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Cancer detection by machine learning

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 International Journal of Computer Science and Information Security (IJCSIS),
Vol. 19, No. 2, February 2021
Cancer detection by machine learning
Md Haris Uddin Sharif1
University of the Cumberlands, Williamsburg, Kentucky, USA
Abstract— Cancer is a terminal condition, often caused by the
aggregation of genetic defects and several disease modifications.
Cancer cells are pathological regions that are often life-
threatening in some portion of the human body. At the early
stage, cancer, also known as the tumor, must be diagnosed easily
and properly to determine what may potentially treat it.
However, modalities are different, such as complicated history,
inaccurate diagnostics and care, which are the major causes of
death. The study aims to review, assess, classify, and discuss
existing advances to diagnose human body cancer by breast,
brain, lung, liver, skin cancer, and leukemia machine learning
methods. The research demonstrates how machine learning with
supervised, unmonitored, and deep learning approaches helps
cancer diagnosis and the curing process. Various state-of-the-art
methods are classified under the same class, and outcomes from
precision, sensitivity, specificity, and false positives metrics.
Metrics are compared on benchmark data sets. In conclusion,
obstacles for potential future work are also outlined.
Index Terms—Artificial Intelligence, Biomedical Image
Analysis, Cancer diagnosis, Deep neural network, Machine
Learning.
I. INTRODUCTION
M edical imaging research plays a vital part in identifying
various parts of the body, such as blood cancer, skin
cancer, breast cancer, brain tumor, lung cancer, and retina.
GLOBOCAN estimates reveal that in 2018, about 18.1 million
new cancer cases resulted in 9.6 million deaths from cancer
[06]. The study reveals that lung cancer is the most important
source of expiration (18.4%), followed by breast cancer
(6.6%), colon (5.8%) prostate cancer (3.8%), and skin cancer,
including melanoma and not melanoma (1.3 per cent) [06].
In the human body, the brain is the most essential and
complex organ. Inappropriate mitosis pathways control the
conduct of morphological cells in the human brain. Cancerous
cells with many morphological features, example size and
strength, have been developed during this process. There are
two main types of brain tumor, called low and high rates. A
low-grade tumor is rising steadily, whereas the high grade is
violent and disturbs the brain's blood flow. Many malignant
brain tumors are also known as neuroepithelial tumors. The
percentage of such brain cancers to 5 per cent and patients'
survival time is less than five years. The bulk of cancer cells
have a poor comparison with surrounding cells. Glioblastoma
is a frequent type of tumor. Accurate diagnosis of brain tumors
is also critical. A painless technique, which provides aid in
studying tumors from various viewpoints, was primarily used
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4578330
for brain tumor diagnosis. The main way of identifying
brain tumors, for instance, is the study of MR pictures.
A pulmonary nodule may be a cancer symptom in the lungs.
Pulmonary cancer is a fatal illness that requires early diagnosis
to preserve patients' lives. An item with a circular forming is a
benign or malignant nodule. The malignant nodule is rapidly
developing, and malignant nodules will also rapidly develop in
the other organ. It is essential to treat malignant nodules in the
initial stage for this reason. The diagnostics of lung cancer is
the most commonly used CT scan. Following a CT scan, more
study is required if abnormal lung areas are to be found.
The dominant cause of death for women is breast cancer.
Significant cancer patients above the age of 50 are observed.
In 2017, nearly 40.610 females expired because of breast
cancer in the US, according to Meenalochini et.al, Malignant
and benign can occur in the breast with two groups of
abnormal cells. Malignant cells are cancer cells that, when
replicated or meta-situated in other bodies, are more harmful.
Both benign and large cells are formed, although the number
of malignant cells is very limited. Due to the disadvantages of
fatty and dense tissue size and incidence, malignant tumors at
the beginning of the cycle are exceedingly difficult to detect.
Advanced auto- or computerized devices often need to classify
the tumor end of the breast.
Cancer of the skin is one of the most common diseases
around the globe. Uncontrolled formation of abnormal cells in
the skin forms a skin cancer. There are two forms of skin
cancer, melanom and melanomanon-a are found. Melanoma is
harmful rather than non-melanoma, a severe form of tumor or
cancer that starts from the skin and appears like a dark spot.
They often go from a mole to develop in size, uneven margins,
itchiness, skin disintegration and color. In 2018 there were
9,320 deaths of 3330 women and 5990 men due to skin cancer
(S., 2020). Melanoma percentage is the highest and smaller in
Asia, Latin America and Africa in North America, Europe,
Australia and New Zealand. The report states that the
mortality rate will decline by up to 90 percent of skin cancer is
diagnosed early (S., 2020).. This indicates that early diagnosis
of cancer is crucial because it can reduce the associated risk
factor.
Acute lymphocytic Leukemia or Acute Lymphocytic
Leukemia is the type of cancer attributed to immature
lymphocytes in the bone marrow (ALL). Leukaemia is rapidly
developing and migrates to various parts of the body,
including spleen, liver, lymph nodes, brain and nervous
systems. Both of the blood and bone marrow affect.
Leukaemia in healthy children is the majority in children, but
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 International Journal of Computer Science and Information Security (IJCSIS),
Vol. 19, No. 2, February 2021
recurring Leukemia and Myeloid Leukemia in babies are
uncommon. The malignancy in leukaemia cell growth and
progeny have been generalized to complex molecular
approaches [02]. This is known as Leukemia for hematogenic
cell development. Acute Leukemia induces more than 20 per
cent of explosions in the bone marrow (S., 2020).
The liver is a fundamental part of the human body that
fulfils basic functions, such as drug detoxification, the
development of blood proteins, and the filtering of the blood
from waste components. In place of this, an illness in the
human body is highly important, particularly if a cancer
diagnosis has been made. Liver cancer is commonly known as
hepatic cancer which is the most serious and aggressive
ailment. The most prevalent form of liver cancer, causing up
to 80 per cent of death has been Hepatocellular Carcinoma
(HCC) (S., 2020).. GLOBOCAN estimates that liver cancer is
the world's 6th and 7th leading cause of deaths among both
men and women.
In my discussion, having a variety of cancers, I shall now
focus on two types of cancers to showcase how machine
learning assists in detecting these diseases.
II. SCOPE AND OBJECTIVES
A. Scope and Objectives
A new field of early-detection research on cancer has been
opened up by different forms of cancer detection and
classification using the computer assistance that has shown the
potential to eliminate manual system impairments. The present
survey provides numerous sections on the cutting-edge
methods, analysis and comparisons for F-measurement,
sensitiveness, precision, precise, and accurate data sets for
brain tumours, breast cancer, prostate cancer, liver tumours
and Leukemia, and skin lesion identification. This diagram
provides a pictorial example of this analysis.
B. Benchmark Datasets
The section discusses data sets commonly used to
experiment, analyze, and compare state-of-the-art
technologies' cancer tests and rankings. The section also
highlights their source, training sets, test sets, cancer detection
success metrics, segmentation and classification.
C. Brats 2015 Datasets
This dataset consists of 274 sets, of 192 training cases (154
HGG and 38 LGG), 82 test cases and 82 trials cases from the
Perelman School of the University of Medicine in
Pennsylvania (66 HGG and 16 LGG [08]. The training
pictures include high quality and low glioma with ground-
level reality. The ground trueness is noted in five codes, for
example, 1 for necrosis, 2 for edema, 3 for tumor-free
improvement, 4 for tumor enhancement, and 0 for everything
else.
D. Brain Tumor
A brain tumor is an irregular four-degree cell array. Brain
tumors in grade 1 and 2 appear to develop slowly, and cancers
in grades 3 and 4 grow rapidly and difficult to treat. Tumors of
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4578330
grade 2 are malignant and cancerous. The pre-processing
procedure is carried out to eliminate the sound and non-brain
tissue from image input for greater precision. There are
several primary steps for tumor identification. The techniques
BSE (brain surface extraction) are used to eliminate non-brain
organ. The simple non-local mean (FNLM), partial differential
diffusion (PDDF) and Wiener filter are used for noise
reduction and contrast depletion for better contrast. Fuzzy
Cmean, k-mean and Otsu threshold approaches are the most
common brain tumor segmentation techniques. In the same
way, Net architecture is also one of the popular CNN
architectures for brain cancer segmentation.
Hand-crafted features are collected after the segmentation
process to turn the fractured images into math explanations.
More rigorous methods are currently employed to isolate
features and then to identify them. The most popular
techniques for extraction include histogram orientation
gradient (HOG), Gabor wavelet transform (GWT), local
binary patterns (LBP), and form-based functions. Also,
multiple filtering and reduction methods are used for
maximizing function selection, such as a genetic algorithm
(GA) and the main component analysis (PCA). At present,
CNN architecture is often known as an effective tool for the
diagnosis of brain tumours.
Fig: 01 [10].
To increase image transparency, multiple variations are
created. The preprocessing methods, including noise,
complement optimal performance changes, decreasing,
equalizing histograms, and enhancing tip. In the latest model's
class, the weighting is used to deal with the topic of class
disparity. Details of validation are inspected in a learned
model from the same image set, and each experiment's results
are reported. ConvNet, as one score (accuracy) of 75% and
80% of the total fusion of 82.29% is provided by an LSTM-
based network [08]. The defined model is validated by the
MICCAI Challenge database, including multi-modal brain
tumor segmentation (BRATS) 2015, 2016 and 2017,
respectively, using the latest science imaging and computer-
assisted intervention [08]. Such technologies are developed by
entropy to quickly and accurately detect and interact with
fused vectors to classification units. The study results were
0.99 with 2015 BRATS, 1.00 with 2016 BRATS and 0.99
with 2017 BRATS with a coefficient of dice similarity (DSC)
[08]. They did not, though, use other classifiers or their fusion
to check their technique's feasibility.
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 International Journal of Computer Science and Information Security (IJCSIS),
Vol. 19, No. 2, February 2021
E. Lung Cancer
Lung disease is a major cause of lung death worldwide.
Several patients will benefit from operative, percutaneous and
operational therapies in the case of a thin, diffuse tumor.
Unfortunately, since few patients show no symptoms in the
early stages of infection, 75 percent of lung cancers will be
diagnosed later in a gradual pathological state, nodal and
metastatic disease [01]. According to studies in Australia, the
average survivability level of patients with lung cancer is
about 15% [01]. Multiple authors have documented their work
with the LIDC/IDRI database in the field of pulmonary nodule
identification and classification.
Using machine learning approaches helps detect and
evaluate pulmonary nodules by using artificial intelligence
tools to analyze CT images. These systems are referred to as
decision support systems, which evaluate the images using the
preprocessing, segmentation, extraction, and classification.
MCNN is used to capture nodular heterogeneity by
separating discriminatory features from alternative layers.
MCNN is used to capture nodular. Lung nodule scanning and
annotation was used to test the proposed LIDC-IDRI process.
There are three CNNs in this system in the MCNN model,
which assemble input parallel nodule patches of different
sizes. The segmentation process is 97 per cent and is based on
the LIDC database [01].
Effective pulmonary nodular detection based on several
patches from the lung picture of the Frangi filter. A 4-channel
neural network model gathers input from radiologists to
classify nodules from four layers through the combination of
two picture groups. 80.06 percent of the sensitivity could be
achieved with 4.7 false positives for each scan and a 15.1
false-positive sensitivity per sample [01]. They concluded that
in multiple classes, the patch-based learning approach
increases efficiency and significantly decreases false positives
in a large number of image data [02].
Finally, a deep thought approach based on the stored
autoencoder and SoftMax was applied to those false-positive
results. The partnerships between Lung Image Database and
the Image Database Network Initiative, the largest publicly
available database, indicate that the proposed approach
lowered false by 2.8 per scan significantly with an opportunity
for 95.6percent sensitivities [01].
A modern 3D nodule processing hybrid sensor, including
the Active Contour Model (ACM) and the networking of 3D
neighborhood based on the spatial characteristics in the next
step. Combining geometrical texture with the (PCA) in each
candidate Nodule, the Theory Component Analysis produces a
hybrid functions vector (HOG-PCA). The triage is performed
using four distinct grade models, namely Naive Bayesian,
SVM and Adaboost. After the abstraction process, four
different classifications are added. A sample of the Lungs
Image Consortium is used for the assessment (LIDC) [09].
III. CHALLENGES
The main obstacles for cancer diagnosis and the curing
process are the redesign of a cancer testing pipeline, the
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4578330
understanding of cancer growth hypothesis, the creation of
preclinical models for the treatment of difficult tumors, early
treatment and innovative approaches for planning and carrying
out clinical studies [05]. The need for huge data sets, which
may not be available for cancer tissues, is a drawback of deep
learning approaches. This model can boost efficiency and
expose more valuable trends as more gene expression data
become available. Machine learning algorithms can also be
very scalable to big data inputs [03]. Due to the high
dimensionality and sophistication of these results, cancer
prediction continues to present a challenge. Despite decades of
research, the clinical diagnosis of cancer and tumor-specific
marker recognition are still elusive [04].
IV. EXPERIMENT
At a stage where the cancer is known in a patient,
laboratory tests are performed. A blood sample is typically
taken for blood count testing. Determination of signs of cancer
is helpful for many cancers. Depending on the cancer presence
in the blood, the number of tumor markers vary. In cancer
screening, tracking and pronostic assessment, tumor markers
may be used. A blood examination may assess the occurrence
of the markers. Tumor markers are secreted into the blood
from the tumor tissue. The detection or accumulation of tumor
markers may signal the progression or recurrence of cancer.
V. CONCLUSION
In recent decades, computer service has seen a breakthrough
in cancer diagnosis and treatment. However, this paper has
submitted a thorough assessment of current diagnostic and
curative methods for various cancers that seriously damage the
human body. This article focuses on evaluating, examining,
categorizing, and defining various types of cancer
methodologies but focused deeply on brain and lung cancer to
showcase how machine learning assists in cancer detection.
Future study of multiple cancer types is important to identify
biomarkers for cancer-specific applications. Furthermore, the
study of aggregated heterogeneous cancer data may contribute
to the identification of cross-cancer biomarkers.
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ISSN 1947-5500
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