

Viable count/ml
120
Hlcroflora Untreated Juice ISOppmSOt added
Ktoeehero apicutata 600,000
Candida mucherrima . 40,000
Pichta sp. 10,000 120
Sacchiromvctt gp. 40,000 7,100
Saecbaromytoie* ludwigii 40,000 2,700
Torulaptu sp. .. 70,000 1,400
Total yeast count 800,000 11,820
Acetic odd bacteria 7,000,000 10,000

u.
since it should be absent from juices that have
been sulphited correctly.
Aerobic yeasts generally and lactic and
acetic acid bacteria are destroyed but
Saccharomycodes ludvngii and any Sacch-
aromyces spp. that may be present will survive.
3-5 4-0
An upper limit of free sulphur dioxide is also
necessary since excessive amounts delay the PH
growth of the culture yeast subsequently Fig. 3.—The minimum and maximum values of free
added. This increase in the lag phase is sulphur dioxide required in a juice 12 hours
shown in Fig. 2": it is noticeable that after sulphiting. (L. F. Burroughs, unpub
lished results).

being the minimum effective level and the

250 ppm
upper the maximum permissible. Sulphite
1040
binding compounds in juice from sound fruit
include glucose and xylose; L-xylosone
derived from the interaction of ascorbic acid
and sulphur dioxide; arabinose and galac-
1-030
turonic add, if depectinization has taken
place (Table III).

TABLE III

Concentration of Carbonyl Compounds"

Found in Ciders

1-010
Normal range Equivalent
of concentration bound 80,
Carbonyl compound in cider (ppm) (ppm)

Acotoldehydo .. 20-100 29-146

1000 Pyravlc odd 0-200 O-06
a-Ketoglutorlc acid 0-30 0-0
10 20 30
L-xylosone 0-200 0-23
Time (days) Honogalacturonlcacld . 100-2000 0-6
TrlROlocturonlc acid . 0-600 0-2
Glucose 0-18,000 0-8
Fig. 2.—The effect of treating apple juice with
sulphur dioxide (0-260 ppm) on the subsequent
rate of fermentation by a pure yeast culture. The presence of these compounds in
normal amounts would be compensated for
sulphited juices ferment faster than their non- by the sulphite additions previously des
sulphited partners, possibly because of the cribed. However, any rotten fruit might
reduced microbial competition consequent on well contain 2,5-D-ttrco-hexodiulose and
the addition of sulphur dioxide. 2,5-diketogluconic acid from the action of

Vol. 78, 1972] beech:
Acetomonas spp. and Acetobacter aceti. These
two compounds, unlike the first group, bind
sulphur dioxide very strongly and, as shown
in Fig. 4, the amount of rotten fruit in any
80-
"5
3.
40
i tation, ethanol tolerance and vitamin require
0 30 60
Free S02 (ppm) 12 h after adding 150 ppm
Fig. 4.—The residual free sulphur dioxide content of
juices made with apples containing different
percentages of rotten fruit.
batch must never exceed 10%. Pear juices
always require an extra 60 ppm sulphur
dioxide compared with apple juices at the
same pH: these sulphite binding compounds
require characterization.
The rational use of sulphur dioxide in cider
making and the adoption of very large vats,
have had a remarkable effect on the quality
of cider produced by the industry. Such
disorders as "ropiness", acetification, enzy-
mic darkening18, etc, are no longer to be found
in factory-produced ciders. Instead the pro
duct is fresh and clean in flavour. The
abandonment of many older practices such as
pulp storage, keeving and naturally sweet
ciders has meant a loss of the apple character
in the flavour. Again this may be another
symptom of controlled oxidation of the pulp
and juice. On the other hand, by storing
ciders free from sugar, and sweetening only
before bottling, the formerly diastrous out
breaks of sickness caused by Zymomonas
anaerobia have been overcome. Such prac
tices axe not open to the brewer who must
perforce rely on rigid control of the cleanliness
of his yeast and plant, and a careful control
of his sugar primings in order to eliminate this
pernicious organism from the brewery.
Yeast.—Cider makers are now installing
pure yeast plants of both the aerated and
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cider making 485
non-aerated patterns. At present, yeast
strains giving fast fermentations tend to be
chosen, but research is being carried out on a
wide range of strains to enable more suitable
cultures to be chosen. The properties being
examined at present include the pattern of
fusel, or higher, alcohols produced and the
factors that control their production; syn
thesis of acids such as malic and succinic
which might be desirable, and of pyruvic and
a-ketoglutaric which would be undesirable
because of their ability to bind sulphur
dioxide; degree of flocculence, rate of fermen
ments ; absence of such undesirable properties
as the formation of hydrogen sulphide
and diacetyl.
Factors Affecting Cider Composition
Most of the chemical and microbiological
research work on changes in the yeast
populations and nutrient levels during fermen
tation relates to the period when cider was
fermented by an uncontrolled yeast flora and
so will not be reported upon here. Once
suitable strains of fermenting yeasts have
been chosen the work needs to be repeated
if only to check that it is still deficiencies of
soluble nitrogen and thiamine that control
the rate or the premature cessation of apple
juice fermentations. It has also been shown
that nitrogenous compounds are excreted by
the yeast at the end of the fermentation.
These include phenylalanine, tyrosine, leu-
cines, valine, y-aminobutyric acid, histidine,
arginine and peptides. It is possible for only
10% of the soluble nitrogen of a cider to be
amino adds; the identity of the remainder is
being investigated at present. Similarly,
pantothenic acid and riboflavin increase:
excretion of phosphorus compounds occurs
earlier in the fermentation. This release of
nutrients back into the cider is important
since it can affect the subsequent develop
ment of lactic acid bacteria responsible for
the malo-lactic fermentation.
Apart from changes in levels of nutrients
and micro-organisms during fermentation,
the next most obvious changes are in the
amounts of organic acids and aroma com
ponents. During the fermentation of sul-
phited juices there is almost invariably an
increase in acidity, mainly due to the forma
tion of l(—)-malic acid by yeasts. This is
also accompanied by gluconic, lactic and
succinic acids and traces of others including

486
fumaric, a-hydroxyglutaric, 2-ketogluconic
and substituted dihydroxybutyric acids.
Mono-, di- and tri-galacturonides are always
present, being derived from the enzymic
breakdown of pectin. The factors control
ling the formation of these acids are currently
being examined. It is known the strains
vary quite markedly in their production of
the sulphite-binding acids, pyruvic and a-
ketoglutaric. One yeast that requires thi-
amine for growth and for improving its rate
of fermentation, produces considerable quan
tities of pyruvic acid in the absence of
thiamine but very little when the vitamin is
present in sufficient quantity. The pH of the
juice and its nitrogen content also influence
the production of pyruvic acid; for a number
of yeasts the production of this acid is greatest
at high pH and at soluble nitrogen contents
of more than 15 mg N/100 ml. In addition
to the two sulphite-binding keto. acids,
yeasts also produce acetaldehyde
binds any free sulphur dioxide present in the
juice at the time of yeasting. These last
three compounds are more important in the
last stages of cider making, since if excessive
quantities are present, any additions of sulphur
dioxide made when the cider is being pre-
pared for bottling are rendered ineffective.
Ranges of concentration of the different
sulphite-binding compounds in ciders were
given in Table III.
Unlike beer, where high concentrations are
unwanted, the fusel or higher alcohols of cider
are important components of the flavour.
The range of values present in juices and
ciders is given in Table IV: those for com-
TABLE IV
Fusel Alcohol Components of Apple
Juices, Ciders and Ales
] tanges (ppm
Constituent JUICCS™ Cldore"
n-pronanol 0-2-2 4-47
n-bntanol 3-24 4-32
Iso-butnnol 14-74
Iso-pcntanol .. 0-1 42-410
2-incthylbutanol 0-1-2 16-30
n.hexnnol 1-2
2-phenvlethnnol
2-17
7-258
Tyrosol 0-20
mercial bottled ciders are generally lower
(values for ales are given for comparison).
Detailed analyses of the aroma components
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beech: cider making [J. Inst. Brew.
of a draught cider have been described by
Williams & Tucknott*0.
The actual amounts in juices is very small.
Only H-butanol and w-hexanol are found in
any quantity; they are not produced during
fermentation and are lost when juices are
concentrated. A wide range of factors con
trol the formation of the remaining fusel
alcohols during fermentation, such as apple
variety, juice treatment, yeast strain,
fermentation and storage condiions16.
Juices of different apple varieties and in
different seasons affect the level of fusel
alcohols but the precise mechanisms are still
being examined. The level of total fusels
varies directly with the sugar content, while
the amount of amino acids is so small that
the alcohols must be formed from keto acids
produced by the yeasts. In fact, a low juice
nitrogen level of 5 mg N/100 ml is responsible
for higher fusel levels in the cider than a level
which of 15 mg. Juice pH interacts with yeast
strain and juice nitrogen content. In general
a low pH causes an enhancement of fusels,
but a wider range of yeasts need to be
fermented in varying conditions of pH and
nitrogen before any trend can be firmly
established. The finely-divided pulp particles
carried over into the juice have a marked
effect on fusel alcohol levels. Any process
whereby particles are removed, such as
centrifugation or filtration, causes a reduction
in the fusel levels as shown in Table V, the
TABLE V
Effect of Juice Trf.atment on the Fusel
Alcohol Content of Ciders'0
Total content of 2-phenyIettianol,
Juico treatment bo-butanol and Iso-pcntanol (ppmj
Sulphitcd 415
DcpcctinJzed, filtered and
sulphited 285
Dopectinlzed. unaltered
and sulphited 505
Dopectinlzed, solid contents
doubled and sulphited .. 605
Ales"
17-48 yeast strain and fermentation conditions
11-83 being uniform.
28-77
8-22 Results over several years have also
10-53
shown that sulphiting alone depresses fusel
alcohols. Heating the juice, whether by
flash pasteurization or aroma stripping,
followed by enzyme treatment but not
filtration, gives results similar to those in
Table V. Delaying depectinization and filtra
tion of the heated juice until fermentation is
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Vol. 78, 1972] beech: cider making 487

TABLE VII
complete causes no depression of the content
of fusel alcohols in the ciders. According to Effect of Fermentation Temperature on
results obtained with wines, either addition Fusel Alcohol Production
of kieselguhr to filtered juice or its oxygena-
tion have the same effect as the presence of Higher nllphntlc alcohols (ppm)
pulp solids. These results show that degree Juice 10° 15° 20° 25° 30° 35°
of juice clarity or the state of oxidation must
Sweet
be examined when changing presses or making Coppln 130 230 235 210 —

cider from diluted concentrates instead of Kingston

Black 130 155 180 230 185
from freshly pressed juices.
The factor probably having the greatest
Sulphiting carried out efficiently eliminates
qualitative and quantitative effect on fusel
all but Saccharomyces spp., Saccharotnycodes
alcohols is the strain of yeast used for the
Utdwigii, etc. However, if a sterile juice is
fermentation. Table VI shows a 4-fold
inoculated with what might be termed an
TABLE VI "apple" yeast prior to the main fermenting
Effect of Yeast Strain on the Fusel
yeast, there is evidence of an interaction
Composition of Ciders Made from Batches between them as far as fusel production is
of the Same Sterile Juice" concerned. The apple yeasts alone rarely
produce more than 60-70 ppm total fusels
on their own, whereas Candida pulckerrima
Component (ppm)
caused a 50% increase in the fusel level when
Iso- Iso- 2-phenyl- used in conjunction with AWY 350R;
Yeast batanol pentanol ctlianol Total
Hansentda anomala 20% with GEL (Table
Saccharomyce* cere-
vitiae (AWY 350R) 10 05 15 140 VIII.)
S. amuiae var. ellip-
toideus (Burgundy) 20 145 05 200 TABLE VIII
S. wrepi#ia«(NCYC
1118) 50 245 30 370 Effect of Yeasts used Singly and in Pairs
S. utarum (OKI) 35 235 135 425
S. cerevitiat (Toronto) 40 290 215 505 on the Total Fusel Alcohols of Ciders"

Total fuscls Total fusels

difference in the range of values obtained
with a selection of yeasts added to different
batches of the same sterile juice and fermen
ted under identical conditions. The total
fusels are not a true indicator of the taste of
the cider since the GE1 cider tasted of crude
fusels only, whereas that made with Taranto
had a more mellow flavour. The next stage
of research is to determine the group of com
pounds next in order of importance to fusels
for their effect on flavour.
The amount of yeast inoculum added to a
juice seems unimportant as regards influenc
ing the level of fusel alcohols in the final
cider. Variations in the initial cell count by
a factor of several hundreds have been tried;
a similar effect has been noted in brewing.
However, the temperature maintained during
the fermentation is important: Table VII
shows results obtained with batches of two
sterile juices all inoculated with the same
yeast, Burgundy. There is a reduction in
fusel levels about 25° C and below 15° C.
Whether there is a maximum or a plateau
between these temperatures depends on the
strain of yeast employed.
Yeast (ppm) Yeast (ppm)
AWY 36011 alone 140 OE1 alone 425
AWY 350tt + OKI plus
C.puldttrrima 210 11. anomala 550
Not all such contributions are beneficial;
Kloeckera spp. caused a depression of the
fusel alcohol production of both yeasts,
acetic taints and an increase in the final
pyruvate concentration.
Next in importance in controlling levels of
fusel alcohols is the system of fermentation.
This is shown in Table IX. The unusual
ability of AWY 350R to produce »-propanol
under anaerobic conditions is well illustrated,
but under aerobic conditions this is sup
pressed in favour of isopentanol. Here,
however, there is a marked difference
between batch and continuous systems of
working14. Aeration reduced fusel produc
tion markedly: it is used in continuous
brewing in tower fermenters for the same
purpose since fusels, while essential in cider,
are considered undesirable in beer. While
cider making is confined to the static batch
system it could well use stirred or continuous
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488 beech: cider making [J. Inst. Brew.
TABLE IX

Fusel Oil Contents of Dry Ciders Produced by Different Fermentation Systems at 25° C
with AWY 350R"

Anaerobic Aerobic

Static Continuous Stirred Continuous

Fusel oil (ppm) batch (heterogeneous) batch (homogeneous)

2-phenylethanol 6 6 30 20
n-propanol 200 250 00 26
iso-butanol 16 16 100 26
iso- and active-amyl alcohols 06 100 200 55

systems in the future. In any case these
results need checking with other cultures and
the inclusion of at least one other variation
in tank shape, in particular the cylindro-
conical fermentor or Nathan system which is
of growing importance in the brewing
industry.
Malo-ladic fermentation.—The lactic acid
bacteria so far found in apple juices are
summarized in Table X36.
The non-slime forming strain of Leucono-
stoc mesenteroides is the most common, and
Ladobacillus coUinoides fairly common; the
two homofermentative rods are less common
and Pediococcus cerevisiae occurs very rarely
indeed. All attack malic acid causing a loss
of acidity in the cider and therefore changing
its flavour. The heterofermentative organ
isms and L. plantarum attack quinic acid and
most attack citric acid. These acids are
important as metabolites since, as said earlier,
development of lactic acid bacteria is rare in
the primary fermentations of sulphited juice,
occurring almost exclusively in fully fermen
ted ciders containing 0-5% (w/v) sugars or
less.
The most intriguing aspect of these
organisms is that in pure culture and in rich
synthetic media they are readily inhibited by
less than 10 ppm sulphur dioxide at pH 4-0
(equivalent to 0-1 ppm H2SO3)«. The pH
range of cider apple juices is pH 3-0-4-4 with
an average of 3-5. At this pH it is usual to
arrange for 30 ppm free sulphur dioxide to be
present before yeasting (=0-54 ppm H2SOg).
With this excess it would be reasonable to
assume that the lactobacilli had been
eliminated. Yet ciders readily undergo malo-
lactic fermentation in the early summer after
they were made. Ecological surveys are
being made to collect strains from freshly
sulphited juices in the factories and from
ciders undergoing active malo-lactic fermen
tation. All strains are being tested against
sulphur dioxide to determine whether they
are as sensitive to sulphur dioxide as strains
that have been kept for years in laboratory
culture. If they are all sensitive it remains
to be seen whether the action of sulphur
dioxide on the lactic acid bacteria is truly
bactericidal or merely bacteriostatic.
The most characteristic feature of these
organisms is the conversion of malic acid to
lactic acid and carbon dioxide, which also
occurs commonly in many wines. The
exact type of acid produced varies with the
pH so that L. coUinoides produces more lactic
than succinic acid at pH 3-6, but succinic
acid only at pH 4-8: the exact proportions of
the two acids vary with the strain employed.
This is a characteristic feature of the lacto
bacilli generally—great variation between

TABLE X

Lactic Acid Bacteria Isolated from Apple Juices and Ciders

Cocci Rods

Heterofermentative Leuconostoc mesenteroides Lactobacillus coUinoides (formerly L. pastorianus

(non-slime forming) var. quinicus)
Homofermentative Pediococcus cerevisiae L. plantarum
L. tnali

Vol. 78, 1972] beech: cider making
TABLE XI
Biochemical Changes Brought About by the Lactobacilli Found in Ciders
Substrate Homofermenters
Glucose Lactate
Fructose Lactato
Malate Lactate. CO,
Citrate (also pyruvatc) Acetoin, diacotyl, COa
Fructose + (quinate or sbikimate) |"ew-3,4-dihydroxy-
Lactate + (quinate or shikimate) J cyclohexane-carboxylic
Mannitol + (quinate or shikimate) "i acid, acetate, catechol,
Leo,
Chlorogenic acid Not tested
Not tested
p-Coumaryl Quinic acid
strains whatever the property being examined.
Further, the nearer the pH approaches 3-0,
the greater the delay before the onset of the
change. It is known that at least 109 cells/
ml must be present if it is to take place at all,
but the exact nutrient requirements of the
organisms are still not known completely,
although recently 4'-O-(/?-D-glucopyranosyl)-
D(R)-pantothenic acid has been claimed as an
essential stimulant8. The strain of yeast
used in fermenting the cider is also important;
the latest results indicate that malo-lactic
bacteria are retarded by yeast activity. The
degree of retardation varies from very little
(yeast AWY 350R) to almost complete (S.
uvarum)*1.
Lactic acid bacteria in cider are normally
considered in terms either of the malo-lactic
fermentation or of the formation of "oiliness".
However, this group of organisms can use
other organic acids in cider for a much wider
range of biochemical activities. These are
summarized in Table XI"-89. The import
ance of quinic and shikimic acids in the
flavour balance of ciders is obvious; they
affect both the acid and phenolic compounds.
The future of the cider industry involves a
complete understanding of the chemistry,
microbiology and biochemistry of the apple,
its juice and the process of fermentation.
In these circumstances, knowledge will lead
to complete control of the flavour of the ciders
produced and their microbiological stability.
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20500416, 1972, 6, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/j.2050-0416.1972.tb03485.x by Swansea University, Wiley Online Library on [04/10/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
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