fmh1 2019

U.S.
DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE/ National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
OFFICE OF THE FEDERAL COORDINATOR FOR

METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES AND SUPPORTING RESEARCH
FEDERAL METEOROLOGICAL HANDBOOK No. 1
Surface Weather
Observations
and Reports
FCM-H1-2019
Washington, D.C.
July, 2019
CHANGE AND REVIEW LOG
Use this page to record changes, notices and reviews.
Change Number Page Numbers Date Posted Initials
10
Changes are indicated by a vertical line in the margin next to the

change.
Review Date Comments Initials

THE OFFICE OF THE
FEDERAL COORDINATOR
FOR
METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES AND
SUPPORTING RESEARCH
1325 EAST-WEST HIGHWAY, SUITE 7130

SILVER SPRING, MARYLAND 20910
301-628-0112
ofcm.mail@noaa.gov
FEDERAL METEOROLOGICAL HANDBOOK

NUMBER 1
SURFACE WEATHER OBSERVATIONS AND REPORTS
FCM-H1-2019
Washington, D.C.
July 24, 2019
iv
Summary of Changes
This change to FMH-1, published July 24, 2019, replaces the November 30, 2017
version and accomplishes the following general objectives:
• Update new speci category with the following specific changes: Chapter 2:
section 2.5.2 Aviation Selected Special Weather Report (SPECI), a. Criteria
for SPECI, 6. PRECIPITATION with the following:
o d). snow begins, ends, or changes intensity.
v
Table of Contents
Contents
CHANGE AND REVIEW LOG ........................................................................................ 1
Summary of Changes ................................................................................................... v
Table of Contents ......................................................................................................... vi
List of Tables ................................................................................................................ ix
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................... 1
1.1 Purpose ................................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Applicability of Standards ...................................................................................... 1
1.3 Relation to Other Handbooks and Manuals ........................................................... 1
1.4 Format of This Handbook ...................................................................................... 1
1.5 Changes to The Handbook .................................................................................... 2
1.6 Agency Procedures and Procedural Changes ....................................................... 2
1.7 Reference Library .................................................................................................. 3
1.8 Unforeseen Requirements ..................................................................................... 3
1.9 Other Questions and Suggestions Regarding FMH-1............................................ 3
CHAPTER 2: SURFACE WEATHER OBSERVATION PROGRAM............................... 1
2.1 General .................................................................................................................. 1
2.2 Scope .................................................................................................................... 1
2.3 Surface Weather Observation Program ................................................................. 1
2.4 Aviation Weather Observing Locations .................................................................. 1
2.5 Types of Reports ................................................................................................... 2
2.6 Observing Standards Applicable to All Stations..................................................... 3
2.7 Recency of Observed Elements ............................................................................ 5
2.8 Dissemination ........................................................................................................ 5
2.9 Report Filing Time ................................................................................................. 6
2.10 Delayed Reports .................................................................................................. 6
CHAPTER 3: CERTIFICATION AND QUALITY CONTROL .......................................... 1
3.1 General .................................................................................................................. 1
3.2 Scope .................................................................................................................... 1
3.3 Certification Requirements .................................................................................... 1
3.4 Quality Control ....................................................................................................... 1
3.5 Quality Control Performed at Central Locations .................................................... 3
3.6 Customer Feedback .............................................................................................. 3
CHAPTER 4: OBSERVATIONAL RECORDS ................................................................ 1
4.1 General .................................................................................................................. 1
4.2 Scope .................................................................................................................... 1
4.3 Types of Records .................................................................................................. 1
CHAPTER 5: WIND ........................................................................................................ 1
5.1 General .................................................................................................................. 1
5.2 Scope .................................................................................................................... 1
vi
5.3 Wind Parameters ................................................................................................... 1
5.4 Wind Observing Standards .................................................................................... 1
5.5 Wind Reporting Standards..................................................................................... 2
5.6 Summary of Wind Observing and Reporting Standards..................................... 3
CHAPTER 6: VISIBILITY................................................................................................ 1
6.1 General .................................................................................................................. 1
6.2 Scope .................................................................................................................... 1
6.3 Visibility Parameters .............................................................................................. 1
6.4 Visibility Observing Standards. .............................................................................. 1
6.5 Visibility Reporting Standards ................................................................................ 2
6.6 Summary of Visibility Observing and Reporting Standards ................................... 4
CHAPTER 7: RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE ...................................................................... 1
7.1 General .................................................................................................................. 1
7.2 Scope .................................................................................................................... 1
7.3 Runway Visual Range (RVR) Parameter ............................................................... 1
7.4 Runway Visual Range Observing Standards ......................................................... 1
7.5 Runway Visual Range Reporting Standards.......................................................... 1
7.6 Summary of Runway Visual Range Observing and Reporting Standards ............. 2
CHAPTER 8: PRESENT WEATHER .............................................................................. 1
8.1 General .................................................................................................................. 1
8.2 Scope .................................................................................................................... 1
8.3 Present Weather Parameters ................................................................................ 1
8.4 Present Weather Observing Standards ................................................................. 3
8.5 Present Weather Reporting Standards .................................................................. 4
8.6 Summary of Weather ............................................................................................. 8
CHAPTER 9: SKY CONDITION ..................................................................................... 1
9.1 General .................................................................................................................. 1
9.2 Scope .................................................................................................................... 1
9.3 Sky Condition Parameters ..................................................................................... 1
9.4 Sky Condition Standards ....................................................................................... 1
9.5 Sky Cover Reporting Standards ............................................................................ 3
9.6 Summary of Sky Condition Observing and Reporting Standards .......................... 5
CHAPTER 10: TEMPERATURE AND DEW POINT....................................................... 1
10.1 General ................................................................................................................ 1
10.2 Scope .................................................................................................................. 1
10.3 Temperature and Dew Point Parameters ............................................................ 1
10.4 Temperature and Dew Point Observing Standards ............................................. 1
10.5 Temperature and Dew Point Reporting Standards .............................................. 2
10.6 Summary of Temperature and Dew Point Observing and Reporting Standards.. 2
CHAPTER 11: PRESSURE ............................................................................................ 1
11.1 General ................................................................................................................ 1
11.2 Scope .................................................................................................................. 1
11.3 Pressure Parameters ........................................................................................... 1
vii
11.4 Pressure Observing Standards............................................................................ 1
11.5 Pressure Reporting Standards ............................................................................ 2
11.6 Summary of Pressure Observing and Reporting Standards ................................ 3
CHAPTER 12: CODING ................................................................................................. 1
12.1 General ................................................................................................................ 1
12.2 Scope .................................................................................................................. 1
12.3 METAR/SPECI Code ........................................................................................... 1
12.4 Format and Content of the METAR/SPECI.......................................................... 1
12.5 Coding Missing Data in METAR/SPECI............................................................... 2
12.6 Coding the Body of the METAR/SPECI ............................................................... 2
12.7 Remarks (RMK) ................................................................................................... 8
APPENDIX A: GLOSSARY ............................................................................................ 1
APPENDIX B: LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ..................................... 1
APPENDIX C: SENSOR STANDARDS .......................................................................... 1
APPENDIX D: RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE TABLES ..................................................... 1
viii
List of Tables
Page
Table 5-1: Estimating Wind Speed ............................................................................... 5-2
Table 5-2: Summary of Wind Observing and Reporting Standards.............................. 5-3
Table 6-1: Reportable Visibility Values ......................................................................... 5-4
Table 6-2: Summary of Visibility Observing and Reporting Standards and
Procedures ................................................................................................. 5-4
Table 7-1: Summary of RVR Observing and Reporting Standards .............................. 7-2
Table 8-1: Intensity of Rain or Ice Pellets Based on Rate-of-Fall ................................. 8-3
Table 8-2: Estimating Intensity of Rain ......................................................................... 8-3
Table 8-3: Estimating Intensity of Ice Pellets................................................................ 8-3
Table 8-4: Intensity of Snow, Snow Pellets or Drizzle Based on Visibility .................... 8-4
Table 8-5: Notations for Reporting Present Weather ................................................... 8-6
Table 8-6: Summary of Present Weather Observing and Reporting Standards ........... 8-8
Table 9-1: Criteria for Variable Ceiling ......................................................................... 9-3
Table 9-2: Reportable Contractions for Sky Cover ....................................................... 9-4
Table 9-3: Priority for Reporting Layers........................................................................ 9-4
Table 9-4: Increments of Reportable Values of Sky Cover Height ............................... 9-5
Table 9-5: Summary of Sky Condition Observing and Reporting Standards ................ 9-6
Table 10-1: Summary of Temperature and Dew Point Observing and Reporting
Standards ................................................................................................ 10-2
Table 11-1: Units of Measure of Pressure Parameters .............................................. 11-2
Table 11-2: Summary of Pressure Observing and Reporting Standards.................... 11-3
Table 12-1: Reportable Visibility Values ..................................................................... 12-3
Table 12-2: Notations for Reporting Present Weather ............................................... 12-4
Table 12-3: Contractions for Sky Cover ..................................................................... 12-7
Table 12-4: Increments of Reportable Values of Sky Cover Height ........................... 12-7
Table 12-5: Type and Frequency of Lightning .......................................................... 12-11
Table 12-6: Units of Measure for Precipitation ......................................................... 12-14
Table 12-7: Characteristics of Barometer Tendency ................................................ 12-17
Table 12-8: 3-Hour Pressure Change ...................................................................... 12-18
Table C-1: Accuracy for Runway Visual Range .......................................................... C-1
Table C-2: Accuracy of Automated Visibility Sensors.................................................. C-1
Table C-3: Units of Measure, Range, Accuracy and Resolution of Wind
Parameters ............................................................................................... C-2
Table C-4: Range and Accuracy of Sky Condition Parameters ................................... C-2
Table C-5: Temperature and Dew Point Sensor Accuracy and Resolution (Co) ......... C-2
Table C-6: Units of Measure, Range, Accuracy and Resolution of Pressure
Parameters ................................................................................................ C-3
Table D-1: RVR Transmittance Conversion Table for Tasker 400 and Equivalent
Systems with 250-Foot Baseline -- Contrast Threshold 5.5 Percent .......... D-1
Table D-2: RVR Transmittance Conversion Table for Tasker 500 and Equivalent
Systems with 250-Foot Baseline -- Contrast Threshold 5.0 Percent. ......... D-2
ix
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Purpose
Federal Meteorological Handbook No.1, Surface Weather Observations and Reports
(FMH-1) defines the observing, reporting, and coding standards for surface based
meteorological reports. These standards are applicable to all Federal agency programs.
These standards do not inhibit agencies from doing more than is specified.
1.2 Applicability of Standards

Standards described in this Handbook are applicable only if a station has the capability
to comply. The phrase "at designated stations" refers to observing stations instructed by
their responsible agency to perform a specified task. These specified tasks shall be
performed in accordance with the standards described in this Handbook.
This Handbook is applicable to stations taking the following types of observations:
a) Automated - automated surface weather observing systems that prepare the
meteorological reports for transmission without a certified weather observer.
b) Augmented - automated surface weather observing systems that prepare the
meteorological reports for transmission with certified weather observers signed-
on to the system to add information to the observation.
c) Manual - certified weather observers are responsible for the meteorological
observations.
1.3 Relation to Other Handbooks and Manuals

Individual agencies shall issue their own manuals defining their observing procedures
which implement the FMH-1 standards. Such manuals shall complement, not change,
the standards contained in FMH-1. Most observing standards described in this
Handbook also apply to synoptic surface observations which have coding and reporting
procedures described in Federal Meteorological Handbook No.2, Surface Synoptic
Codes (FMH-2). FMH-1 is consistent with agreements and publications of the World
Meteorological Organization (WMO), the International Civil Aviation Organization
(ICAO), specifically WMO No. 306 - Manual on Codes, and ICAO Annex 3 -
Meteorological Services for International Air Navigation, and civil as well as military
weather services.
1.4 Format of This Handbook

Chapter 1 presents an introductory overview of surface weather observations.
Chapter 2 discusses the surface weather observation program, types of observations,
criteria for specials, general observing standards, and dissemination.
Chapter 3 presents the certification and quality control standards. It discusses
certification of observers and quality control performed on-site, and at remote locations.
Federal Meteorological Handbook No.1
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Chapter 4 defines the requirements for maintaining records of surface weather data. It
discusses the types of records, preparation and maintenance of the Station Information
File, types of storage, and procedures for maintaining records of surface weather data.
Chapters 5 through 11 focus on a specific element (e.g., Visibility is an element) and all
the associated parameters (e.g., Prevailing Visibility and Sector Visibility are visibility
parameters) of that element that appear in the weather report. The elements are: Wind
(Chapter 5), Visibility (Chapter 6), Runway Visual Range (Chapter 7), Present Weather
(Chapter 8), Sky Condition (Chapter 9), Temperature and Dew Point (Chapter 10), and
Pressure (Chapter 11). Each chapter contains a similar format: a brief overview of the
chapter, a section that describes parameters, and a section that defines further the
observing and reporting standards for the reports. Each chapter also contains a
Summary Table that offers an abridged listing of standards described in the chapter. By
design, these summary tables do not contain all of the details found in the text.
Therefore, these tables should only be used as an overview of the standards contained
in the chapter.
Chapter 12 defines the coding procedures for reports in the METAR/SPECI format.
Appendix A is a Glossary.
Appendix B is a list of Abbreviations and Acronyms.
Appendix C lists Sensor Standards.
Appendix D contains Runway Visual Range Tables.
Throughout this Handbook, the following definitions apply:
a) "shall" indicates a standard is mandatory.
b) "should" indicates a standard is recommended.
c) "may" indicates a standard is optional.
d) "will" indicates futurity; it is not a requirement to be applied to standards.
1.5 Changes to The Handbook

Changes, additions, deletions, and corrections will be issued, as necessary. These
changes shall be issued only by the Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorology
(OFCM) after consultation and coordination with the Working Group for Federal
Meteorological Handbook No. 1 (WG/FMH-1).
1.6 Agency Procedures and Procedural Changes

Agencies shall issue manuals and directives to provide more detailed instructions and
training to their personnel and users (see paragraph 1.3). Copies of these procedures
shall be provided to the reference library (see paragraph 1.7). Agencies may also issue
changes to their procedures as follows:
a) Routine procedural changes that are in conformance with FMH-1 may be issued
by an agency at any time without coordination with the WG/FMH-1.
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b) Procedural changes not in conformance with FMH-1 shall be coordinated with
the WG/FMH-1when time allows. However, when necessary to meet urgent
requirements, procedural changes not in conformance with FMH-1 may be
issued by an agency without coordination with the WG/FMH-1. Copies of
changes shall be forwarded to the WG/FMH-1for coordination and appropriate
action.
1.7 Reference Library

The WG/FMH-1 shall maintain a record and library of agency procedures, changes, and
supplements issued by all participating agencies. The WG/FMH-1shall establish a
procedure for making these procedures, changes, and supplements available to users.
1.8 Unforeseen Requirements

No set of instructions can cover all possibilities in weather observing. Observers must
use their own judgment, adhering as closely as possible to this Handbook and agency
operating procedures, to describe phenomena not adequately covered by specific
instructions. If the observer believes Handbook procedures require change or clarifica-
tion, suggested changes should be sent through normal administrative channels to the
headquarters of the appropriate organization.
1.9 Other Questions and Suggestions Regarding FMH-1

Questions or suggestions about the content or organization of this Handbook should be
directed to:
Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorology
1325 East-West Highway, Suite 7130
Silver Spring, MD 20910
Telephone: Commercial (301) 628-0112
FAX (301) 713-1744
E-mail:ofcm.mail@noaa.gov
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1-4
CHAPTER 2: SURFACE WEATHER OBSERVATION
PROGRAM
2.1 General
Surface weather observations are fundamental to all meteorological services.
Observations are the basic information upon which forecasts and warnings are made in
support of a wide range of weather sensitive activities within the public and private
sectors.
2.2 Scope
This chapter briefly describes the Federal Government's surface weather observation
program and outlines the observing program and procedures which apply to each of the
agencies involved in surface weather observing. In addition, the chapter addresses the
types of dissemination and the general requirements for verifying and making
corrections to disseminated reports.
2.3 Surface Weather Observation Program

The Departments of Commerce (DOC), Defense (DOD), and Transportation (DOT)
have established networks of stations that collectively provide the meteorological data
used by the public and private sectors. As the Nation's primary civil meteorological
agency, the DOC's National Weather Service (NWS) has the responsibility for
observing, analyzing and forecasting weather conditions. DOD organizational elements
within the U. S. Air Force (Major Commands), Marine Corps, and Navy (Naval
Meteorology and Oceanography Command (NAVMETOCCOM)) take weather
observations to support DOD operations worldwide. In addition to taking observations,
the DOT's Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), as the agency responsible for safe
operation of aircraft and efficient use of the Nation's airspace system, has the role of
establishing requirements for, and disseminating aviation weather data to airspace
users.
In addition to the observations taken by the above Federal agencies, observations are
taken by commercial airline companies, private individuals, and local and state
government agencies.
2.4 Aviation Weather Observing Locations

There shall not be more than one official observation for a specific location at any one
time. For meteorological observations, the observing location is defined as the point or
points at which the various elements of the observation are evaluated. At a large airport,
the locations may be defined as follows:
a) For clouds, surface visibility, and weather, the observing location may be at the
touchdown area of the primary runway.
b) For tower visibility, the observing location shall be the Airport Traffic Control
Tower (ATCT).
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c) For temperature, dew point, and wind, the observing location may be the center
of the runway complex.
d) For the location, type, and frequency of lightning (see paragraph 12.7.1.j(2)),
the observing location may be the Airport Location Point (ALP) .
Specific details on the siting of observing equipment can be found in the Station
Information File (see paragraph 4.3.1).Manual and augmented weather observations
may also contain information on phenomena occurring at other than the station. In these
cases, the point(s) where the phenomenon occurs is not considered to be an additional
observing location.
2.5 Types of Reports

2.5.1 Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR)
METAR is the primary observation code used in the United States to satisfy
requirements for reporting surface meteorological data. METAR contains a report of
wind, visibility, runway visual range, present weather, sky condition, temperature, dew
point, and altimeter setting collectively referred to as "the body of the report". In
addition, coded and/or plain language information which elaborates on data in the body
of the report may be appended to the METAR. This significant information can be found
in the section referred to as "Remarks". The contents of the remarks will vary according
to the type of weather station. At designated stations, the METAR may be abridged to
include one or more of the above elements.
2.5.2 Aviation Selected Special Weather Report (SPECI)
SPECI is an unscheduled report taken when any of the criteria given in paragraph
2.5.2.a have been observed. SPECI shall contain all data elements found in a METAR
plus additional plain language information which elaborates on data in the body of the
report. All SPECIs shall be made as soon as possible after the relevant criteria are
observed.
a) Criteria for SPECI
1. WIND SHIFT. Wind direction changes by 45 degrees or more in less than 15
minutes and the wind speed is 10 knots or more throughout the wind shift.
2. VISIBILITY. Surface visibility as reported in the body of the report decreases
to less than, or if below, increases to equal or exceed:
a) 3 miles.
b) 2 miles.
c) 1 mile.
d) The lowest standard instrument approach procedure minimum as
published in the FAA’s Instrument Flight Procedures Information Gateway.
If none published, use 1/2 mile.
3. RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE (RVR). The highest value from the designated
RVR runway decreases to less than, or if below, increases to equal or exceed
2-2
2,400 feet during the preceding 10 minutes. U.S. military stations may not
report a SPECI based on RVR.
4. TORNADO, FUNNEL CLOUD, OR WATERSPOUT.
a) is observed.
b) disappears from sight, or ends.
5. THUNDERSTORM.
a) begins (a SPECI is not required to report the beginning of a new thunder-
storm if one is currently reported).
b) ends.
6. PRECIPITATION.
a) hail (including small hail) begins or ends.
b) freezing precipitation begins, ends, or changes intensity.
c) ice pellets begin, end, or change intensity.
d) snow begins, ends, or changes intensity.
7. SQUALLS. When squalls occur.
8. CEILING. The ceiling (rounded off to reportable values) forms or dissipates
below, decreases to less than, or if below, increases to equal or exceed:
a) 3,000 feet.
b) 1,500 feet.
c) 1,000 feet.
d) 500 feet.
e) The lowest standard instrument approach procedure minimum as
published in the FAA’s Instrument Flight Procedures Information Gateway.
If none published, use 200 feet.
9. SKY CONDITION. A layer of clouds or obscurations aloft is present below
1,000 feet and no layer aloft was reported below 1,000 feet in the preceding
METAR or SPECI.
10. VOLCANIC ERUPTION. When an eruption is first noted.
11. AIRCRAFT MISHAP. Upon notification of an Aircraft Mishap unless there has
been an intervening observation.
12. MISCELLANEOUS. Any other meteorological situation designated by the
responsible agency, or which, in the opinion of the observer, is critical.
b) The SPECI criteria are only applicable to stations that have the capability of
evaluating the event. For example, visually evaluated elements, such as a
tornado, are not applicable to non-staffed automated stations.
2.6 Observing Standards Applicable to All Stations

2.6.1 Use of Certified Observers. All personnel performing an observation function shall
be certified in accordance with paragraph 3.3.1. Certification may be limited in
accordance with observer responsibilities.
2-3
2.6.2 Backup. Backup refers to a method, in accordance with agency procedures, for
providing meteorological reports, parts of reports, documentation, or communication of
reports when the primary method is unavailable.
2.6.3 Rounding Figures. Except where otherwise designated in this Handbook, the
rounding of numbers shall be accomplished as follows: If the fractional part of a positive
number to be dropped is equal to or greater than one-half, the preceding digit shall be
increased by one. If the fractional part of a negative number to be dropped is greater than
one-half, the preceding digit shall be decreased by one. In all other cases, the preceding
digit shall remain unchanged. For example, 1.5 becomes 2, -1.5 becomes -1, 1.3
becomes 1, and -2.6 becomes -3.
2.6.4 Time Used in Reports. With the exception of designated stations which shall
transmit reports in accordance with agency instructions, METAR shall be transmitted at
fixed intervals with SPECI transmitted when any of the criteria in paragraph 2.5.2.a occurs
or is noted. Each station's schedule for transmitting reports shall be included in the Station
Information File (see paragraph 4.3.1).
a) Accuracy of Time in Reports. A procedure shall be established to assure that
the accuracy of the timing device used to establish times in the observation
program are within ±1 minute of the U.S. Naval Observatory time.
b) Scheduled Time of Report. The scheduled time of the METAR shall be the
Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) a METAR is required to be available for
transmission.
c) Actual Date and Time of Observation. The actual date and time of METAR
shall be the time the last element of the observation was observed. The actual
time of a SPECI shall be the time the criteria for the SPECI was met or noted.
d) Time Disseminated in Observations. All times disseminated in observations
shall reference the 24-hour UTC clock, e.g., 1:47 A.M. shall be referred to as
0147 and 1:47 P.M. as 1347. The times 0000 and 2359 shall indicate the
beginning and ending of the day, respectively.
e) Date and Time Entered in Observations. All dates and times entered in
observations shall be with reference to the 24-hour clock. The times that are
disseminated as part of the observation shall be entered in UTC. However, at
the discretion of the responsible agency, those times used to otherwise
document the observation or other related observational data may be either
Local Standard Time (LST) or UTC. The time standard selected shall be clearly
indicated on all records; if LST is used, the number of hours used to convert to
UTC shall also be indicated.
2.6.5 Sensor Siting Standards. All installations of sensors shall be in accordance with
the latest Federal Standard for Siting Meteorological Sensors at Airports published by the
OFCM. Presently installed sensors may be operated at their present location. However,
if they must be relocated, the Federal standards shall be followed.
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2.7 Recency of Observed Elements
2.7.1 Recency of Observed Elements at Automated Stations. Individual elements
entered in an observation shall, as closely as possible, reflect conditions existing at the
actual time of observation. For those elements that the human observer evaluates using
spatial averaging techniques (e.g., sky cover and visibility), the automated station
substitutes time averaging of sensor data. Therefore, in an automated observation, sky
condition shall be an evaluation of sensor data gathered during the 30-minute period
ending at the actual time of the observation. All other elements evaluated shall be based
on sensor data that is within 10 minutes or less of the actual time of the observation.
2.7.2 Recency of Observed Elements at Manual Stations. Individual elements
entered in an observation shall, as closely as possible, reflect conditions existing at the
actual time of observation. Elements entered shall have been observed within 15 minutes
of the actual time of the observation. Gusts and squalls shall be reported if observed
within 10 minutes of the actual time of the observation. Observation of elements shall be
made as close to the scheduled time of the observation as possible to meet filing
deadlines, but in no case shall these observations be started more than 15 minutes before
the scheduled time.
2.8 Dissemination
For purposes of this Handbook, dissemination is the act of delivering a completed report
to users.
2.8.1 Types of Dissemination. There are two general types of dissemination:
a) Local. The transmission or delivery of a weather report to individual or groups
of users in the service area of the weather station.
b) Long-line. The transmission of a weather report beyond the service area of the
weather station.
2.8.2 Dissemination Requirements. All reports shall be given local dissemination. At
designated stations, reports shall be given long-line dissemination. When reports are
corrected, the corrected reports shall be given the same dissemination as the reports
being corrected.
2.8.3 Dissemination Priority. If reports cannot be disseminated simultaneously, local
and long-line, they should be disseminated first to the local airport traffic control users.
Further dissemination priorities shall be defined by the responsible agencies.
2.8.4 Corrections to Transmitted Data. Corrections shall be disseminated, as soon as
possible, whenever an error is detected in a transmitted report. However, if the erroneous
data has been superseded by a later report (with the same or more complete
dissemination), it shall not be necessary to transmit the corrected report. Corrections
transmitted shall consist of the entire corrected report. The original date and time of the
report shall be used as the date and time in the corrected report.
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2.9 Report Filing Time
SPECIs shall be completed and transmitted, as soon as possible. Agencies shall
establish filing deadlines for all METARs; the filing deadlines shall be no sooner than
necessary to assure the availability of the report at its scheduled time. METARs shall
not be transmitted sooner than 10 minutes before their scheduled time.
2.10 Delayed Reports

When transmission of an observation is delayed until time for the next regularly
scheduled report, only the latest report shall be transmitted. In the record of
observations, the remark FIBI (Filed but Impractical to Transmit) shall be appended in
parentheses to the report that was not transmitted to indicate the report was not
transmitted. The remark FIBI shall not be included in any local dissemination of the
report.
When a SPECI is not transmitted long-line, the later SPECI shall be transmitted
long-line only when the overall change between the last transmitted report and the
current report satisfies the criteria for a SPECI. If the SPECI is not transmitted long-line,
the remark FIBI shall be appended to the report in the record of observations. The
SPECI shall be disseminated locally.
Reports of Volcanic Eruption shall be disseminated, by any means possible, regardless
of the delay.
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CHAPTER 3: CERTIFICATION AND QUALITY
CONTROL
3.1 General
In order to ensure validity and reliability of the Federal Government's meteorological data,
the use of standards, certification, and quality control must be an inherent program
element. Without these essential elements, the credibility of the Nation's climatological
database would become suspect and invoke mistrust.
3.2 Scope
This chapter prescribes the general standards for certification of observers and quality
control of weather observations. It separately addresses the standards and procedures
applicable to all stations. It also discusses the requirement for quality control at National
Centers.
3.3 Certification Requirements

3.3.1 Certification of Observers. Agencies shall have an observer certification
program, and only observers certified through that program shall be authorized to take
weather reports.
The certification of the observer shall attest to the fact that in the view of the certifying
agency the observer has:
a) Acceptable vision. The observer shall have distant vision of at least 20/30
(Snellen) in at least one eye, corrected if necessary.
b) Adequate Training. The level of training would be commensurate with the level
of the weather reporting function to be undertaken by the candidate.
c) Demonstrated Ability to Take Required Weather Reports. This demonstrated
ability would be dependent on the level of the weather reporting function to be
undertaken by the candidate.
3.3.2 Certification of Stations. All stations where weather reports are taken shall be
approved by the responsible agency. The procedures for the approval shall also be
established by that agency and include consideration of:
a) the instruments to be used meeting the minimum standards for accuracy, range,
and resolution for weather elements as prescribed in this document (Appendix
C);
b) the installation of the automated sensors satisfying the siting requirements
prescribed in the Federal Standard for Siting Meteorological Sensors at Airports;
3.4 Quality Control

3.4.1 Quality Control of Observing Programs. Each agency shall establish a quality
control program to ensure that their surface weather reporting stations utilize proper
procedures. The primary objective of the quality control program shall be to ascertain that:
3-1
a) the siting and exposure of instruments is the best practical, and are still within
acceptable limits;
b) instruments are in good order and have been compared to the standard sensors,
as required;
c) standard procedures are being used to generate weather reports at the station;
d) the observation program at the station satisfies the requirements for weather
reports at that location; and
e) any observers taking weather reports are certified.
3.4.2 Quality Control of Instruments and Sensors
a) Comparison of Portable Transfer-Standard Sensors. Agencies shall establish
a procedure to routinely compare portable transfer-standard instruments and
sensors, which are used during station inspections, to standards that ensure
compliance with the accuracy requirements, as listed in Appendix C, of this
Handbook.
b) Comparison of Instruments and Sensors. Agencies shall establish a
procedure to periodically compare the instruments and sensors used at
operational weather reporting stations to standards that ensure compliance with
the accuracy requirements, as listed in Appendix C, of this Handbook.
c) Calibration and Standardization of Sensors. Agencies shall establish
procedures to calibrate and standardize sensors. Calibration and standardization
should be performed at least annually, after installation, and after any major
maintenance is performed on a sensor.
d) Routine Maintenance. Each agency shall establish a schedule of maintenance
for equipment at stations. Unless relieved of the responsibility, observers at
stations shall determine the operational acceptability of meteorological
equipment consistent with agency policy. In addition to having the responsibility
for the operational status of meteorological equipment, the observer shall also
have the final authority for deciding the operational status of any meteorological
equipment used in the weather reporting program.
3.4.3 Quality Control of Weather Reports. Each agency shall establish a near real-
time quality control program for all stations. This program shall be used to quickly detect
repetitious errors being made by observers at the station. The program may use station
personnel or personnel at another location with access to the records and reports made
at the station.
a) Pre-Dissemination Quality Control. The quality control performed at surface
weather reporting stations prior to any dissemination of the weather report is the
most important of all quality control operations. Once an erroneous report has
been given to users, it is impossible to ensure that corrections are received by
that same group of users. Therefore, all operational weather reporting stations
shall have as high a level of pre-dissemination quality control procedures as
practicable. This check should consist of recalculating computed data, verifying
the syntax of the recorded weather reports, and comparing the recorded weather
report against the reports recorded on any local dissemination devices.
3-2
b) Post-Dissemination Quality Control. All surface weather reports shall be
checked at the site for errors after dissemination and prior to the next weather
report. If possible, the disseminated report shall be compared with the original
report to verify that no errors were generated during the dissemination process.
3.5 Quality Control Performed at Central Locations

Insofar as possible, all agencies should implement quality control checking at a central
location on a timely basis. Agencies shall devise a method to provide feedback to the
observer in the case of errors detected in manual weather reports.
3.6 Customer Feedback

Agencies shall encourage customers to comment on the performance of their observing
programs. In this context, customers are anyone utilizing the data from the programs.
It is recommended that all public issuances of information on the observing systems
include an address of the office designated to process customer feedback.
3-3
3-4
CHAPTER 4: OBSERVATIONAL RECORDS
4.1 General
All meteorological data collected as part of the surface weather observation program are
valuable information. Consequently, these data require retention, storage, and archival.
4.2 Scope
This chapter prescribes the minimum standards for maintaining a record of the
operational status of weather reporting stations and maintaining records of surface
weather reports. Because of the lasting value of all the data collected in the surface
weather reporting program, agencies are encouraged to devise methods to store as much
of the data as possible within their physical and financial constraints. Because of the
generally common interest in historical and archived data, agencies shall provide records
to the National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI).
4.3 Types of Records

4.3.1 Station Information File. Each agency shall establish a Station Information File
for each station under their jurisdiction. The file shall be a record of characteristics of each
station. The lists below presents a list of data required from most stations. Copies of all
Station Information Files shall be available upon request from the responsible agency
when needed to interpret weather records from a particular station.
Physical Characteristics
• Station Name
• Airport Name
• Station Identifier
• WMO Index Number
• Time Zone
• Latitude/Longitude
• Climatological Elevation
• Field Elevation
• Ground Elevation
• Station Elevation
• Type of Station
• Description of Significant Topography
Observation Schedule
• Types of Reports
• Schedule for Reports
• Hours of Operation
Observation Program
4-1
• Elements Observed
• Long-Line Communications Circuits
• SPECI
• Transmitted (Y/N)
Sensor Data
• System Configuration
• Types of Sensors
• Location of Sensors
• Non-standard sensor siting
a. Maintenance of Station Information File. The Station Information File should be
created on or before the date of station establishment to ensure the timely
notification of the station's existence. The file shall be updated when any data
listed in 4.3.1 or in the file changes, or the station closes, noting the date when
each change is implemented. Corrections to erroneous station information shall
be noted as such, along with the historical extent of the error. Agencies shall
establish procedures to ensure the validity of their stations' Station Information
Files. It is recommended that the content of the most recent file be reviewed as
part of each station inspection.
b. Station Information File at NCEI. A copy of the Station Information File for each
observing location shall be sent to the agency group representatives (NOAA, U.S.
Navy, and U.S. Air Force) at the Federal Climate Complex, Asheville, North
Carolina, and made available to the DOC/NOAA/NCEI. A copy of the file shall be
sent when a station is established, when any data listed in 4.3.1 or in the file
changes or is corrected, and when a station closes. This file shall become a part of
that station's archived record.
4.3.2 Retention of Station Observational Records. Station observational records
include regularly observed meteorological data from manual stations and automated
systems. Each agency shall define procedures for retaining all observational records in
accordance with agency data retention and archival schedules under general
METAR/SPECI guidelines:
a) Short-term Storage. Storage of observational records for 4 or more days is
required to assist in sensor/system maintenance, and verification of
sensor/system records in the event of an aircraft mishap.
b) Long-term Retention. Each agency shall establish procedures to provide long-
term retention of all observational records for 5 years to satisfy requirements for
local studies and to support litigation.
c) Archive. The DOC/NOAA/NCEI is responsible for archiving observational
records, as necessary, to satisfy requirements to monitor the Nation's climate.
Agencies shall include procedures to ensure the delivery of observational records
to the agency group representatives (NOAA, U.S. Navy, and U.S. Air Force) at
the Federal Climate Complex.
4-2
4.3.3 Station System/Sensor/Configuration Records. Each agency shall maintain
information about changes in the configuration of each station's systems/sensors, and in
their operational status. This information may be collected as part of the Station
Information File or the Station Observational Records and, as such, maintained,
retained, and archived as outlined in the preceding Sections.
4-3
4-4
CHAPTER 5: WIND
5.1 General
Wind shall be measured in terms of velocity, a vector that includes direction and speed.
5.2 Scope
This chapter prescribes the standards for observing and reporting wind data.
5.3 Wind Parameters

As used in this chapter, wind is the horizontal motion of the air past a given point and
includes:
a) Direction. The direction, in tens of degrees, from which the wind is blowing.
b) Speed. The rate, in knots, at which the wind passes a given point.
c) Gusts and Squalls. Descriptions of the variability of the wind speed.
d) Peak wind speed. The maximum instantaneous wind speed measured.
e) Wind Shift. A change in wind direction.
5.4 Wind Observing Standards

Wind direction, speed, and gusts shall be determined at all stations. All other wind
related parameters shall be determined at designated stations.
5.4.1 Wind Direction.
The wind direction shall be determined by averaging the direction over a 2-minute
period. When the wind direction sensor(s) is out of service, at designated stations, the
direction may be estimated by observing the wind cone or tee, movement of twigs,
leaves, smoke, etc., or by facing into the wind in an unsheltered area.
5.4.2 Variable Wind Direction.
The wind direction may be considered variable if, during the 2-minute evaluation period,
the wind speed is 6 knots or less. Also, the wind direction shall be considered variable
if, during the 2-minute evaluation period, it varies by 60 degrees or more when the
average wind speed is greater than 6 knots.
5.4.3 Wind Speed.
The wind speed shall be determined by averaging the speed over a 2-minute period. At
designated stations, Table 5-1 shall be used to estimate wind speeds when instruments
are out of service or the wind speed is below the starting speed of the anemometer in
use.
5-1
5.4.4 Wind Gust and Squall.
The wind speed data for the most recent 10 minutes shall be examined to evaluate the
occurrence of gusts or squalls. Gusts are indicated by rapid fluctuations in wind speed
with a variation of 10 knots or more between peaks and lulls. Squalls are indicated by a
sudden onset of wind where the speed increases by at least 16 knots and is sustained
at 22 knots or more for at least a minute. The speed of a gust or a squall shall be the
maximum instantaneous wind speed.
5.4.5 Peak Wind Speed.
Peak wind data shall be determined with wind speed recorders. The peak wind speed
shall be the maximum instantaneous speed measured since the last routine METAR.
Table 5-1. Estimating Wind Speed
Knots Specification Knots Specification
Large branches in motion; whistling heard in
<1 Calm; smoke rises vertically. 22-27
overhead wires; umbrellas used with difficulty.
Direction of wind shown by smoke drift Whole trees in motion; inconvenience felt
1-3 28-33
not by wind vanes. walking against wind.
Wind felt on face; leaves rustle; vanes
4-6 34-40 Breaks twigs off trees; impedes progress.
moved by wind.
Leaves and small twigs in constant
7-10 41-47 Slight structural damage occurs.
motion; wind extends light flag.
Raises dust, loose paper; small
11-16 48-55 Trees uprooted; considerable damage occurs.
branches moved.
Small trees in leaf begin to sway;
17-21 56-71 Widespread damage.
crested wavelets form on inland waters.
5.4.6 Wind Shifts.

Wind data shall be examined to determine the occurrence of a wind shift. A wind shift is
indicated by a change in wind direction of 45 degrees or more in less than 15 minutes
with sustained winds of 10 knots or more throughout the wind shift.
5.4.7 Wind Sensor Range, Accuracy, and Resolution.
The required range, accuracy, and resolution for wind sensors are listed in Appendix C.
5.5 Wind Reporting Standards

5.5.1 Units of Measure and Resolution for Wind.
Wind direction and speed shall be reported in the body of all observations. Direction
shall be reported in tens of degrees with reference to true north and speed shall be
reported in knots (see paragraph 12.6.5).
5.5.2 Calm Winds.
When no motion of air is detected, the wind shall be reported as calm (see paragraph
12.6.5.d).
5-2
5.5.3 Variable Wind Direction.
When the wind direction is variable, a variable wind entry shall be reported as part of
the wind group in the body of the report (see paragraphs 12.6.5.b and 12.6.5.c).
5.5.4 Wind Gust.
When a gust is detected within 10 minutes of the actual time of the observation, the
maximum instantaneous speed shall be reported (see paragraph 12.6.5.a). The squall
shall be reported as present weather (see paragraph 8.5.3.c and 12.6.8.e(1)).
5.5.5 Peak Wind Data.
The peak wind shall be reported in the remarks section whenever the maximum
instantaneous speed in knots (since the last METAR) is greater than 25 knots (see
paragraph 12.7.1.d).
5.5.6 Wind Shifts.
The wind shift and the time of occurrence shall be reported in the remarks section (see
paragraph 12.7.1.e).
5.6 Summary of Wind Observing and Reporting Standards

Table 5-2 summarizes the wind observing and reporting standards.
Table 5-2. Summary of Wind Observing and Reporting Standards
Parameter Observing and Reporting Standard
2-minute average in 10 degree increments with respect to true
Wind direction
north is reported.
Wind speed 2-minute average speed in knots is reported.
The maximum instantaneous speed in knots in the past 10
Wind gust
minutes is reported.
Wind squall The maximum instantaneous speed in knots is reported
The maximum instantaneous speed in knots (since the last
Peak wind scheduled report) shall be reported whenever the speed is greater
than 25 knots.
Wind shifts Wind shift and the time the shift occurred are reported.
5-3
5-4
CHAPTER 6: VISIBILITY
6.1 General
Visibility is a measure of the opacity of the atmosphere. An automated, instrumentally-
derived visibility value is a sensor value converted to an appropriate visibility value and
is considered to be representative of the visibility in the vicinity of the airport runway
complex. A manually-derived visibility value is obtained using the "prevailing visibility"
concept. In this chapter, the term "prevailing visibility" shall refer to both manual and
instrument derived visibility values.
6.2 Scope
This chapter describes the standards for observing and reporting visibility.
6.3 Visibility Parameters

The visibility parameters are:
a) Prevailing visibility. The visibility that is considered representative of visibility
conditions at the station; the greatest distance that can be seen throughout at
least half the horizon circle, not necessarily continuous.
b) Sector visibility. The visibility in a specified direction that represents at least a
45 degree arc of the horizon circle.
c) Surface visibility. The prevailing visibility determined from the usual point of
observation.
d) Tower visibility. The prevailing visibility determined from the airport traffic
control tower (ATCT) at stations that also report surface visibility.
6.4 Visibility Observing Standards.

Visibility may be manually determined at the surface, the tower level, or both. If visibility
observations are made from just one level, e.g., the airport traffic control tower, that
level shall be considered the "usual point of observation" and that visibility shall be
reported as surface visibility. If visibility observations are made from both levels, the
visibility at the tower level may be reported as tower visibility.
Visibility may be automatically determined by sensors and a visibility algorithm that
calculates a mean visibility, which is the sensor equivalent of prevailing visibility. The
visibility data during the period of observation are examined to determine if variable
visibility shall be reported.
6.4.1 Observing Sites.
Where the observer's view of the horizon is obstructed, the observer shall move to as
many locations as necessary and practicable within the time allotted for the observation
to view as much of the horizon as possible. In this respect, natural obstructions, such as
trees, hills, etc., are not obstructions to the horizon. These natural obstructions define
the horizon.
6-1
For automated weather observing stations, the visibility sensor shall be located, in
accordance with the Federal Standard for Siting Meteorological Sensors at Airports.
6.4.2 Manual Observing Aids.
Agencies shall establish procedures to ensure that insofar as possible, dark or nearly
dark objects viewed against the horizon sky shall be used during the day, and
unfocused lights of moderate intensity (about 25 candela) shall be used during the night
as reference points for manually determining visibility. In addition, visibility sensors may
be used to assist the observer in the evaluation.
6.4.3 Observer Adaptation to Ambient Light Conditions.
Agencies shall establish procedures to ensure that observer's eyes shall be accustomed
to the ambient lighting conditions before manual visibility observations are taken.
6.4.4 Visibility.
Manually-derived visibility shall be evaluated as frequently as practicable. All available
visibility reference points shall be used. The greatest distances that can be seen in all
directions around the horizon circle shall be determined. When the visibility is greater
than the distance to the farthest reference point, the greatest distance seen in each
direction shall be estimated. This estimate shall be based on the appearance of the
most distant visible reference points. If they are visible with sharp outlines and little
blurring of color, the visibility is much greater than the distance to them. If they can
barely be seen and identified, the visibility is about the same as the distance to them.
After visibilities have been determined around the entire horizon circle, they shall be
resolved into a single value for reporting purposes. To do this, the greatest distance that
can be seen throughout at least half the horizon circle, not necessarily continuous shall
be used; this is prevailing visibility. If the visibility is varying rapidly during the time of the
observation, the average of all observed values around the horizon circle shall be used
for reporting purposes.
6.4.5 Variable Prevailing Visibility.
If the prevailing visibility rapidly increases and decreases by 1/2 statute mile or more,
during the time of the observation, and the prevailing visibility is less than 3 miles, the
visibility is considered to be variable.
6.4.6 Sector Visibility.
When the manually-derived visibility is not uniform in all directions, the horizon circle
shall be divided into arcs that have uniform visibility and represent at least one eighth of
the horizon circle (45 degrees). The visibility that is evaluated in each sector is sector
visibility.
6.5 Visibility Reporting Standards

6.5.1 Unit of Measure.
Visibility shall be reported in statute miles.
6-2
6.5.2 Prevailing Visibility.
Prevailing visibility shall be reported in all-weather observations. The reportable values
for visibility are listed in Table 6-1. If the actual visibility falls halfway between two
reportable values, the lower value shall be reported (see paragraph 12.6.6).
6.5.3 Variable Prevailing Visibility.
Variable prevailing visibility shall be reported if the prevailing visibility is less than 3
miles and rapidly increases or decreases by 1/2 statute mile or more during the time of
observation. The minimum and maximum visibility values observed shall be reported in
remarks section (see paragraph 12.7.1.g).
6.5.4 Tower Visibility.
Tower visibility shall be reported, in accordance with agency procedures (see paragraph
12.7.1.f).
6.5.5 Surface Visibility.
Surface visibility shall be the prevailing visibility from the surface at manual stations or
the visibility derived from sensors at automated stations (see paragraph 12.7.1.f).
6.5.6 Visibility at Second Location.
When an automated station uses a meteorological discontinuity visibility sensor,
remarks shall be added to identify visibility at the second location which differ from the
visibility in the body of the report (see paragraph 12.7.1.i).
6.5.7 Sector Visibility.
Sector visibility shall be reported in remarks when it differs from the prevailing visibility
by one or more reportable values and either the prevailing or sector visibility is less than
3 miles (see paragraph 12.7.1.h).
6-3
Table 6-1. Reportable Visibility Values
Automated Visibility Report Manual Visibility Report
M1/4 2 9a 0 5/8 1 5/8 4 12
1/4 2 1/2 10 1/16 3/4 1 3/4 5 13
1/2 3 1/8 7/8 1 7/8 6 14
3/4 4 3/16 1 2 7 15
1 5 1/4 1 1/8 2 1/4 8 20
1 1/4 6a 5/16 1 1/4 2 1/2 9 25
1 1/2 7 3/8 1 3/8 2 3/4 10 30
1 3/4 8a 1/2 1 1/2 3 11 35b
a. These values may not be reported by some automated stations.
b. Further values in increments of 5 statute miles may be reported, i.e., 40, 45, 50, etc.
6.6 Summary of Visibility Observing and Reporting Standards

Table 6-2 summarizes the applicability of visibility standards.
Table 6-2. Summary of Visibility Observing and Reporting Standards and Procedures
Visibility Automated Station Manual Station
Represents 10-minutes of Visual evaluation of visibility

Surface
sensor outputs. around the horizon.
Reported when the prevailing Reported when the prevailing
visibility varies by 1/2 mile or visibility varies by 1/2 mile or
Variable
more and the visibility is less more and the visibility is less
than 3 miles. than 3 miles.
Reported at stations with an
Tower Augmented.
ATCT.
Sector Not reported. Reported at all stations.
6-4
CHAPTER 7: RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE
7.1 General
The runway visual range (RVR) is an instrumentally derived value that represents the
horizontal distance a pilot may see down the runway.
7.2 Scope
This chapter describes the standards for observing and reporting RVR at designated
stations.
7.3 Runway Visual Range (RVR) Parameter

The runway visual range is the maximum distance at which the runway, or the specified
lights or markers delineating it, can be seen from a position above a specified point on
its center line. This value is normally determined by visibility sensors located alongside
and higher than the center line of the runway. RVR is calculated from visibility, ambient
light level, and runway light intensity.
7.4 Runway Visual Range Observing Standards

It is common practice to use a transmissometer or forward scatter meter as the RVR
visibility sensor. A transmissometer measures the transmittance of the atmosphere over
a baseline distance while a forward scatter meter measures the extinction coefficient of
the atmosphere. RVR is then derived from equations that also account for ambient light
(background luminance) and runway light intensity based on the expected detection
sensitivity of the pilot's eye. RVR Tables are contained in Appendix D.
7.4.1 Observing Positions.
The location of the RVR visibility sensor should be within 500 feet of the runway
centerline and within 1,000 feet of the designated runway threshold.
7.4.2 Day-Night Observations for Transmissometers.
The day scale shall be used in the evening until low intensity lights on or near the airport
complex are clearly visible. The night scale shall be used in the morning until these
lights begin to fade. Alternately, a day-night switch may be used to determine which
scale should be used.
7.5 Runway Visual Range Reporting Standards

RVR shall be reported whenever the prevailing visibility is 1 statute mile or less and/or
the RVR for the designated instrument runway is 6,000 feet or less. RVR shall be
reported in the body of the METAR/SPECI report (see paragraphs 12.6.7).
7-1
7.5.1 Multiple Runway Visual Range Sensors.
At automated stations where it is applicable, RVR values for as many as four
designated runways can be reported for long-line dissemination (see paragraph 12.6.7).
At manual stations, only RVR for the designated runway shall be reported.
7.5.2 Units of Measure.
RVR is measured in increments of 100 feet up to 1,000 feet, increments of 200 feet
from 1,000 feet to 3,000 feet, and increments of 500 feet above 3,000 feet to 6,000 feet.
7.5.3 Runway Visual Range Based on a Transmissometer.
Ten-minute extreme values (highest and lowest) of transmittance shall be reported.
Manually reported RVR shall be based on light setting 5 for either day or night time
conditions, regardless of the light setting actually in use. One RVR value shall be
reported if the ten-minute high and low value are the same.
7.6 Summary of Runway Visual Range Observing and Reporting

Standards
Table 7-1 summarizes the RVR observing and reporting standards.
Table 7-3. Summary of RVR Observing and Reporting Standards
RVR Observing and Reporting Standard
Number of RVRs Up to 41
RVR Light Setting 5 for transmissometer systems
When visibility ≤ 1 statute mile
When Reported AND/OR
RVR ≤ 6,000 feet
1. Manual observations shall contain only one RVR.
7-2
CHAPTER 8: PRESENT WEATHER
8.1 General
Present weather includes precipitation, obscurations, well-developed dust/sand whirls,
squalls, tornadic activity, sandstorms, and dust storms. Present weather may be
evaluated instrumentally, manually, or through a combination of instrumental and
manual methods.
8.2 Scope
This chapter prescribes the standards for observing and reporting present weather. The
types of present weather reported vary according to the type of station defined by the
responsible agency.
8.3 Present Weather Parameters

8.3.1 Precipitation. Precipitation is any of the forms of water particles, whether liquid
or solid, that fall from the atmosphere and reach the ground. The types of precipitation
are:
a) Drizzle. Fairly uniform precipitation composed exclusively of fine drops with
diameters of less than 0.02 inch (0.5 mm) very close together. Drizzle appears to
float while following air currents, although unlike fog droplets, it falls to the
ground.
b) Rain. Precipitation, either in the form of drops larger than 0.02 inch (0.5 mm), or
smaller drops which, in contrast to drizzle, are widely separated.
c) Snow. Precipitation of snow crystals, mostly branched in the form of six-pointed
stars.
d) Snow Grains. Precipitation of very small, white, and opaque grains of ice.
e) Ice Crystals (Diamond Dust). A fall of unbranched (snow crystals are branched)
ice crystals in the form of needles, columns, or plates.
f) Ice Pellets. Hard grains of ice consisting of frozen raindrops, or largely melted
and refrozen snowflakes. Ice pellets are transparent or translucent pellets of ice,
which are round or irregular, rarely conical, and which have a diameter of 0.2
inch (5 mm), or less.
g) Hail. Precipitation in the form of small balls or other pieces of ice falling
separately or frozen together in irregular lumps. Hail includes small hail, which is
pellets of snow encased in a thin layer of ice which have formed from the
freezing, either of droplets intercepted by the pellets, or of water resulting from
the partial melting of the pellets.
h) Snow Pellets. Precipitation of white, opaque grains of ice. The grains are round
or sometimes conical. Diameters range from about 0.08 to 0.2 inch (2 to 5 mm).
i) Unknown Precipitation. Precipitation type that is reported if the automated
station detects the occurrence of precipitation but the precipitation discriminator
cannot recognize the type.
8-1
8.3.2 Obscurations. Any phenomenon in the atmosphere, other than precipitation,
that reduces the horizontal visibility.
a) Mist. A visible aggregate of minute water particles suspended in the atmosphere
that reduces visibility to less than 7 statute miles but greater than or equal to 5/8
statute miles.
b) Fog. A visible aggregate of minute water particles (droplets) which are based at
the Earth's surface and reduces horizontal visibility to less than 5/8 statute mile
and, unlike drizzle, it does not fall to the ground.
c) Smoke. A suspension in the air of small particles produced by combustion. A
transition to haze may occur when smoke particles have traveled great distances
(25 to 100 miles or more) and when the larger particles have settled out and the
remaining particles have become widely scattered through the atmosphere.
d) Volcanic Ash. Fine particles of rock powder that originate from a volcano and
that may remain suspended in the atmosphere for long periods.
e) Widespread Dust. Fine particles of earth or other matter raised or suspended in
the air by the wind that may have occurred at or far away from the station which
may restrict horizontal visibility.
f) Sand. Sand particles raised by the wind to a height sufficient to reduce horizontal
visibility.
g) Haze. A suspension in the air of extremely small, dry particles invisible to the
naked eye and sufficiently numerous to give the air an opalescent appearance.
h) Spray. An ensemble of water droplets torn by the wind from the surface of an
extensive body of water, generally from the crests of waves, and carried up a
short distance into the air.
8.3.3 Other Weather Phenomena
a) Well-developed Dust/Sand Whirl. An ensemble of particles of dust or sand,
sometimes accompanied by small litter, raised from the ground in the form of a
whirling column of varying height with a small diameter and an approximately
vertical axis.
b) Squall. A strong wind characterized by a sudden onset in which the wind speed
increases at least 16 knots and is sustained at 22 knots or more for at least one
minute (see paragraph 12.6.8.e.(1)).
c) Funnel Cloud (Tornadic Activity)
1. Tornado. A violent, rotating column of air touching the ground.
2. Funnel Cloud. A violent, rotating column of air which does not touch the
surface.
3. Waterspout. A violent, rotating column of air that forms over a body of water,
and touches the water surface.
d) Sandstorm. Particles of sand carried aloft by a strong wind. The sand particles
are mostly confined to the lowest ten feet, and rarely rise more than fifty feet
above the ground.
e) Duststorm. A severe weather condition characterized by strong winds and dust-
filled air over an extensive area.
8-2
8.4 Present Weather Observing Standards
8.4.1 Qualifiers. Present weather qualifiers fall into two categories: intensity or
proximity and descriptors. Qualifiers may be used in various combinations to describe
weather phenomena.
a) Intensity/Proximity. The intensity qualifiers are: light, moderate, and heavy. The
proximity qualifier is vicinity.
1. Intensity of Precipitation. When more than one form of precipitation is
occurring at a time or precipitation is occurring with an obscuration, the
intensities determined shall be no greater than that which would be
determined if any forms were occurring alone.
The intensity of precipitation shall be identified as light, moderate, or heavy in
accordance with one of the following:
a) Intensity of Rain or Ice Pellets. The intensity of rain and ice pellets shall be
based on the criteria given in Table 8-1, Table 8-2, and Table 8-3.
Table 8-1. Intensity of Rain or Ice Pellets Based on Rate-of-Fall
Intensity Criteria
Light Up to 0.10 inch per hour; maximum 0.01 inch in 6 minutes.
Moderate 0.11 inch to 0.30 inch per hour; more than 0.01 inch to 0.03 inch in 6 minutes.
Heavy More than 0.30 inch per hour; more than 0.03 inch in 6 minutes.
Table 8-2. Estimating Intensity of Rain

Intensity Criteria
Light From scattered drops that, regardless of duration, do not completely wet an
exposed surface up to a condition where individual drops are easily seen.
Moderate Individual drops are not clearly identifiable; spray is observable just above pave-
ments and other hard surfaces.
Heavy Rain seemingly falls in sheets; individual drops are not identifiable; heavy spray
to height of several inches is observed over hard surfaces.
Table 8-3. Estimating Intensity of Ice Pellets

Intensity Criteria
Light Scattered pellets that do not completely cover an exposed surface regardless of
duration. Visibility is not affected.
Moderate Slow accumulation on ground. Visibility reduced by ice pellets to less than 7
statute miles.
Heavy Rapid accumulation on ground. Visibility reduced by ice pellets to less than 3
statute miles.
b) Intensity of Snow, Snow Pellets, and Drizzle. The intensity of snow and
drizzle shall be based on the reported surface visibility in accordance with
Table 8-4 when occurring alone.
8-3
Table 8-4. Intensity of Snow, Snow Pellets or Drizzle Based on Visibility
Intensity Criteria
Light Visibility > 1/2 mile.
Moderate Visibility > 1/4 mile but ≤ 1/2 mile.
Heavy Visibility ≤ 1/4 mile.
2. Proximity. Unless otherwise directed elsewhere in this Handbook, weather

phenomena occurring beyond the point of observation (between 5 and 10
statute miles) shall be reported as (in the) vicinity.
b) Descriptors. Descriptors are qualifiers which further amplify weather phenomena
and are used with certain types of precipitation and obscurations. The descriptor
qualifiers are: shallow, partial, patches, low drifting, blowing, shower(s),
thunderstorm, and freezing.
1. Shallow. The descriptor shallow shall only be used to further describe fog that
has little vertical extent (less than 6 feet).
2. Partial and Patches. The descriptors partial and patches shall only be used to
further describe fog that has little vertical extent (normally greater than or
equal to 6 feet but less than 20 feet), and reduces horizontal visibility, but to a
lesser extent vertically. The stars may often be seen by night and the sun by
day.
3. Low Drifting. When dust, sand, or snow is raised by the wind to less than 6
feet, "low drifting" shall be used to further describe the weather phenomenon.
4. Blowing. When dust, sand, snow, and/or spray is raised by the wind to a
height of 6 feet or more, "blowing" shall be used to further describe the
weather phenomenon.
5. Shower(s). Precipitation characterized by the suddenness with which they
start and stop, by the rapid changes of intensity, and usually by rapid changes
in the appearance of the sky.
6. Thunderstorm. A local storm produced by a cumulonimbus cloud that is
accompanied by lightning and/or thunder.
7. Freezing. When fog is occurring and the temperature is below 0°C, "freezing"
shall be used to further describe the phenomena. When drizzle and/or rain
freezes upon impact and forms a glaze on the ground or other exposed
objects, "freezing" shall be used to further describe the precipitation.
8.4.2 Weather Phenomena. Weather phenomena fall into three categories:
precipitation, obscurations, and other phenomena. The three categories of weather
phenomena shall be combined with the qualifiers listed in the preceding paragraphs, to
identify present weather that is occurring.
8.5 Present Weather Reporting Standards

Present weather is reported when it is occurring at, or in the vicinity of, the station and
at the time of observation. Unless directed elsewhere in the Handbook, the location of
weather phenomena shall be reported as:
8-4
• “occurring at the station" when within 5 statute miles of the point(s) of observation.
• “in the vicinity of the station" when between 5 and 10 statute miles of the point(s) of
observation.
• “distant from the station" when beyond 10 statute miles of the point(s) of
observation.
With the exception of volcanic ash, low drifting dust, low drifting sand, low drifting snow,
shallow fog, partial fog, and patches (of) fog, obscurations are reported only when the
prevailing visibility is less than 7 statute miles or considered operationally significant.
Volcanic ash shall always be reported when observed.
When more than one type of present weather are reported at the same time, present
weather shall be reported in the following order (irrespective of whether the present
weather is at the station or in the vicinity):
• Tornadic activity--Tornado, Funnel Cloud, or Waterspout.
• Thunderstorm(s) with or without associated precipitation.
• Present weather in order of decreasing dominance, i.e., the most dominant type is
reported first.
• Left-to-right in Table 8-5 (Columns 1 through 5).
The reporting notations given in Table 8-5 shall be used to report present weather. (For
definitions of present weather, refer to Appendix A - Glossary).
8.5.1 Precipitation. Precipitation shall be reported when occurring at the point of
observation. Precipitation not occurring at the point of observation but within 10 statute
miles shall be reported as showers in the vicinity.
c) Liquid Precipitation
1. Drizzle. (see paragraphs 12.6.8.a(1), 12.6.8.c(1), and 12.7.1.k).
2. Rain. (see paragraphs 12.6.8.a(1), 12.6.8.c(1), and 12.7.1.k).
3. Rainshower(s). (see paragraphs 12.6.8.a(1), 12.6.8.b(3), 12.6.8.c(1), and
12.7.1.k).
d) Freezing Precipitation
1. Freezing Rain. (see paragraphs 12.6.8.a(1), 12.6.8.b(5), 12.6.8.c(1),
12.7.1.k).
2. Freezing Drizzle. (see paragraphs 12.6.8.a(1), 12.6.8.b(5), 12.6.8.c(1), and
12.7.1.k).
e) Solid Precipitation
1. Snow. (see paragraphs 12.6.8.a(1), 12.6.8.c(1), 12.7.1.k).
2. Snowshower(s). (see paragraphs 12.6.8.a(1), 12.6.8.b(3), 12.6.8.c(1), and
12.7.1.k).
3. Blowing Snow. (see paragraphs 12.6.8.a(1), 12.6.8.b(2), and 12.6.8.c(1)).
4. Low Drifting Snow. (see paragraphs 12.6.8.a(1), 12.6.8.b(2), and
12.6.8.c(1)).
8-5
5. Snow Grains. (see paragraphs 12.6.8.a(1), 12.6.8.c(1), 12.7.1.k).
6. Ice Crystals. (see paragraphs 12.6.8.a(1), 12.6.8.c(1), and 12.7.1.k).
7. Ice Pellets. (see paragraphs 12.6.8.a(1), 12.6.8.c(1) and 12.7.1.k).
Ice Pellet Shower(s). (see paragraphs 12.6.8.a(1), 12.6.8.b(3), 12.6.8.c(1),
and 12.7.1.k).
8. Hail. Hail shall be reported, at designated stations. (see paragraph
12.6.8.a(1), 12.6.8.c(1), 12.7.1.k and 12.7.1.n).
Hail Shower(s). (see paragraphs 12.6.8.a(1), 12.6.8.b(3), 12.6.8.c(1),
12.7.1.k, and 12.7.1.n).
9. Snow Pellets. (see paragraphs 12.6.8.a(1), 12.6.8.c(1), and 12.7.1.k).
Snow Pellet Shower(s). (see paragraphs 12.6.8.a(1), 12.6.8.b(3),
12.6.8.c(1), and 12.7.1.k).
f) Unknown Precipitation. Unknown precipitation shall only be reported by
automated stations to indicate precipitation of unknown type when the automated
system cannot identify the precipitation with any greater precision (see paragraph
12.6.8.c(2)).
Table 8-5. Notations for Reporting Present Weather1
Qualifier Weather Phenomena
2
Intensity or
Descriptor Precipitation Obscuration Other
Proximity
2 3 4 5
1
- Light MI Shallow DZ Drizzle BR Mist PO Well-
Moderate3 PR Partial RA Rain FG Fog Developed
+ Heavy BC Patches SN Snow FU Smoke Dust/Sand
VC In the Vicinity4 DR Low Drifting SG Snow Grains VA Volcanic Ash Whirls
BL Blowing IC Ice Crystals DU Widespread SQ Squalls
SH Shower(s) PL Ice Pellets Dust FC Funnel
TS Thunderstorm GR Hail SA Sand Cloud
FZ Freezing GS Snow Pellets HZ Haze Tornado
UP Unknown PY Spray Waterspout5
Precipitation SS Sandstorm
DS Duststorm
1. The weather groups shall be constructed by considering columns 1 to 5 in the table above in
sequence, i.e., intensity, followed by description, followed by weather phenomena, e.g., heavy rain
shower(s) is coded as +SHRA
2. See paragraph 12.6.8.a(1) for instructions on encoding intensity of GS
3. To denote moderate intensity no entry or symbol is used.
4. See paragraph 8.4.1.a.(2), 8.5, and 8.5.1 for vicinity definitions.
5. Tornadoes and waterspouts shall be coded as +FC.
8.5.2 Obscuration.
a) Mist. (see paragraph 12.6.8.d(1)).
b) Fog. (see paragraphs 12.6.8.a(2) and 12.6.8.d(1)).
1. Shallow (Ground) Fog. (see paragraphs 12.6.8.b(1) and 12.6.8.d(1)).
8-6
2. Partial Fog. (see paragraphs 12.6.8.b(1) and 12.6.8.d(2)).
3. Patches (of) Fog. (see paragraphs 12.6.8.b(1) and 12.6.8.d(2)).
4. Freezing Fog. (see paragraph 12.6.8.b(5) and 12.6.8.d(1)).
c) Smoke. (see paragraph 12.6.8.d(1)).
d) Volcanic Ash. (see paragraph 12.6.8.d(1)).
e) Widespread Dust. (see paragraph 12.6.8.d(1)).
1. Blowing Dust. (see paragraphs 12.6.8.a(1), 12.6.8.a(2), 12.6.8.b(2), and
12.6.8.d(1)).
2. Low Drifting Dust. (see paragraphs 12.6.8.b(2) and 12.6.8.d(1)).
f) Sand. (see paragraph 12.6.8.d(1)).
1. Blowing Sand. (see paragraphs 12.6.8.a(1), 12.6.8.a(2), 12.6.8.b(2), and
12.6.8.d(1)).
2. Low Drifting Sand. (see paragraphs 12.6.8.b(2) and 12.6.8.d(1)).
g) Haze. (see paragraph 12.6.8.d(1)).
h) Blowing Spray. (see paragraphs 12.6.8.b(2) and 12.6.8.d(3)).
8.5.3 Other Weather Phenomena
a) Well-Developed Dust/Sand Whirls. (see paragraphs 12.6.8.a(2) and
12.6.8.e(1)).
b) Squalls. (see paragraph 12.6.8.e(1)).
c) Tornado, Waterspout, or Funnel Cloud. (see paragraphs 12.6.8.a(1),
12.6.8.e(2), and 12.7.1.b).
d) Sandstorm. (see paragraphs 12.6.8.a(1) and 12.6.8.e(1)).
e) Duststorm. (see paragraphs (12.6.8.a(1) and 12.6.8.e(1)).
8.5.4 Thunderstorm. A thunderstorm occurring with or without accompanying
precipitation shall be reported when observed to begin, to be in progress, or to end. In
addition to reporting a thunderstorm in the body of the METAR/SPECI, remarks may be
added to report the time, location, and movement of the storm (see paragraphs 8.5.5.c,
12.7.1.l, and 12.7.1.m).
a) Beginning of Thunderstorm. The beginning of a thunderstorm shall be reported
as the earliest time:
1. thunder is heard;
2. lightning is observed at the station when the local noise level is sufficient to
prevent hearing thunder; or
3. lightning is detected by an automated sensor.
b) Ending of Thunderstorm. The ending of a thunderstorm shall be reported as 15
minutes after the last occurrence of any of the above criteria.
8-7
8.5.5 Beginning/Ending Times of Precipitation, Tornadic Activity, and
Thunderstorms.
a) Precipitation. At designated stations, the time precipitation begins or ends shall
be reported to the nearest minute. The beginning and ending times shall be
reported in the next METAR after the event. Beginning and ending times for
separate periods shall be reported only if the intervening time exceeds
15 minutes (see paragraph 12.7.1.k).
b) Tornadic Activity. At designated stations, the time tornadic activity begins or
ends shall be reported to the nearest minute. The beginning and ending times
shall be reported in a SPECI and the next METAR after the event (see
paragraphs 12.6.8.e(2) and 12.7.1.b).
c) Thunderstorm. At designated stations, the time thunderstorm(s) begins or ends
shall be reported to the nearest minute. The beginning and ending times shall be
reported in a SPECI and the next METAR after the event. Beginning and ending
times of separate thunderstorm(s) shall be reported only in a METAR if the
intervening time exceeds 15 minutes (see paragraphs 12.6.8.a(1), 12.7.1.l,
and 12.7.1.m).
8.5.6 Other Significant Weather Phenomena. Observers shall be alert to weather
phenomena that are visible from the station but not occurring at the station. Examples of
such phenomena are fog banks, localized rain, snow blowing over runways, etc. These
phenomena shall be reported whenever they are considered to be operationally
significant. Volcanic eruptions shall be reported in remarks (see paragraph 12.7.1.a).
8.6 Summary of Weather

Table 8-6 contains a summary of the present weather observing and reporting
standards according to the type of station.
8-8
Table 8-6. Summary of Present Weather Observing and Reporting Standards
Present Weather Type of Station
Automated Manual
Funnel Cloud Augmented at designated Report FC, or +FC, and in remarks TOR-
(Tornadic Activity) stations. NADO, FUNNEL CLOUD, WATERSPOUT,
time of beginning and time of ending, source,
location, and direction of movement.
Thunderstorms Augmented at designated Report TS, time of beginning/ending, location,
stations. and movement.
Hail Augmented at designated Report GR, time of beginning and time of
stations ending, estimated size of largest hailstone in
inches or “LESS THAN 1/4” for small hail
preceded by "GR".
Snow Pellets Augmented at designated Report GS intensity, time of beginning, and
stations. time of ending.
Snow Report when snow begins, Report when snow begins, ends, or changes
ends, or changes intensity intensity.
Obscurations BR, FG and HZ may be Report BR, FG, PRFG, FU, DU, HZ, SA,
reported. BLSN, BLSA, BLDU, SS, DS, BLPY, and VA.
N/A Reports non-uniform weather and
obscurations.
Precipitation DZ, RA, SN, and UP may be Report RA, SHRA, DZ, FZRA, FZDZ, SN,
reported. SHSN, SG, GS, SHGS, IC, GR, SHGR, PL,
and SHPL.
May be reported as FZ. Reports descriptor with precipitation.
May report the intensity of Reports the intensity of precipitation, other
precipitation as light, than IC, and GR as light, moderate, or heavy.
moderate, or heavy.
May report hourly May report hourly accumulation of liquid pre-
accumulation of liquid cipitation.
precipitation.
May report 3-, 6-, and 24- May report 3-, 6-, and 24-hour accumulation
hour accumulation of of precipitation (water equivalent of solid).
precipitation (water
equivalent of solid).
N/A May report depth and accumulation of solid
precipitation.
N/A Report size of GR.
Squall Report SQ. Report SQ.
8-9
8-10
CHAPTER 9: SKY CONDITION
9.1 General
Sky condition is a description of the appearance of the sky. Sky condition may be
evaluated either automatically by instrument or manually with or without instruments.
9.2 Scope
This chapter prescribes the standards for observing and reporting sky condition.
9.3 Sky Condition Parameters

Sky condition parameters are:
a) Sky cover. The amount of the celestial dome hidden by clouds and/or
obscurations.
b) Summation layer amount. A categorization of the amount of sky cover at and
below each reported layer.
c) Layer height. The height of the bases of each reported layer of clouds and/or
obscurations; or the vertical visibility into an indefinite ceiling.
d) Ceiling. The lowest layer aloft reported as broken or overcast; or the vertical
visibility into an indefinite ceiling.
e) Type of clouds. The variety of clouds present.
9.4 Sky Condition Standards

9.4.1 Sky Condition Observing Standards.
Sky condition shall be evaluated at all stations with this capability. Automated stations
shall have the capability to evaluate sky condition from the surface to at least 12,000
feet. Observers at manual stations shall evaluate all clouds and obscurations visible; the
12,000 foot restriction shall not apply.
a) Layer Opacity. All cloud layers and obscurations shall be considered as opaque.
b) Surface. The surface shall be the assigned field elevation of the station. At
stations where the field elevation has not been established, the surface shall be
the ground elevation at the observation site.
c) Sky Cover. Sky cover shall include any clouds or obscurations detected from the
observing location.
d) Stratification of Sky Cover. Sky cover shall be separated into layers with each
layer containing clouds and/or obscurations (i.e., smoke, haze, fog, etc.) with
bases at about the same height.
e) Evaluation of Interconnected Layers. Clouds formed by the horizontal
extension of swelling cumulus or cumulonimbus, that are attached to a parent
cloud, shall be regarded as a separate layer only if their bases appear horizontal
and at a different level from the parent cloud. Otherwise, the entire cloud system
9-1
shall be regarded as a single layer at a height corresponding to the base of the
parent cloud.
f) Sky Condition Range, Accuracy, and Resolution. The required range,
accuracy, and resolution for sky condition is listed in Appendix C.
9.4.2 Sky Cover
a) Clear Skies. When no clouds or obscurations are observed or detected from the
point of observation.
b) Layer Amounts. The amount of sky cover for each layer shall be the eighths (or
oktas) of sky cover attributable to clouds or obscurations (i.e., smoke, haze, fog,
etc.) in the layer being evaluated.
c) Summation Layer Amount. The sky cover summation amount for any given
layer is the sum of the sky cover for the layer being evaluated plus the sky cover
of all lower layers including obscurations. Portions of layers aloft detected
through lower layers aloft shall not increase the summation amount of the higher
layer. No layer can have a summation amount greater than 8/8ths.
d) Variable Amounts of Sky Cover. The sky cover shall be considered variable if it
varies by one or more reportable values (FEW, SCT, BKN, or OVC) during the
period it is being evaluated.
9.4.3 Obscuration.
The portion of sky (including higher clouds, the moon, or stars) hidden by weather
phenomena either surface-based or aloft.
9.4.4 Vertical Visibility.
Vertical visibility shall be either:
a) The distance that an observer can see vertically into an indefinite ceiling;
b) The height corresponding to the top of a ceiling light projector beam;
c) The height at which a ceiling balloon completely disappears during the presence
of an indefinite ceiling; or
d) The height determined by the sensor algorithm at automated stations.
9.4.5 Ceiling.
The ceiling shall be the lowest layer aloft reported as broken or overcast. If the sky is
totally obscured, the vertical visibility shall be the ceiling.
9.4.6 Significant Clouds and Cloud Types.
Cloud types shall be identified in accordance with the WMO International Cloud Atlas-
Volumes I and II, the WMO Abridged International Cloud Atlas, or agency observing
aids for cloud identification. Cumulonimbus, including cumulonimbus mammatus,
towering cumulus, altocumulus castellanus, standing lenticular, or rotor clouds are
significant clouds.
9-2
9.4.7 Height of Sky Cover.
A ceilometer, if available, or ceiling light, or known heights of unobscured portions of
abrupt, isolated objects within 1 1/2 statute miles of a runway shall be used to measure
the height of layers aloft. Otherwise, an alternative method shall be used to estimate the
heights. The height may be estimated by using a ceiling balloon, pilot report, other
agency guidelines, or observer experience.
a) Indefinite Ceiling Height (Vertical Visibility). The height into an indefinite
ceiling shall be the vertical visibility measured in hundreds of feet.
b) Height of Layers. The height of a layer shall be the height of the cloud bases or
obscurations for the layer being evaluated. Layers of clouds that are 50 feet or
less above the surface shall be observed as layers with a height of zero. When
the height of a ceiling layer increases and decreases rapidly by the amounts
given in Table 9-2, during the period of evaluation, it shall be considered variable
and the ascribed height shall be the average of all the varying values. At
mountain stations, clouds below the level of the station may be observed.
Table 9-4. Criteria for Variable Ceiling
Ceiling (feet) Variation (feet)
≤ 1,000 ≥200
>1,000 and ≤2,000 ≥400
>2,000 and <3,000 ≥500
9.5 Sky Cover Reporting Standards

9.5.1 Frequency for Sky Cover.
Sky cover shall be included in all reports.
9.5.2 Layer Amount.
The amount of sky cover reported for each layer shall be based on the summation layer
amount for that layer. The amount shall be reported using the reportable contractions
given in Table 9-2.
No more than six layers shall be reported. The selection of layers reported shall be
made in accordance with Table 9-3. Additionally, all layers with associated
cumulonimbus shall be identified by appending the contractions CB. When no
cumulonimbus are present, all towering cumulus layers shall be identified by appending
the contraction TCU.
Sky condition shall be reported in an ascending order up to the first overcast layer. At
mountain stations, if the cloud layer is below station level, the height of the layer shall
be reported as ///.
Table 9-5. Reportable Contractions for Sky Cover
Summation Amount of
Reportable Contraction Meaning
Layer
VV Vertical Visibility 8/8
9-3
Summation Amount of
Layer
SKC or CLR1 Clear 0
FEW2 Few 1/8 - 2/8
SCT Scattered 3/8 - 4/8
BKN Broken 5/8 - 7/8
OVC Overcast 8/8
1. The abbreviation CLR shall be used at automated stations when no layers are reported; the
abbreviation SKC shall be used at manual stations when no layers are reported.
2. Any layer amount less than 1/8 is reported as FEW.
Table 9-6. Priority for Reporting Layers

Priority Layer Description
1 lowest few layer.
2 lowest broken layer.
3 overcast layer.
4 lowest scattered layer.
second lowest scattered
5
layer.
6 second lowest broken layer.
7 highest broken layer.
8 highest scattered layer.
9.5.3 Units of Measure for Heights.

Heights of sky cover shall be evaluated in feet above the surface.
9.5.4 Reportable Values for Sky Cover Height.
The reportable values of sky cover height are hundreds of feet. The reportable value
increments are given in Table 9-4
Table 9-7. Increments of Reportable Values of Sky Cover Height
Range of Height Values (feet) Reportable Increment (feet)
≤5,000 To nearest 100
>5,000 but ≤10,000 To nearest 500
>10,000 To nearest 1,000
9.5.5 Layer Heights.

Heights of layers shall be reported in hundreds of feet, rounded to the nearest
reportable increment. When a value falls halfway between two reportable increments,
the lower value shall be reported. When a cloud layer is 50 feet or less above the
surface, the height shall be reported as 000 (see paragraph 9.4.7.b).
9.5.6 Obscuration.
When a portion of the celestial dome is obscured, the obscuration (amount of sky cover
hidden by the weather phenomena) shall be reported (see paragraph 9.4.3 and Table 9-
1). The obscuration shall also be reported as a remark (see paragraph 12.7.1.r).
9-4
9.5.7 Variable Ceiling.
When the height of the ceiling layer is variable, and the ceiling layer is below 3,000 feet,
a remark shall be included in the report giving the range of variability (see paragraphs
9.4.7.b and 12.7.1.q).
9.5.8 Ceiling Height at a Second Location.
When automated stations use meteorological discontinuity ceilometer(s), remarks shall
be added to identify ceiling height conditions at the second location which differ from the
ceiling height in the body of the report (see paragraph 12.7.1.u).
9.5.9 Variable Sky Condition.
Variable sky conditions shall be indicated in the remarks of the report (see paragraph
12.7.1.s).
9.5.10 Significant Cloud Types.
Significant cloud types shall be indicated in the remarks of the report (see paragraph
12.7.1.t).
9.6 Summary of Sky Condition Observing and Reporting Standards

Table 9-5 summarizes the sky condition observing and reporting at each category of
station.
Table 9-8. Summary of Sky Condition Observing and Reporting Standards
Parameter Reporting Standard
Sky Cover (General) Sky condition shall be included in all reports.
Height/Number of layers Report a maximum of six layers.
Variable sky condition Not evaluated at automated stations.
Variable ceiling height Evaluated at all stations.
Ceiling height at a second
Evaluated at automated stations with multiple sensors.
location
Cloud Types Not evaluated at automated stations.
9-5
CHAPTER 10: TEMPERATURE AND DEW POINT
10.1 General
Temperature is a measure of hotness or coldness. On a daily basis, temperature is one
of the most widely monitored and disseminated weather parameters obtained from the
surface observation.
10.2 Scope
This chapter prescribes the standards for observing and reporting temperature and dew
point. The chapter also defines maximum and minimum temperature and prescribes
appropriate standards.
10.3 Temperature and Dew Point Parameters

a) Temperature. The degree of hotness or coldness of the ambient air as
measured by any suitable instrument.
b) Dew point. The temperature to which a given parcel of air must be cooled
at constant pressure and constant water-vapor content in order for
saturation to occur.
c) Maximum temperature. The highest temperature recorded/measured
during a specified time period.
d) Minimum temperature. The lowest temperature recorded/measured
during a specified time period.
10.4 Temperature and Dew Point Observing Standards

The method of obtaining temperature and dew point varies according to the system in
use at the station. The data may be read directly from digital or analog readouts, or
calculated from other measured values.
10.4.1 Temperature and Dew Point Sensor Range.
The range for the temperature and dew point sensors shall be determined by the
responsible agency considering the local climatology (Appendix C).
10.4.2 Temperature.
Temperature shall be determined to the nearest tenth of a degree Celsius at all stations.
10.4.3 Dew Point.
At designated stations, dew point shall be determined to the nearest tenth of a degree
Celsius with respect to water at all temperatures.
10.4.4 Maximum and Minimum Temperature.
At designated stations, maximum and minimum temperatures that occurred in the
previous 6 hours shall be determined to the nearest tenth of a degree Celsius for the
10-1
0000, 0600, 1200, and 1800 UTC observations. The maximum and minimum
temperatures for the previous 24 hours shall be determined to the nearest tenth of a
degree Celsius for the 0000 LST observation.
10.5 Temperature and Dew Point Reporting Standards

10.5.1 Resolution for Temperature and Dew Point.
The reporting resolution for the temperature and the dew point in the body of the report
shall be whole degrees Celsius. The reporting resolution for the temperature and dew
point in the remarks section of the report shall be to the nearest tenth of a degree
Celsius. Dew point shall be calculated with respect to water at all temperatures.
10.5.2 Maximum and Minimum Temperatures.
At designated stations, maximum and minimum temperatures shall be reported as
additive data in the 0000, 0600, 1200, and 1800 UTC and 0000 LST observations (see
paragraphs 12.7.2.e, 12.7.2.f, and 12.7.2.g).
10.5.3 Reporting Procedures.
Temperature and dew point are reported in the body of the report in accordance with
paragraph 12.6.10. Temperature and dew point in the remarks section shall only be
reported in METARs (see paragraph 12.7.2.d). Maximum and minimum temperatures
shall be reported in the remarks section of the METAR in accordance with paragraphs
12.7.2.e, 12.7.2.f, and 12.7.2.g.
10.6 Summary of Temperature and Dew Point Observing and

Reporting Standards
Table 10-1 summarizes the temperature and dew point observing and reporting
procedures.
Table 10-9. Summary of Temperature and Dew Point Observing and Reporting Standards
Section of Report : Body of Section of Report : Remarks of

Parameter
METAR & SPECI METAR
Reported in whole degrees Reported to tenths of degrees

Temperature
Celsius at all stations. Celsius at designated stations.
Reported in whole degrees Reported to tenths of degrees
Dew Point
Celsius at designated stations. Celsius at designated stations.
Designated stations report at
Maximum and Minimum
- 0000, 0600, 1200, and
Temperatures
1800 UTC.
24-hour Maximum and Designated stations report at
-
Minimum Temperatures 0000 LST.
10-2
10-3
CHAPTER 11: PRESSURE
11.1 General
Atmospheric pressure is the force exerted by the atmosphere at a given point. In this
chapter, the term "barometric pressure" refers to the actual pressure sensor value. The
sensor value may be an altimeter setting, station pressure, or simply a direct pressure
value without applied corrections depending on the type of sensor.
11.2 Scope
This chapter prescribes the standards for observing and reporting atmospheric pressure
data.
11.3 Pressure Parameters

a) Station pressure. The atmospheric pressure at the designated station elevation.
b) Altimeter setting. The pressure value to which an aircraft altimeter scale is set so
that it will indicate the altitude above mean sea level of an aircraft on the ground
at the location for which the value was determined.
c) Sea-level pressure. A pressure value obtained by the theoretical reduction of
barometric pressure to sea level. Where the Earth's surface is above sea level, it
is assumed that the atmosphere extends to sea level below the station and that
the properties of that hypothetical atmosphere are related to conditions observed
at the station.
11.4 Pressure Observing Standards

11.4.1 Barometer Comparisons. Each agency shall establish an agency standard
barometer traceable to the standard of the National Institute of Standards and
Technology. Each agency shall also establish a system of routine barometer
comparisons to determine corrections required to keep the station's pressure sensors
within the required accuracy (see Appendix C).
11.4.2 Atmospheric Pressure. The various pressure parameters shall be determined
from the barometric pressure after appropriate corrections are applied. The method
used shall depend on the type of sensor and the available computational aids. These
aids may be systems that result in a direct readout of the desired parameter, pressure
reduction calculators, or tables. Designated stations may use constants to convert
measured pressure to the desired pressure parameter.
11.4.3 Station Pressure. Station pressure shall be determined by adjusting the
corrected barometric pressure to compensate for the difference between the height of
the barometer and the designated station elevation.
11.4.4 Sea-Level Pressure. At designated stations, sea-level pressure shall be
computed by adjusting the station pressure to compensate for the difference between
the station elevation and sea-level. This adjustment shall be based on the station
11-1
elevation and the 12-hour mean temperature at the station. The 12-hour mean
temperature shall be the average of the present ambient temperature and the ambient
temperature 12 hours ago.
Stations within ± 50 feet of sea-level may be authorized by their agency to use a
constant value to adjust station pressure to sea-level pressure. Otherwise, stations shall
use reduction ratios provided by their responsible agency to calculate sea-level
pressure.
11.4.5 Altimeter Setting. The altimeter setting shall be determined either directly from
an altimeter setting indicator or computed from the station pressure by applying a
correction for the difference between the station elevation and field elevation in the
standard atmosphere. Where this difference is 30 feet or less, agencies may authorize
the use of a constant correction.
11.4.6 Pressure Change (Rising/Falling). At designated stations, the pressure
calculated for each report shall be examined to determine if a pressure change is
occurring. If the pressure is rising or falling at a rate of at least 0.06 inch per hour and
the pressure change totals 0.02 inch or more at the time of the observation, a pressure
change remark shall be reported (see paragraph 12.7.1.v).
11.4.7 Pressure Tendency. Designated stations shall include pressure tendency data
in each 3- and 6-hourly report. The pressure tendency includes two parts: the
characteristic (an indication of how the pressure has been changing over the past three
hours) and the amount of the pressure change in the past three hours. The
characteristic shall be based on the observed or recorded (barogram trace) changes in
pressure over the past three hours. The amount of pressure change is the absolute
value of the change in station pressure or altimeter setting in the past three hours
converted to tenths of hectopascals.
11.5 Pressure Reporting Standards

11.5.1 Rounding Pressure Values. When computations of pressure values require that
a number be rounded to comply with standards on reportable values, the number shall
be rounded down to the next reportable value. For example, an altimeter reading of
29.248 inches of mercury is rounded down to the nearest hundredth (29.24 inches) and
a station pressure reading of 29.249 inches is rounded down to the nearest .005 inches
of mercury (29.245).
11.5.2 Units of Measure. Table 11-1 lists the units of measure for pressure parameters.
Table 11-1. Units of Measure of Pressure Parameters
Parameter Units of Measure
Altimeter Setting Inches of Mercury
Sea-Level Pressure Hectopascals
Station Pressure Inches of Mercury
11.5.3 Altimeter Setting. Altimeter setting shall be reported in all reports (see
paragraph 12.6.11).
11-2
11.5.4 Sea-Level Pressure. At designated stations, sea-level pressure shall be
included in the remarks section of all METARs (see paragraph 12.7.1.w).
11.5.5 Remarks. At designated stations, the pressure change remarks (PRESRR or
PRESFR) shall be reported if occurring at the time of observation (see paragraph
12.7.1.v). The pressure tendency group shall only be included in 3- and 6-hourly reports
(see paragraph 12.7.2.h).
11.6 Summary of Pressure Observing and Reporting Standards

Table 11-2 summarizes the pressure observing and reporting standards.
Table 11-2. Summary of Pressure Observing and Reporting Standards
Parameter Reporting Standard
Reported in inches of mercury at all

Altimeter Setting
stations.
Reported in hectopascals at desig-

Sea-level pressure
nated stations.
Remarks:
Rising Rapidly Reported at designated stations.

Falling Rapidly
Pressure Tendency Reported at designated stations.
11-3
11-4
CHAPTER 12: CODING
12.1 General
The coding standards in this chapter conform to WMO Code Forms METAR FM 15-IX
Ext. and SPECI FM 16-IX Ext. and the United States Exceptions filed with the WMO.
These exceptions reflect national observing practices which differ from practices
outlined in the WMO Manual on Codes No. 306.
12.2 Scope
This chapter contains the standards for coding a weather observation in either aviation
routine weather report (METAR) and/or aviation selected special weather report
(SPECI) format.
12.3 METAR/SPECI Code

METAR or SPECI_CCCC_YYGGggZ_AUTO or COR_dddff(f)Gfmfm(fm)KT_dndndnVdxdxdx_
VVVVVSM_[RDRDR/VRVRVRVRFT or RDRDR/VNVNVNVNVVXVXVXVXFT]_w'w'_[NsNsNshshshs or VVhshshs
or SKC/CLR]_T'T'/T'dT'd_APHPHPHPH _RMK_(Automated, Manual, Plain Language)_
(Additive Data and Automated Maintenance Indicators)
METAR/SPECI has two major sections: the Body (consisting of a maximum of

11 groups) and the Remarks (consisting of 2 categories). Together, the body and
remarks make up the complete METAR/SPECI. In general, the remarks are coded in
the order depicted above and established in the remainder of this chapter.
12.4 Format and Content of the METAR/SPECI

a) Body of report.
1. Type of Report - METAR/SPECI
2. Station Identifier - CCCC
3. Date and Time of Report - YYGGggZ
4. Report Modifier - AUTO/COR
5. Wind - dddff(f)Gfmfm(fm)KT_dndndnVdxdxdx
6. Visibility - VVVVVSM
7. Runway Visual Range - RDRDR/VRVRVRVRFT or
RDRDR/VNVNVNVNVVXVXVXVXFT
8. Present Weather - w'w'
9. Sky Condition - NsNsNshshshs or VVhshshs or SKC/CLR
10. Temperature and Dew Point - T'T'/T'dT'd
11. Altimeter - APHPHPHPH
b) Remarks section of report--RMK
1. Automated, Manual, and Plain Language
2. Additive and Maintenance Data
12-1
The underline character "_" indicates a required space between the groups. If a group is
not reported, the preceding space is also not reported. In addition to the format given,
agencies shall provide for the inclusion of any special Beginning-of-Message, End-of-
Message, or End-of-Transmission signals required by their communications system.
The actual content of a METAR or SPECI depends on the observation program at the
individual station. At designated stations, the 0000, 0600, 1200, and 1800 Coordinated
Universal Time (UTC) METAR's include additional data specified by the responsible
agency and are known as 6-hourly reports. At designated stations, the 0300, 0900,
1500, and 2100 UTC METAR's are known as 3-hourly reports and also contain
additional information specified by the responsible agency.
12.5 Coding Missing Data in METAR/SPECI

When an element does not occur, or cannot be observed, the corresponding group and
preceding space are omitted from that particular report.
12.6 Coding the Body of the METAR/SPECI

12.6.1 Type of Report (METAR and SPECI). The type, METAR or SPECI, shall be
included in all reports. The type of report shall be separated from elements following it
by a space. Whenever SPECI criteria are met at the time of the routine METAR, the
type of report shall be METAR.
12.6.2 Station Identifier (CCCC). The station identifier, CCCC, shall be included in all
reports to identify the station to which the coded report applies. The station identifier
shall consist of four alphabetic-only characters if the METAR/SPECI is transmitted long-
line. The agency with operational control when the station is first established shall be
responsible for coordinating the location identifier with the FAA. A list of approved
identifiers can be found in the FAA Manual 7350 Series, Location Identifiers.
12.6.3 Date and Time of Report (YYGGggZ). The date, YY, and time, GGgg, shall be
included in all reports. The time shall be the actual time of the report or when the criteria
for a SPECI is met or noted (see paragraph 2.6.4). If the report is a correction to a
previously disseminated report, the time of the corrected report shall be the same time
used in the report being corrected. The date and time group always ends with a Z
indicating Zulu time (or UTC). For example, METAR KDCA 210855Z would be the 0900
scheduled report from station KDCA taken at 0855 UTC on the 21st of the month.
12.6.4 Report Modifier (AUTO or COR). The report modifier, AUTO, identifies the
METAR/SPECI as a fully automated report with no human intervention or oversight. In
the event of a corrected METAR or SPECI, the report modifier, COR, shall be
substituted in place of AUTO.
12.6.5 Wind Group (dddff(f)Gfmfm (fm)KT_dndndnVdxdxdx). The standards for
observing and reporting wind are described in Chapter 5.
The wind direction, ddd, shall be coded in tens of degrees using three figures.
Directions less than 100 degrees shall be preceded with a "0". For example, a wind
direction of 90° is coded as "090". The wind speed, ff(f), shall be coded in two or three
12-2
digits immediately following the wind direction. The wind speed shall be coded, in whole
knots, using the units and tens digits and, if required, the hundreds digit. Speeds of less
than 10 knots shall be coded using a leading zero. The wind group shall always end
with KT to indicate that wind speeds are reported in knots. For example, a wind speed
of 8 knots shall be coded "08KT"; a wind speed of 112 knots shall be coded "112KT".
a) Gust. Wind gusts shall be coded in the format, Gfmfm (fm) (see paragraphs 5.4.4
and 5.5.4). The wind gust shall be coded in two or three digits immediately
following the wind speed. The wind gust shall be coded, in whole knots, using the
units and tens digits and, if required, the hundreds digit. For example, a wind
from due west at 20 knots with gusts to 35 knots would be coded "27020G35KT".
b) Variable Wind Direction (Speeds 6 knots or less). Variable wind direction with
wind speed 6 knots or less may be coded as VRB in place of the ddd (see
paragraphs 5.4.2 and 5.5.3). For example, if the wind is variable at three knots, it
would be coded "VRB03KT".
c) Variable Wind Direction (Speeds greater than 6 knots). Variable wind
direction with wind speed greater than 6 knots shall be coded in the format,
dndndnVdxdxdx. The variable wind direction group shall immediately follow the
wind group (see paragraphs 5.4.2 and 5.5.3). The directional variability shall be
coded in a clockwise direction. For example, if the wind is variable from 180° to
240° at 10 knots, it would be coded "21010KT 180V240".
d) Calm Wind. Calm wind shall be coded as "00000KT" (see paragraph 5.5.2).
12.6.6 Visibility Group (VVVVVSM). The standards for observing and reporting
visibility are described in Chapter 6.
The surface visibility, VVVVVSM, shall be coded in statute miles using the values listed
in Table 12-1. A space shall be coded between whole numbers and fractions of
reportable visibility values. The visibility group shall always end with SM to indicate that
the visibility is in statute miles. For example, a visibility of one and a half statute miles
would be coded "1 1/2SM".
Automated stations shall use an M to indicate "less than" when reporting visibility. For
example, "M1/4SM" means a visibility of less than one-quarter statute mile.
Table 12-1. Reportable Visibility Values
Source of Visibility Report
Automated Manual
M1/4 2 9a 0 5/8 1 5/8 4 12
1/4 2 1/2 10 1/16 3/4 1 3/4 5 13
1/2 3 - 1/8 7/8 1 7/8 6 14
3/4 4 - 3/16 1 2 7 15
1 5 - 1/4 1 1/8 2 1/4 8 20
1 1/4 6a - 5/16 1 1/4 2 1/2 9 25
1 1/2 7 - 3/8 1 3/8 2 3/4 10 30
1 3/4 8a - 1/2 1 1/2 3 11 35b
a. These values may not be reported by some automated stations.
b. Further values in increments of 5 statute miles may be reported, i.e., 40, 45, 50, etc.
12-3
12.6.7. Runway Visual Range Group (RDRDR/VRVRVRVRFT or
RDRDR/VnVnVnVnVVxVxVxVxFT). The standards for observing and reporting Runway
Visual Range (RVR) are described in Chapter 7.
a) RVR shall be coded in the format RDRDR/VRVRVRVRFT, where R indicates that
the runway number follows, DRDR is the runway number (an additional DR may
be used for runway approach directions, such as R for right, L for left, and C for
center), VRVRVRVR is the constant reportable value, and FT indicates that units of
measurement are feet. A solidus "/" without spaces separates the runway
number from the constant reportable value. For example, an RVR value for
runway 01L of 800 feet would be coded "R01L/0800FT".
b) RVR that is varying shall be coded in the format, RDRDR/VnVnVnVnVVxVxVxVxFT,
where R indicates that the runway number follows, DRDR is the runway number
(an additional DR may be used for runway approach directions, such as R for
right, L for left, and C for center), VnVnVnVn is the lowest reportable value in feet,
V separates lowest and highest visual range values, VxVxVxVx is the highest
reportable value, and FT indicates that units of measurement are feet. A solidus
"/" without spaces separates the runway number from the reportable values. For
example, the 10-minute RVR for runway 01L varying between 600 and 1,000 feet
would be coded "R01L/0600V1000FT".
c) The values shall be based on light setting 5 at manual stations regardless of the
light setting actually in use (see Appendix D). RVR values shall be coded in
increments of 100 feet up to 1,000 feet, increments of 200 feet from 1,000 feet to
3,000 feet, and increments of 500 feet from 3,000 feet to 6,000 feet. Manual RVR
shall not be reported below 600 feet. For automated stations, RVR may be
reported from up to four designated runways.
d) If the RVR is less than its lowest reportable value, the VRVRVRVR or VnVnVnVn
groups shall be preceded by M. If the RVR is greater than its highest reportable
value, the VRVRVRVR or VxVxVxVx groups shall be preceded by a P. For example,
an RVR for runway 01L of less than 600 feet will be coded "R01L/M0600FT"; an
RVR for runway 27 of greater than 6,000 feet will be coded "R27/P6000FT".
12.6.8 Present Weather Group (w'w'). The standards for observing and reporting
present weather are described in Chapter 8.
The appropriate notations found in Table 12-2 shall be used to code present weather.
Table 12-2. Notations for Reporting Present Weather1
QUALIFIER WEATHER PHENOMENA
INTENSITY2 OR
DESCRIPTOR PRECIPITATION OBSCURATION OTHER
PROXIMITY
2 3 4 5
1
- Light MI Shallow DZ Drizzle BR Mist PO Well-Developed
Moderate3 PR Partial RA Rain FG Fog Dust/Sand Whirls
+ Heavy BC Patches SN Snow FU Smoke SQ Squalls
VC In the Vicinity4 DR Low Drifting SG Snow Grains VA Volcanic Ash FC Funnel Cloud
BL Blowing IC Ice Crystals DU Widespread Tornado
SH Shower(s) PL Ice Pellets Dust Waterspout5
TS Thunderstorm GR Hail SA Sand SS Sandstorm
12-4
QUALIFIER WEATHER PHENOMENA
FZ Freezing GS Snow Pellets HZ Haze DS Duststorm
UP Unknown PY Spray
Precipitation
1. The weather groups shall be constructed by considering columns 1 to 5 in the table above in
sequence, i.e., intensity, followed by description, followed by weather phenomena, e.g., heavy rain
shower(s) is coded as +SHRA
2. See paragraph 12.6.8.a(1) for instructions on encoding intensity of GS
3. To denote moderate intensity no entry or symbol is used.
4. See paragraph 8.4.1.a.(2), 8.5, and 8.5.1 for vicinity definitions.
5. Tornadoes and waterspouts shall be coded as +FC.
The following general rules apply when coding present weather for a METAR or SPECI:
• Weather occurring at the point of observation (at the station) or in the vicinity of the
station shall be coded in the body of the report; weather observed but not occurring
at the point of observation (at the station) or in the vicinity of the station shall be
coded in Remarks.
• With the exceptions of volcanic ash, low drifting dust, low drifting sand, low drifting
snow, shallow fog, partial fog, and patches (of) fog, an obscuration shall be coded in
the body of the report if the surface visibility is less than 7 miles or considered
operationally significant. Volcanic ash shall always be coded when observed.
• Separate groups shall be used for each type of present weather. Each group shall
be separated from the other by a space. METAR/SPECI shall contain no more than
three present weather groups.
• The weather groups shall be constructed by considering columns 1 to 5 in Table 12-
2 in sequence, i.e., intensity, followed by description, followed by weather
phenomena, e.g., heavy rain shower(s) is coded as +SHRA.
a) Intensity or Proximity Qualifier.
1. Intensity shall be coded with precipitation types, except ice crystals (IC), hail
(GR), and unknown precipitation (UP) including those associated with a
thunderstorm (TS) and those of a showery nature (SH). Tornadoes and
waterspouts shall be coded as +FC. No intensity shall be ascribed to the
obscurations of blowing dust (BLDU), blowing sand (BLSA), and blowing
snow (BLSN). Only moderate or heavy intensity shall be ascribed to
sandstorm (SS) and duststorm (DS). Due to ASOS/AWOS-C software
limitations, intensity for GS shall be manually encoded into the RMK section
as “GS LGT”, “GS MOD”, or “GS HVY”. Reporting of the intensity of GS will
revert to the conventional method for precipitation intensity when ASOS
upgrades are implemented (projected for October 2020). When more than
one type of precipitation is coded in a single present weather group (see
paragraph 12.6.8.c), the intensity qualifier shall represent the intensity of the
total precipitation.
2. The proximity qualifier for vicinity, VC, (weather phenomena observed in the
vicinity of but not at the point(s) of observation) shall be coded in combination
with thunderstorm (TS), fog (FG), shower(s) (SH), well-developed dust/sand
whirls (PO), blowing dust (BLDU), blowing sand (BLSA), blowing snow
12-5
(BLSN), sandstorm (SS), and duststorm (DS). Intensity qualifiers shall not be
coded with VC. VCFG shall be coded to report any type of fog in the vicinity of
the point(s) of observation. Precipitation not occurring at the point of
observation but within 10 statute miles shall be coded as showers in the
vicinity (VCSH).
b) Descriptor Qualifier. Only one descriptor shall be coded for each weather
phenomena group, e.g., "-FZDZ". Mist (BR) shall not be coded with any
descriptor.
1. The descriptors shallow (MI), partial (PR), and patches (BC) shall only be
coded with FG, e.g., "MIFG".
2. The descriptors low drifting (DR) and blowing (BL) shall only be coded with
dust (DU), sand (SA), and snow (SN), e.g., "BLSN" or "DRSN". DR shall be
coded for DU, SA, or SN raised by the wind to less than six feet above the
ground.
When blowing snow is observed with snow falling from clouds, both
phenomena are reported, e.g., "SN BLSN". If there is blowing snow and the
observer cannot determine whether or not snow is also falling, then BLSN
shall be reported. PY shall be coded only with blowing (BL).
3. The descriptor shower(s) (SH) shall be coded only with one or more of the
precipitation types of rain (RA), snow (SN), ice pellets (PL), snow pellets
(GS), or hail (GR). The SH descriptor indicates showery-type precipitation.
When any type of precipitation is coded with VC, the intensity and type of
precipitation shall not be coded.
4. The descriptor thunderstorm (TS) may be coded by itself, i.e., a thunderstorm
without associated precipitation, or it may be coded with the precipitation
types of rain (RA), snow (SN), ice pellets (PL), snow pellets (GS), or hail
(GR). For example, a thunderstorm with snow and snow pellets would be
coded as "TSSNGS". TS shall not be coded with SH.
5. The descriptor freezing (FZ) shall only be coded in combination with fog (FG),
drizzle (DZ), or rain (RA), e.g., "FZRA". FZ shall not be coded with SH.
c) Precipitation. Up to three types of precipitation may be coded in a single present
weather group. They shall be coded in order of decreasing dominance based on
intensity.
1. Drizzle shall be coded as DZ; rain shall be coded as RA; snow shall be coded
as SN; snow grains shall be coded as SG; ice crystals shall be coded as IC;
ice pellets shall be coded as PL, hail shall be coded as GR, and snow pellets
shall be coded as GS.
2. At automated stations, precipitation of unknown type shall be coded as UP.
d) Obscuration.
1. Mist shall be coded as BR; fog shall be coded as FG; smoke shall be coded
as FU; volcanic ash shall be coded as VA; widespread dust shall be coded as
DU; sand shall be coded as SA; and haze shall be coded as HZ.
12-6
2. Shallow fog (MIFG), patches (of) fog (BCFG), and partial fog (PRFG) may be
coded with prevailing visibility of 7 statute miles or greater.
3. Spray (PY) shall be coded only as BLPY.
e) Other Weather Phenomena.
1. Well-developed dust/sand whirls shall be coded as PO; squalls shall be
coded as SQ; sandstorm shall be coded as SS; and duststorm shall be coded
as DS.
2. Tornadoes and waterspouts shall be coded as +FC. Funnel clouds shall be
coded as FC.
12.6.9 Sky Condition Group (NsNsNshshshs or VVhshshs or SKC/CLR). The
standards for observing and reporting sky condition are described in Chapter 9.
a) Sky condition shall be coded in the format, NsNsNshshshs, where NsNsNs is the
amount of sky cover and hshshs is the height of the layer. There shall be no
space between the amount of sky cover and the height of the layer. Sky condition
shall be coded in an ascending order up to the first overcast layer. At mountain
stations, if the layer is below station level, the height of the layer shall be coded
as ///.
b) Vertical visibility shall be coded in the format, VVhshshs, where VV identifies an
indefinite ceiling and hshshs is the vertical visibility into the indefinite ceiling (see
paragraphs 9.4.4, 9.4.7, and 9.5.5). There shall be no space between the group
identifier and the vertical visibility.
c) Clear skies shall be coded in the format, SKC or CLR, where SKC is the
abbreviation used by manual stations to indicate no layers are present and CLR
is the abbreviation used by automated stations to indicate no layers are detected
at or below 12,000 feet (see paragraph 9.5.4).
Each layer shall be separated from other layers by a space. The sky cover for each
layer reported shall be coded by using the appropriate reportable contraction from Table
12-3. The report of clear skies (SKC or CLR) are complete layer reports within
themselves. The abbreviations FEW, SCT, BKN, and OVC shall be followed, without a
space, by the height of the layer.
Table 12-3. Contractions for Sky Cover
Summation Amount
of Layer
VV Vertical Visibility 8/8
SKC or CLR1 Clear 0
FEW2 Few 1/8 - 2/8
SCT Scattered 3/8 - 4/8
BKN Broken 5/8 - 7/8
OVC Overcast 8/8
1. The abbreviation CLR shall be used at automated stations when no layers at or below 12,000
feet are reported; the abbreviation SKC shall be used at manual stations when no layers are
reported.
2. Any layer amount less than 1/8 is reported as FEW.
12-7
The height of the base of each layer, hshshs, shall be coded in hundreds of feet above
the surface using three digits in accordance with Table 12-4.
Table 12-4. Increments of Reportable Values of Sky Cover Height
Range of Height Values (feet) Reportable Increment (feet)
≤5,000 To nearest 100
>5,000 but ≤10,000 To nearest 500
>10,000 To nearest 1,000
At manual stations, cumulonimbus (CB) or, if there are no cumulonimbus are present,
towering cumulus (TCU) shall be appended to the associated layer. For example, a
scattered layer of towering cumulus at 1,500 feet would be coded "SCT015TCU" and
would be followed by a space if there were additional higher layers to code.
12.6.10 Temperature/Dew Point Group (T'T'/T'dT'd). The standards for observing and
reporting temperature and dew point are given in Chapter 10. The temperature shall be
separated from the dew point with a solidus "/".
The temperature and dew point shall be coded as two digits rounded to the nearest
whole degree Celsius (see paragraph 2.6.3). For example, a temperature of 0.3°C
would be coded as “00". Sub-zero temperatures and dew points shall be prefixed with
an M. For example, a temperature of 4°C with a dew point of -2°C would be coded as
"04/M02"; a temperature of -0.5°C would be coded as "M00".
If the temperature is not available, the entire temperature/dew point group shall not be
coded. If the dew point is not available, the temperature shall be coded followed by a
solidus "/" and no entry made for dew point. For example, a temperature of 1.5°C and a
missing dew point would be coded as "02/".
12.6.11 Altimeter (APHPHPHPH). The standards for observing and reporting altimeter
are described in Chapter 11.
The altimeter group always starts with an A (the international indicator for altimeter in
inches of mercury). The altimeter shall be coded as a four digit group immediately
following the A using the tens, units, tenths, and hundredths of inches of mercury. The
decimal point is not coded.
12.7 Remarks (RMK)

Remarks shall be included in all METAR and SPECI, if appropriate.
Remarks shall be separated from the body of the report by a space and the contraction
RMK. If there are no remarks, the contraction RMK is not required.
METAR/SPECI remarks fall into 2 categories: (1) Automated, Manual, and Plain
Language (see paragraph 12.7.1), and (2) Additive and Maintenance Data (see
paragraph 12.7.2).
Remarks shall be made in accordance with the following:
12-8
a) Where plain language is called for, authorized contractions, abbreviations, and
symbols should be used to conserve time and space. However, in no case
should an essential remark, of which the observer is aware, be omitted for the
lack of readily available contractions. In such cases, the only requirement is that
the remark be clear. For a detailed list of authorized contractions, see FAA Order
7340 Series, Contractions.
b) Time entries shall be made in minutes past the hour if the time reported occurs
during the same hour the observation is taken. Hours and minutes shall be used
if the hour is different, or this Handbook prescribes the use of the hour and
minutes.
c) Present weather coded in the body of the report as VC may be further described,
i.e., direction from the station, if known. Weather phenomena beyond 10 statute
miles of the point(s) of observation shall be coded as distant (DSNT) followed by
the direction from the station. For example, precipitation of unknown intensity
within 10 statute miles east of the station would be coded as "VCSH E"; lightning
25 statute miles west of the station would be coded as "LTG DSNT W".
d) Distance remarks shall be statute miles except for automated lightning remarks
which are in nautical miles.
e) Movement of clouds or weather, if known, shall be coded with respect to the
direction toward which the phenomena is moving. For example, a thunderstorm
moving toward the northeast would be coded as "TS MOV NE".
f) Directions shall use the eight points of the compass coded in a clockwise order.
g) Insofar as possible, remarks shall be entered in the order they are presented in
the following paragraphs.
12.7.1 Automated, Manual, and Plain Language Remarks. These remarks generally
elaborate on parameters reported in the body of the report. Automated and manual
remarks may be generated either by an automated or manual station. Plain language
remarks are only provided from manual stations.
a) Volcanic Eruptions (Plain Language). Volcanic eruptions shall be coded.
The remark shall be plain language and contain the following, if known:
1. Name of volcano.
2. Latitude and longitude or the direction and the approximate distance from
the station.
3. Date/Time (UTC) of the eruption.
4. Size description, approximate height, and direction of movement of the ash
cloud.
5. Any other pertinent data about the eruption.
For example, a remark on a volcanic eruption would look like the following:
MT. AUGUSTINE VOLCANO 70 MILES SW ERUPTED 231505 LARGE ASH
CLOUD EXTENDING TO APRX 30000 FEET MOVING NE.
Pre-eruption volcanic activity shall not be coded. Pre-eruption refers to unusual
and/or increasing volcanic activity which could presage a volcanic eruption.
12-9
b) Funnel Cloud (Tornadic activity_B/E(hh)mm_LOC/DIR_(MOV)). At manual
stations, tornadoes, funnel clouds, or waterspouts shall be coded in the format,
Tornadic activity_B/E(hh)mm_LOC/DIR_(MOV), where TORNADO, FUNNEL
CLOUD, or WATERSPOUT identifies the specific tornadic activity, B/E denotes
the beginning and/or ending time, (hh)mm is the time of occurrence (only the
minutes are required if the hour can be inferred from the report time), LOC/DIR is
the location and/or direction of the phenomena from the station, and MOV is the
movement, if known (see paragraphs 8.3.3.c, 8.5.3.c, and 8.5.5.b). Tornadic
activity shall be coded as the first remark after the "RMK" entry. For example,
"TORNADO B13 6 NE" would indicate that a tornado, which began at 13 minutes
past the hour, was 6 statute miles northeast of the station.
c) Type of Automated Station (AO1 or AO2). AO1 or AO2 shall be coded in all
METAR/SPECI from automated stations. Automated stations without a
precipitation discriminator shall be identified as AO1; automated station with a
precipitation discriminator shall be identified as AO2.
d) Peak Wind (PK_WND_dddff(f)/(hh)mm). The peak wind shall be coded in the
format, PK_WND dddff(f)/(hh)mm of the next METAR, where PK_WND is the
remark identifier, ddd is the direction of the peak wind, ff(f) is the peak wind
speed since the last METAR, and (hh)mm is the time of occurrence (only the
minutes are required if the hour can be inferred from the report time) (see
paragraphs 5.4.5 and 5.5.5). There shall be a space between the two elements
of the remark identifier and the wind direction/speed group; a solidus "/" (without
spaces) shall separate the wind direction/speed group and the time. For
example, a peak wind of 45 knots from 280 degrees that occurred at 15 minutes
past the hour would be coded "PK WND 28045/15".
e) Wind Shift (WSHFT_(hh)mm). A wind shift shall be coded in the format,
WSHFT_(hh)mm, where WSHFT is the remark identifier and (hh)mm is the time
the wind shift began (only the minutes are required if the hour can be inferred
from the report time) (see paragraphs 5.4.6 and 5.5.6). The contraction FROPA
may be entered following the time if it is reasonably certain that the wind shift
was the result of a frontal passage. There shall be a space between the remark
identifier and the time and, if applicable, between the time and the frontal
passage contraction. For example, a remark reporting a wind shift accompanied
by a frontal passage that began at 30 minutes after the hour would be coded as
"WSHFT 30 FROPA".
f) Tower or Surface Visibility (TWR_VIS_vvvvv or SFC_VIS_vvvvv). Tower
visibility or surface visibility (see paragraphs 6.5.4 and 6.5.5) shall be coded in
the formats, TWR_VIS_vvvvv or SFC_VIS_vvvvv, respectively, where vvvvv is
the observed tower/surface visibility value. A space shall be coded between each
of the remark elements. For example, the control tower visibility of 1 1/2 statute
miles would be coded "TWR VIS 1 1/2".
g) Variable Prevailing Visibility (VIS_vnvnvnvnvnVvxvxvxvxvx). Variable prevailing
visibility shall be coded in the format VIS_vnvnvnvnvnVvxvxvxvxvx, where VIS is
the remark identifier, vnvnvnvnvnvnvnvnvnvn is the lowest visibility evaluated, V
denotes variability between two values, and vxvxvxvxvx is the highest visibility
evaluated. There shall be one space following the remark identifier; no spaces
between the letter V and the lowest/highest values. For example, a visibility that
12-10
was varying between 1/2 and 2 statute miles would be coded "VIS 1/2V2" (see
paragraphs 6.4.5 and 6.5.3).
h) Sector Visibility (VIS_[DIR]_vvvvv) [Plain Language]. The sector visibility
shall be coded in the format, VIS_[DIR]_vvvvv, where VIS is the remark
identifier, [DIR] defines the sector to 8 points of the compass, and vvvvv is the
sector visibility in statute miles, using the appropriate set of values in Table 12-1
(see paragraphs 6.4.6 and 6.5.7). For example, a visibility of 2 1/2 statute miles
in the northeastern octant would be coded "VIS NE 2 1/2".
i) Visibility At Second Location (VIS_vvvvv_[LOC]). At designated automated
stations, the visibility at a second location shall be coded in the format
VIS_vvvvv_[LOC], where VIS is the remark identifier, vvvvv is the measured
visibility value, and [LOC] is the specific location of the visibility sensor(s) at the
station (see paragraph 6.5.6). This remark shall only be generated when the
condition is lower than that contained in the body of the report. For example, a
visibility of 2 1/2 statute miles measured by a second sensor located at runway
11 would be coded "VIS 2 1/2 RWY11".
j) Lightning (Frequency_LTG(type)_[LOC]).
1. When lightning is observed at a manual station, the frequency, type of
lightning, and location shall be reported. The remark shall be coded in the
format Frequency_LTG(type)_[LOC]. The contractions for the type and
frequency of lightning shall be based on Table 12-5. The location and
direction shall be coded in accordance with paragraph 12.7.c. For example,
"OCNL LTGICCG OHD", “FRQ LTG VC", or "LTG DSNT W".
2. When lightning is detected by an automated system:
a) Within 5 nautical miles of the Airport Location Point (ALP), it will be
reported as TS in the body of the report with no remark;
b) Between 5 and 10 nautical miles of the ALP, it will be reported as VCTS in
the body of the report with no remark;
c) Beyond 10 but less than 30 nautical miles of the ALP, it will be reported in
remarks only as LTG DSNT followed by the direction from the ALP.
Table 12-5. Type and Frequency of Lightning
Type of Lightning
Type Contraction Definition
Cloud-ground CG Lightning occurring between cloud and ground.
In-cloud IC Lightning which takes place within the cloud.
Streaks of lightning reaching from one cloud to
Cloud-cloud CC
another.
Streaks of lightning which pass from a cloud to the
Cloud-air CA
air, but do not strike the ground.
Frequency of Lightning
Frequency Contraction Definition
Occasional OCNL Less than 1 flash/minute.
Frequent FRQ About 1 to 6 flashes/minute.
Continuous CONS More than 6 flashes/minute.
12-11
k) Beginning and Ending of Precipitation (w'w'B(hh)mmE(hh)mm). At
designated stations, the beginning and ending of precipitation shall be coded in
the format, w'w'B(hh)mmE(hh)mm, where w'w' is the type of precipitation, B
denotes the beginning, E denotes the ending, and (hh)mm is the time of
occurrence (only the minutes are required if the hour can be inferred from the
report time) (see paragraph 8.5.5.a). There shall be no spaces between the
elements. The coded remarks are not required in SPECI and should be reported
in the next METAR. Intensity qualifiers shall not be coded. For example, if rain
began at 0005, ended at 0030, and snow began at 0020, and ended at 0055, the
remarks would be coded "RAB05E30SNB20E55". If the precipitation were
showery, the remark would be coded "SHRAB05E30SHSNB20E55".
l) Beginning and Ending of Thunderstorms (TSB(hh)mmE(hh)mm). The
beginning and ending of thunderstorm(s) shall be coded in the format,
TSB(hh)mmE(hh)mm, where TS indicates thunderstorm, B denotes the
beginning, E denotes the ending, and (hh)mm is the time of occurrence (only the
minutes are required if the hour can be inferred from the report time) (see
paragraph 8.5.4). There shall be no spaces between the elements. For example,
if a thunderstorm began at 0159 and ended at 0230, the remark would be coded
"TSB0159E30".
m) Thunderstorm Location (TS_LOC_(MOV_DIR)) [Plain Language].
Thunderstorm(s) shall be coded in the format, TS_LOC_(MOV_DIR), where TS
identifies the thunderstorm activity, LOC is the location of the thunderstorm(s)
from the station, and MOV_DIR is the movement with direction, if known (see
paragraph 8.4.1.b(5) and 8.5.4). For example, a thunderstorm southeast of the
station and moving toward the northeast would be coded "TS SE MOV NE".
n) Hailstone Size (GR_[size]) [Plain Language]. At designated stations, the
hailstone size shall be coded in the format, GR_[size], where GR is the remark
identifier and [size] is the diameter of the largest hailstone. The hailstone size
shall be coded in 1/4 inch increments (see paragraph 8.5.1.c(8)). For example,
"GR 1 3/4" would indicate that the largest hailstones were 1 3/4 inches in
diameter. Hailstone size for small hail (see paragraph 8.3.1.g) shall be coded as
less than ¼ inch (i.e., “GR LESS THAN 1/4”).
o) Snow Pellet Intensity (GS_[intensity]) [Plain Language]. At designated stations,
the snow pellet intensity shall be coded in the format, GS_[intensity], where GS is
the remark identifier and [intensity] is the observed intensity. The snow pellet
intensity shall be coded as LGT, MOD, or HVY indicating light, moderate, or heavy
intensity, respectively (see paragraph 12.6.8.a1).
p) Virga (VIRGA_(DIR)) [Plain Language]. Virga shall be coded in the format,
VIRGA_(DIR), where VIRGA is the remark identifier and DIR is the direction from
the station. The direction of the phenomena from the station is optional, e.g.,
"VIRGA" or "VIRGA SW".
q) Variable Ceiling Height (CIG_hnhnhnVhxhxhx). The variable ceiling height shall
be coded in the format, CIG_hnhnhnVhxhxhx where CIG is the remark identifier,
hnhnhn is the lowest ceiling height evaluated, V denotes variability between two
values, and hxhxhx is the highest ceiling height evaluated (see paragraph 9.5.7
and Table 9-1). There shall be one space following the remark identifier; no
spaces between the letter V and the lowest/highest ceiling values. For example,
12-12
"CIG 005V010" would indicate a ceiling that was varying between 500 and 1,000
feet.
r) Obscurations (w'w'_[NsNsNs]hshshs). [Plain Language]. Obscurations
(surface-based or aloft) shall be coded in the format, w'w'_[NsNsNs]hshshs,
where w'w' is the weather causing the obscuration at the surface or aloft, NsNsNs
is the applicable sky cover amount of the obscuration aloft (FEW, SCT, BKN,
OVC) or at the surface (FEW, SCT, BKN), and hshshs is the applicable height
(see paragraphs 9.4.3 and 9.5.6). Surface-based obscurations shall have a
height of “000". There shall be a space separating the weather causing the
obscuration and the sky cover amount; there shall be no space between the sky
cover amount and the height. For example, fog hiding 3-4 oktas of the sky would
be coded "FG SCT000"; a broken layer at 2,000 feet composed of smoke would
be coded “FU BKN020".
s) Variable Sky Condition (NsNsNs (hshshs)_V_ NsNsNs). [Plain Language]. The
variable sky condition remark shall be coded in the format, NsNsNs (hshshs)_V_
NsNsNs, where NsNsNs (hshshs) and NsNsNs identifies the two operationally
significant sky conditions and V denotes the variability between the two ranges
(see paragraphs 9.4.2.d and 9.5.9). If there are several layers with the same sky
condition amount, the layer height (hshshs) of the variable layer shall be coded.
For example, a cloud layer at 1,400 feet that is varying between broken and
overcast would be coded "BKN014 V OVC".
t) Significant Cloud Types [Plain Language]. The significant cloud type remark
shall be coded in all reports in the following manner (see paragraphs 9.4.6 and
9.5.10):
1. Cumulonimbus or Cumulonimbus Mammatus (CB or
CBMAM_LOC_(MOV_DIR). Cumulonimbus or cumulonimbus mammatus, as
appropriate, (for which no thunderstorm is being reported) shall be coded in
the format, CB or CBMAM_LOC_(MOV_DIR), where CB or CBMAM is the
cloud type, LOC is the direction from the station, and MOV_DIR is the
movement with direction (if known). The cloud type, location, movement, and
direction entries shall be separated from each other with a space. For
example, a CB up to 10 statute miles west of the station moving toward the
east would be coded "CB W MOV E". If the CB was more than 10 statute
miles to the west, the remark would be coded "CB DSNT W".
2. Towering cumulus (TCU_[DIR]). Towering cumulus clouds shall be coded in
the format, TCU_[DIR], where TCU is the cloud type and DIR is the direction
from the station. The cloud type and direction entries shall be separated by a
space. For example, a towering cumulus cloud up to 10 statute miles west of
the station would be coded "TCU W".
3. Altocumulus castellanus (ACC_[DIR]). Altocumulus castellanus shall be
coded in the format, ACC_[DIR], where ACC is the cloud type and DIR is the
direction from the station. The cloud type and direction entries shall be
separated by a space. For example, an altocumulus cloud 5 to 10 statute
miles northwest of the station would be coded "ACC NW".
4. Standing lenticular or Rotor clouds (CLD_[DIR]). Stratocumulus (SCSL),
altocumulus (ACSL), or cirrocumulus (CCSL), or rotor clouds shall be coded
12-13
in the format, CLD_[DIR], where CLD is the cloud type and DIR is the
direction from the station. The cloud type and direction entries shall be
separated by a space. For example, altocumulus standing lenticular clouds
observed southwest through west of the station would be coded "ACSL
SW_W"; an apparent rotor cloud 5 to 10 statute miles northeast of the station
would be coded "APRNT ROTOR CLD NE"; and cirrocumulus clouds south of
the station would be coded "CCSL S".
u) Ceiling Height at Second Location (CIG_hhh_[LOC]). At designated stations,
the ceiling height at a second location shall be coded in the format,
CIG_hhh_[LOC], where CIG is the remark identifier, hhh is the measured height
of the ceiling, and [LOC] is the specific location of the ceilometer(s) at the station
(see paragraph 9.5.8). This remark shall only be generated when the ceiling is
lower than that contained in the body of the report. For example, if the ceiling
measured by a second sensor located at runway 11 is broken at 200 feet, the
remark would be "CIG 002 RWY11".
v) Pressure Rising or Falling Rapidly (PRESRR/PRESFR). At designated
stations, when the pressure is rising or falling rapidly at the time of observation
(see paragraphs 11.4.6 and 11.5.5), the remark PRESRR (pressure rising
rapidly) or PRESFR (pressure falling rapidly) shall be included in the report.
w) Sea-Level Pressure (SLPppp). At designated stations, the sea-level pressure
shall be coded in the format SLPppp, where SLP is the remark identifier and
ppp is the sea-level pressure in hectopascals (see paragraphs 11.4.4 and
11.5.4). For example, a sea-level pressure of 998.2 hectopascals would be
coded as "SLP982". For a METAR, if sea-level pressure is not available, it is
coded as "SLPNO."
x) Aircraft Mishap (ACFT_MSHP [Plain Language]. If a report is taken to
document weather conditions when notified of an aircraft mishap, the remark
ACFT_MSHP shall be coded in the report but not transmitted. The act of non-
transmission shall be indicated by enclosing the remark in parentheses in the
record, i.e., "(ACFT MSHP)".
y) No SPECI [Plain Language]. At manual stations where SPECI's are not taken,
the remark NOSPECI shall be coded to indicate that no changes in weather
conditions will be reported until the next METAR.
z) Snow Increasing Rapidly (SNINCR_[inches-hour/inches on ground]). At
designated stations, the snow increasing rapidly remark shall be reported, in the
next METAR, whenever the snow depth increases by 1 inch or more in the past
hour. The remark shall be coded in the format, SNINCR [inches-hour/inches on
ground], where SNINCR is the remark indicator, inches-hour is the depth
increase in the past hour, and inches on ground is the total depth of snow on
the ground at the time of the report. The depth increase in the past hour and the
total depth on the ground are separated from each other by a solidus "/". For
example, a snow depth increase of 2 inches in the past hour with a total depth on
the ground of 10 inches would be coded "SNINCR 2/10".
aa) Other Significant Information [Plain Language]. Agencies may add to a report
other information significant to their operations, such as information on fog
12-14
dispersal operations, runway conditions, "FIRST" or "LAST" report from station,
etc.
12.7.2 Additive and Automated Maintenance Data. Additive data groups are only
reported at designated stations. The maintenance data groups are only reported from
automated stations.
a) Precipitation
1. Amount of Precipitation. The amount of liquid precipitation shall be coded
as the depth of precipitation that accumulates in an exposed vessel during the
time period being evaluated. The amount of freezing or frozen precipitation
shall be the water equivalent of the solid precipitation accumulated during the
appropriate time period.
2. Units of Measure for Precipitation. Precipitation measurements shall be in
inches, tenths of inches, or hundredths of inches depending on the
precipitation being measured (see Table 12-6).
Table 12.6. Units of Measure for Precipitation
Type of Measurement Unit of Measure
Liquid Precipitation 0.01 inch
Water Equivalent of Solid Precipitation 0.01 inch
Solid Precipitation 0.1 inch
Snow Depth 1.0 inch
3. Depth of Freezing or Frozen Precipitation. The depth of freezing and/or

frozen precipitation shall be the actual vertical depth of the precipitation
accumulated on a horizontal surface during the appropriate time period (see
paragraphs 12.7.2.a(3)(b) and 12.7.2.a(3)(c). If snow falls, melts, and
refreezes, the depth of ice formed shall be included in the measurement.
a) Hourly Precipitation Amount (Prrrr). At designated automated stations,
the hourly precipitation amount shall be coded in the format, Prrrr, where
P is the group indicator and rrrr is the water equivalent of all precipitation
that has occurred since the last METAR (see paragraph 12.7.2.a(1)). The
amount shall be coded in hundredths of an inch. For example, "P0009"
would indicate 9/100 of an inch of precipitation fell in the past hour;
"P0000" would indicate that less than 1/100 of an inch of precipitation fell
in the past hour.
The group shall be omitted if no precipitation occurred since the last
METAR.
b) 3- and 6-Hour Precipitation Amount (6RRRR). At designated stations,
the 3- and 6-hourly precipitation group shall be coded in the format,
6RRRR, where 6 is the group indicator and RRRR is the amount of
precipitation. The amount of precipitation (water equivalent) accumulated
in the past 3 hours shall be reported in the 3-hourly report; the amount
accumulated in the past 6 hours shall be reported in the 6-hourly report.
12-15
The amount of precipitation shall be coded in inches, using the tens, units,
tenths and hundredths digits of the amount. When an indeterminable
amount of precipitation has occurred during the period, RRRR shall be
coded 6////. For example, 2.17 inches of precipitation would be coded
"60217". A trace shall be coded "60000".
c) 24-Hour Precipitation Amount (7R24R24R24R24) At designated stations,
the 24-hour precipitation amount shall be coded in the format,
7R24R24R24R24, where 7 is the group indicator and R24R24R24R24 is the 24-
hour precipitation amount. The 24-hour precipitation amount shall be
included in the 1200 UTC (or other agency designated time) report
whenever more than a trace of precipitation (water equivalent) has fallen
in the preceding 24 hours. The amount of precipitation shall be coded by
using the tens, units, tenths, and hundredths of inches (water equivalent)
for the 24-hour period. If more than a trace (water equivalent) has
occurred and the amount cannot be determined, the group shall be coded
7////. For example, 1.25 inches of precipitation (water equivalent) in the
past 24 hours shall be coded "70125".
d) Snow Depth on Ground (4/sss). At designated stations, the total snow
depth on the ground group shall be coded in the 0000, 0600, 1200, and
1800 UTC observations whenever there is more than a trace of snow on
the ground. The remark shall be coded in the format, 4/sss, where 4/ is
the group indicator and sss is the snow depth in whole inches using three
digits. For example, a snow depth of 21 inches shall be coded as "4/021".
e) Water Equivalent of Snow on Ground (933RRR). At designated
stations, the water equivalent of snow on the ground shall be coded each
day, in the 1800 UTC report, if the average snow depth is 2 inches or
more. The remark shall be coded in the format, 933RRR, where 933 is the
group indicator and RRR is the water equivalent of snow, i.e., snow, snow
pellets, snow grains, ice pellets, ice crystals, and hail, on the ground. The
water equivalent shall be coded in tens, units, and tenths of inches, using
three digits. If the water equivalent of snow consists entirely of hail, the
group shall not be coded. A water equivalent of 3.6 inches of snow would
be coded as "933036"; a water equivalent of 12.5 would be coded as
"933125". This value is never estimated, ratios (e.g., 10 to 1) or
temperature/snow water equivalent tables are not to be used to determine
water equivalency of snow for this group.
b) Cloud Types (8/CLCMCH). At designated stations, the group, 8/CLCMCH, shall be
reported and coded in 3- and 6-hourly reports when clouds are observed. The
predominant low cloud (CL), middle cloud (CM), and high cloud (CH), shall be
identified in accordance with the WMO International Cloud Atlas, Volumes I and
II, or the WMO Abridged International Cloud Atlas or agency observing aids for
cloud identification. A 0 shall be coded for the low, middle, or high cloud type if
no cloud is present in that classification. A solidus "/" shall be coded for layers
above an overcast. If no clouds are observed due to clear skies, the cloud type
group shall not be coded. For example, a report of "8/6//" would indicate an
12-16
overcast layer of stratus clouds; a report of "8/903" would indicate cumulonimbus
type low clouds, no middle clouds, and dense cirrus high clouds.
c) Duration of Sunshine (98mmm). The duration of sunshine that occurred the
previous calendar day shall be coded in the 0800 UTC report. If the station is
closed at 0800 UTC, the group shall be coded in the first 6-hourly METAR after
the station opens. The duration of sunshine shall be coded in the format,
98mmm, where 98 is the group indicator and mmm is the total minutes of
sunshine. The minutes of sunshine shall be coded by using the hundreds, tens,
and units digits. For example, 96 minutes of sunshine would be coded "98096". If
no sunshine occurred, the group would be coded "98000".
d) Hourly Temperature and Dew Point (TsnT'T'T'snT'dT'dT'd). At designated
stations, the hourly temperature and dew point group shall be coded to the tenth
of a degree Celsius in the format, TsnT'T'T'snT'dT'dT'd, where T is the group
indicator, sn is the sign of the temperature, T'T'T' is the temperature, and
T'dT'dT'd is the dew point (see paragraphs 10.5.1 and 10.5.3). The sign of the
temperature and dew point shall be coded as 1 if the value is below 0°C and 0 if
the value is 0°C or higher. The temperature and dew point shall be reported in
tens, units, and tenths of degrees Celsius. There shall be no spaces between the
entries. For example, a temperature of 2.6°C and dew point of -1.5°C would be
reported in the body of the report as "03/M01" and the TsnT'T'T'snT'dT'dT'd
group as "T00261015". If dew point is missing report the temperature; if the
temperature is missing do not report the temperature/dew point group.
e) 6-Hourly Maximum Temperature (1snTxTxTx). At designated stations, the 6-
hourly maximum temperature group shall be coded in the format, 1snTxTxTx,
where 1 is the group indicator, sn is the sign of the temperature, TxTxTx is the
maximum temperature in tenths of degrees Celsius using three digits (see
paragraphs 10.4.4, 10.5.2, and 10.5.3). The sign of the maximum temperature
shall be coded as 1 if the maximum temperature is below 0°C and 0 if the
maximum temperature is 0°C or higher. For example, a maximum temperature of
-2.1°C would be coded "11021"; 14.2°C would be coded "10142".
f) 6-Hourly Minimum Temperature (2snTnTnTn). At designated stations, the 6-
hourly minimum temperature group shall be coded in the format, 2snTnTnTn,
where 2 is the group indicator, sn is the sign of the temperature, and TnTnTn is
the minimum temperature in tenths of degrees Celsius using three digits (see
paragraphs 10.4.4, 10.5.2, and 10.5.3). The sign of the minimum temperature
shall be coded as 1 if the minimum temperature is below 0°C and 0 if the
minimum temperature is 0°C or higher. For example, a minimum temperature of -
0.1°C would be coded "21001"; 1.2°C would be coded "20012".
g) 24-Hour Maximum and Minimum Temperature (4snTxTxTxsnTnTnTn). At
designated stations, the 24-hour maximum temperature and the 24-hour
minimum temperature shall be coded in the format, 4snTxTxTxsnTnTnTn, where 4
is the group indicator, sn is the sign of the temperature, TxTxTx is the maximum
24-hour temperature, and TnTnTn is the 24-hour minimum temperature (see
paragraphs 10.4.4, 10.5.2, and 10.5.3). TxTxTx and TnTnTn shall be coded in
tenths of degrees Celsius using three digits. The sign of the maximum or
minimum temperature shall be coded as 1 if it is below 0°C and 0 if it is 0°C or
12-17
higher. For example, a 24-hour maximum temperature of 10.0°C and a 24-hour
minimum temperature of -1.5°C would be coded "401001015"; a 24-hour
maximum temperature of 11.2°C and a 24-hour minimum temperature of
8.4°C would be coded as "401120084".
h) 3-Hourly Pressure Tendency (5appp). At designated stations, the 3-hourly
pressure tendency group shall be coded in the format, 5appp, where 5 is the
group indicator, a is the character of pressure change over the past 3 hours (see
Table 12-7), and ppp is the amount of barometric change in tenths of
hectopascals (see Table 12-8). The amount of barometric change shall be coded
using the tens, units, and tenths digits (see paragraphs 11.4.7 and 11.5.4). For
example, a steady increase of 3.2 hectopascals in the past three hours would be
coded "52032".
Table 12-7 Characteristics of Barometer Tendency
Primary Code
Description
Requirement Figure
Atmospheric Increasing, then decreasing. 0
pressure now Increasing, then steady, or increasing then
higher than 3 hours 1
increasing more slowly.
ago. Increasing steadily or unsteadily. 2
Decreasing or steady, then increasing; or
3
increasing then increasing more rapidly.
Atmospheric Increasing, then decreasing. 0
pressure now same Steady. 4
as 3 hours ago. Decreasing, then increasing. 5
Atmospheric Decreasing, then increasing. 5
pressure now lower Decreasing then steady; or decreasing then
than 3 hours ago. 6
decreasing more slowly.
Decreasing steadily or unsteadily. 7
Steady or increasing, then decreasing; or
8
decreasing then decreasing more rapidly.
12-18
Table 12-8. 3-Hour Pressure Change
Amount of Barometric Change (Rise or Fall) in the Past 3 Hours "ppp"
Code Inches of Code Inches of Code Inches of
Hectopascals Hectopascals Hectopascals
Figure Mercury Figure Mercury Figure Mercury
000 0.000 0.0 068 0.200 6.8 135 0.400 13.5
002 0.005 0.2 069 0.205 6.9 137 0.405 13.7
003 0.010 0.3 071 0.210 7.1 139 0.410 13.9
005 0.015 0.5 073 0.215 7.3 141 0.415 14.1
007 0.020 0.7 075 0.220 7.5 142 0.420 14.2
008 0.025 0.8 076 0.225 7.6 144 0.425 14.4
010 0.030 1.0 078 0.230 7.8 146 0.430 14.6
012 0.035 1.2 080 0.235 8.0 147 0.435 14.7
014 0.040 1.4 081 0.240 8.1 149 0.440 14.9
015 0.045 1.5 083 0.245 8.3 151 0.445 15.1
017 0.050 1.7 085 0.250 8.5 152 0.450 15.2
019 0.055 1.9 086 0.255 8.6 154 0.455 15.4
020 0.060 2.0 088 0.260 8.8 156 0.460 15.6
022 0.065 2.2 090 0.265 9.0 157 0.465 15.7
024 0.070 2.4 091 0.270 9.1 159 0.470 15.9
025 0.075 2.5 093 0.275 9.3 161 0.475 16.1
027 0.080 2.7 095 0.280 9.5 163 0.480 16.3
029 0.085 2.9 097 0.285 9.7 164 0.485 16.4
030 0.090 3.0 098 0.290 9.8 166 0.490 16.6
032 0.095 3.2 100 0.295 10.0 168 0.495 16.8
034 0.100 3.4 102 0.300 10.2 169 0.500 16.9
036 0.105 3.6 103 0.305 10.3 171 0.505 17.1
037 0.110 3.7 105 0.310 10.5 173 0.510 17.3
039 0.115 3.9 107 0.315 10.7 174 0.515 17.4
041 0.120 4.1 108 0.320 10.8 176 0.520 17.6
042 0.125 4.2 110 0.325 11.0 178 0.525 17.8
044 0.130 4.4 112 0.330 11.2 179 0.530 17.9
046 0.135 4.6 113 0.335 11.3 181 0.535 18.1
047 0.140 4.7 115 0.340 11.5 183 0.540 18.3
049 0.145 4.9 117 0.345 11.7 185 0.545 18.5
051 0.150 5.1 119 0.350 11.9 186 0.550 18.6
052 0.155 5.2 120 0.355 12.0 188 0.555 18.8
054 0.160 5.4 122 0.360 12.2 190 0.560 19.0
056 0.165 5.6 124 0.365 12.4 191 0.565 19.1
058 0.170 5.8 125 0.370 12.5 193 0.570 19.3
059 0.175 5.9 127 0.375 12.7 195 0.575 19.5
061 0.180 6.1 129 0.380 12.9 196 0.580 19.6
063 0.185 6.3 130 0.385 13.0 198 0.585 19.8
064 0.190 6.4 132 0.390 13.2 200 0.590 20.0
066 0.195 6.6 134 0.395 13.4 201 0.595 20.1
i) Ice Accretion. At designated stations (with SPECI capability freezing rain

sensor) ice accretion shall be reported in METAR and SPECI reports when
accretion is occurring or has occurred during the reporting period.
1. Hourly Ice Accretion Amount (I1nnn). At designated automated stations,
the hourly ice accretion amount shall be coded in the format I1nnn, where I is
the ice accretion group indicator, 1 indicates an hourly amount, and nnn is
the accretion amount since the last METAR. The amount shall be coded in
12-19
hundredths of an inch. For example, "I1004" would indicate 4/100 of an inch
of ice accretion in the past hour.
2. 3- and 6-Hourly Ice Accretion Amount (I3nnn and I6nnn). At designated
stations, the 3- and 6-hourly ice accretion group shall be coded in the format
I3nnn and I6nnn, respectively, where I is the group indicator, 3 and 6 indicate
3- and 6- hourly groups, respectively, and nnn is the accretion amount. The
amount of ice accretion in the past 3 hours shall be reported in the 3-hourly
report; the amount of ice accretion in the past 6 hours shall be reported in the
6-hourly report. The amount shall be coded in hundredths of an inch. For
example, I6023 would indicate 23/100 of an inch of ice accretion in the past 6
hours.
j) Sensor Status Indicators. Sensor status indicators should be reported as
indicated below:
1. if the Runway Visual Range should be reported but is missing, RVRNO shall
be coded.
2. when automated stations are equipped with a present weather identifier and
that sensor is not operating, the remark PWINO shall be coded.
3. when automated stations are equipped with a tipping bucket rain gauge and
that sensor is not operating, PNO shall be coded.
4. when automated stations are equipped with a freezing rain sensor and that
sensor is not operating, the remark FZRANO shall be coded.
5. when automated stations are equipped with a lightning detection system and
that sensor is not operating, the remark TSNO shall be coded.
6. when automated stations are equipped with a secondary visibility sensor and
that sensor is not operating, the remark VISNO_LOC shall be coded.
7. when automated stations are equipped with a secondary ceiling height
indicator and that sensor is not operating, the remark CHINO_LOC shall be
coded.
k) Maintenance Indicator. A maintenance indicator sign, $, shall be coded when
an automated system detects that maintenance is needed on the system.
12-20
12-21
APPENDIX A: GLOSSARY 1
3-hourly report: A METAR taken at 0300, 0900, 1500, or 2100 UTC.
6-hourly report: A METAR taken at 0000, 0600, 1200, or 1800 UTC.
actual time of observation: For METARs, it is the time the last element of the report is
observed or evaluated. For SPECIs, it is the time that the criteria for a SPECI was met
or noted.
additive data: A group of coded remarks that includes pressure tendency, amount of
precipitation, and maximum/minimum temperature during specified periods of time.
aircraft mishap: An inclusive term to denote the occurrence of an aircraft accident or
incident.
Airport Location Point: ALP, the permanent airport reference point defined by the
latitude and longitude published in the Airport Facility Directory.
algorithm: A set of rules implemented (usually in a computer) to process data and
generate defined outputs.
altimeter setting: That pressure value to which an aircraft altimeter scale is set so that
it will indicate the altitude above mean sea-level of an aircraft on the ground at the
location for which the value was determined:
archive: A permanent record of surface weather reports and related data used to
establish a climatological record for the United States.
atmospheric pressure: The pressure exerted by the atmosphere at a given point (see
altimeter setting, pressure, sea-level pressure, station pressure).
augmented report: A meteorological report prepared by an automated surface weather
observing system for transmission with certified observers signed on to the system to
add information to the report.
automated report: A meteorological report prepared by an automated surface weather
observing system for transmission, and with no certified weather observers signed on to
the system.
backup: An alternate method for providing a meteorological report, parts of reports or
documentation of reports when the primary method is unavailable.
barogram: An analog record of pressure produced by a barograph.
barograph: A recording barometer.
barometer: An instrument that measures atmospheric pressure.
1The terms and definitions presented in this glossary are in accordance with their usage in this Handbook.
A-1
barometric pressure: The actual pressure value indicated by a pressure sensor.
blowing: A descriptor used to amplify observed weather phenomena whenever the
phenomena are raised to a height of 6 feet or more above the ground.
blowing dust: Dust picked up locally from the surface of the earth and blown about in
clouds or sheets, reducing the reported horizontal visibility to less than 7 statute miles.
blowing sand: Sand particles picked up from the surface of the earth by the wind to
moderate heights above the ground, reducing the reported horizontal visibility to less
than 7 statute miles.
blowing snow: Snow lifted from the surface of the earth by the wind to a height of 6
feet or more above the ground and blown about in such quantities that the reported
horizontal visibility is reduced to less than 7 miles.
blowing spray: Water droplets torn by the wind from a body of water, generally from
the crests of waves, and carried up into the air in such quantities that they reduce the
reported horizontal visibility to less than 7 statute miles.
body of report: That portion of a METAR or SPECI beginning with the type of report
and ending with the altimeter setting.
broken layer: A layer covering whose summation amount of sky cover is 5/8ths
through 7/8ths.
calm: A condition when no motion of the air is detected.
candela: A unit of luminous intensity, equal to 1/60 of the luminous intensity of a square
centimeter of a black body heated to 1773.5 degrees Celsius.
ceiling: The lowest layer aloft reported as broken or overcast; or the vertical visibility
into an indefinite ceiling.
ceiling light: A type of cloud-height indicator that uses a focused light to project
vertically a narrow beam of light onto a cloud base.
ceilometer: A device used to evaluate the height of clouds or the vertical visibility into a
surface-based obscuration.
certified observer: An individual approved by designated Federal agencies to take
surface observations used in aircraft operations.
clear sky: The absence of sky cover.
cloud: A visible aggregate of minute water droplets or ice particles in the atmosphere
above the Earth's surface.
cloud-air lightning (CA) : Streaks of lightning which pass from a cloud to the air, but do
not strike the ground.
cloud-cloud lightning (CC) : Streaks of lightning reaching from one cloud to another.
A-2
cloud-ground lightning (CG): Lightning occurring between cloud and ground.
cloud height: The height of the base of a cloud or cloud layer above the surface of the
earth.
cloud layer: An array of clouds whose bases are at approximately the same level.
cloud movement: The direction toward which a cloud is moving.
cloud type: A cloud form which is identified according to the WMO International Cloud
Atlas.
contraction: A shortened form of a word, title, or phrase used for brevity.
Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) : The time in the zero degree meridian time zone.
cumulus: A principal cloud type in the form of individual, detached elements which are
generally dense and possess sharp non-fibrous outlines.
cumulonimbus: An exceptionally dense and vertically developed cloud, occurring
either isolated or as a line or wall of clouds with separated upper portions. These clouds
appear as mountains or huge towers, at least a part of the upper portions of which are
usually smooth, fibrous, or striated, and almost flattened.
designated RVR runway: A runway at civilian airports designated by the FAA for
reporting RVR.
designated stations: Weather observing stations that have the capability and have
been instructed by their responsible agency to perform a specified task that is not
required by standards to be performed at all stations.
dew point: The temperature to which a given parcel of air must be cooled at constant
pressure and constant water-vapor content in order for saturation to occur.
diamond dust: See ice crystals.
dissemination: The act of delivering a completed weather report to users.
drizzle: Fairly uniform precipitation composed exclusively of fine drops (diameter less
than 0.02 inch or 0.5 mm) very close together. Drizzle appears to float while following
air current, although unlike fog droplets, it falls to the ground.
duration of sunshine: The amount of time sunlight was detected at a given point.
dust: (see widespread dust).
duststorm: A severe weather condition characterized by strong winds and dust-filled air
over an extensive area.
element: One of the basic conditions of the atmosphere discussed in this FMH (wind,
visibility, runway visual range, weather, obscurations, sky condition, temperature and
dewpoint, and pressure). See parameter.
A-3
few: A layer whose summation amount of sky cover is 1/8th through 2/8ths.
field elevation: The elevation above sea level of the highest point on any of the
runways of the airport.
fog: A visible aggregate of minute water particles (droplets) which are based at the
Earth's surface and reduce horizontal visibility to less than 5/8 statute mile and, unlike
drizzle, it does not fall to the ground.
freezing: A descriptor, FZ, used to describe drizzle and/or rain that freezes on contact
with the ground or exposed objects, and used also to describe fog that is composed of
minute ice crystals.
freezing drizzle: Drizzle that freezes upon impact with the ground, or other exposed
objects.
freezing fog: A suspension of numerous minute ice crystals in the air, or water droplets
at temperatures below 0° Celsius, based at the Earth's surface, which reduces
horizontal visibility.
freezing precipitation: Any form of precipitation that freezes upon impact and forms a
glaze on the ground or exposed objects.
freezing rain: Rain that freezes upon impact and forms a glaze on the ground or
exposed objects.
frozen precipitation: Any form of precipitation that reaches the ground in solid form
(snow, small hail and/or snow pellets, snow grains, hail, ice pellets, and ice crystals).
funnel cloud: A violent, rotating column of air which does not touch the surface, usually
appended to a cumulonimbus cloud.
glaze: Ice formed by freezing precipitation covering the ground or exposed objects.
ground elevation: The official height of a weather station with reference to sea-level
when a field elevation has not been established. It is the height of the ground at the
base of the ceilometer.
ground fog: See shallow fog.
gust: Rapid fluctuations in wind speed with a variation of 10 knots or more between
peaks and lulls.
hail: Precipitation in the form of small balls or other pieces of ice falling separately or
frozen together in irregular lumps. Also see “small hail.”
haze: A suspension in the air of extremely small, dry particles invisible to the naked eye
and sufficiently numerous to give the air an opalescent appearance.
hectopascal: A unit of measure of atmospheric pressure equal to 100 newtons per
square meter.
A-4
horizon: The actual lower boundary of the observed sky or the upper outline of
terrestrial objects, including nearby natural obstructions. It is the distant line along which
the earth, or the water surface at sea, and the sky appear to meet.
ice crystals (diamond dust): A fall of non-branched (snow crystals are branched) ice
crystals in the form of needles, columns, or plates.
ice fog: See freezing fog.
ice pellets: Hard grains of ice consisting of frozen raindrops or largely melted and
refrozen snowflakes. Precipitation of transparent or translucent pellets of ice, which are
round or irregular, rarely conical, and which have a diameter of 0.2 inch (5 mm), or less.
in-cloud lightning (IC): Lightning which takes place within the cloud.
indefinite ceiling: The ceiling classification applied when the reported ceiling value
represents the vertical visibility upward into surface-based obscuration.
intensity qualifier: Intensity qualifiers are used to describe whether a phenomena is
light (-), moderate (no symbol used), or heavy (+).
layer: An array of clouds and/or obscurations whose bases are at approximately the
same level.
layer amount: The amount of sky covered by clouds and/or obscurations at a given
level above the Earth's surface.
layer height: The height of the bases of each reported layer of clouds and/or
obscuration; or the vertical visibility into an indefinite ceiling.
lightning: The luminous phenomenon accompanying a sudden electrical discharge
(see cloud-air lightning, cloud-cloud lightning, cloud-ground lightning and in-cloud
lightning).
liquid precipitation: Any form of precipitation that does not fall as frozen precipitation
and does not freeze upon impact.
local dissemination: The transmission or delivery of a weather report to individuals or
groups of users near the observing location.
Local Standard Time (LST): A time based on the geographic location of the station in
one of the legally established time zones of the globe.
long-line dissemination (also long-line transmission): The transmission of a
weather report by a communication media to a group of users on a regional or national
scale.
long-term retention: Retention of data for 5 years to satisfy requirements for local
studies and to support litigation.
low drifting: A descriptor, DR, used to describe snow, sand, or dust raised to a height
of less than 6 feet above the ground.
A-5
low drifting dust: Dust that is raised by the wind to less than 6 feet above the ground;
visibility is not reduced below 7 statute miles at eye level although objects below this
level may be veiled or hidden by the particles moving nearly horizontal to the ground.
low drifting sand: Sand that is raised by the wind to less than 6 feet above the ground;
visibility is not reduced below 7 statute miles at eye level although objects below this
level may be veiled or hidden by the particles moving nearly horizontal to the ground.
low drifting snow: Snow that is raised by the wind to less than 6 feet above the
ground; visibility is not reduced below 7 statute miles at eye level although objects
below this level may be veiled or hidden by the particles moving nearly horizontal to the
ground.
manual station: A station, with or without an automated surface weather observing
system, where the certified observers are totally responsible for all meteorological
reports that are transmitted.
maximum temperature: The highest temperature during a specified time period.
may: A term used to indicate that a standard is optional.
METAR/SPECI: An evaluation of select weather elements from a point or points on or
near the ground according to a set of procedures. It may include type of report, station
identifier, date and time of report, a report modifier, wind, visibility, runway visual range,
weather and obstructions to vision, sky condition, temperature and dew point, altimeter
setting, and Remarks.
METAR/SPECI code: WMO code forms (FM 15-X Ext. METAR and FM 16-X Ext.
SPECI) consisting of abbreviations, contractions, numbers, plain language, and
symbols to provide a uniform means of disseminating surface weather reports.
minimum temperature: The lowest temperature during a specified time period.
mist: A visible aggregate of minute water droplets or ice crystals suspended in the
atmosphere that reduces visibility to less than 7 statute miles but greater than or equal
to 5/8 statute mile.
non-uniform sky condition: A localized sky condition which varies from that reported
in the body of the report.
non-uniform visibility: A localized visibility which varies from that reported in the body
of the report.
obscured sky: The condition when the entire sky is hidden by surface-based
obscurations.
obscurations: Any phenomenon in the atmosphere, other than precipitation, that
reduces the horizontal visibility in the atmosphere.
observing location: The point or points from which an element is evaluated.
A-6
observing station: The point or points from which the various elements of the report
are evaluated.
overcast: A layer whose summation amount of sky cover is 8/8ths.
parameter: A subset of the group of evaluations that constitute each element of an
observation; e.g., sky condition is an element, sky cover and ceiling are parameters.
partial: A descriptor, PR, used only to report fog that covers part of the airport.
partial fog: A substantial part of the station covered by fog while the remainder is clear
of fog.
patches: A descriptor, BC, used only to report fog that occurs in patches at the airport.
patches (of) fog: Fog patches which randomly cover the station.
peak wind speed: The maximum instantaneous wind speed since the last METAR that
exceeded 25 knots.
precipitation: Any of the forms of water particles, whether liquid or solid, that fall from
the atmosphere and reach the ground.
precipitation discriminator: A sensor, or array of sensors, that differentiates between
different types of precipitation (liquid, freezing, frozen).
precipitation intensity: An indication of the rate at which precipitation is falling at the
time of observation.
precipitation rate: The amount of water, liquid or solid, that reaches the ground in a
specified period of time.
pressure: The force exerted by a column of air above the point of measurement.
pressure change: The net difference between pressure readings at the beginning and
ending of a specified interval of time.
pressure characteristic: The indication of how the pressure has been changing during
a specified period of time, usually the 3-hour period preceding an observation; e.g.,
decreasing then increasing, pressure same or lower than 3 hours ago.
pressure falling rapidly: A decrease in station pressure at a rate of 0.06 inch of
mercury or more per hour which totals 0.02 inch or more.
pressure reduction calculator: A device used to compute sea-level pressure, station
pressure, altimeter setting, pressure altitude, etc.
pressure rising rapidly: An increase in station pressure at a rate of 0.06 inch of
mercury or more per hour which totals 0.02 inch or more.
pressure tendency: The character and amount of atmospheric pressure change during
a specified period of time, usually the 3-hour period preceding an observation.
A-7
pressure unsteady: A pressure that fluctuates by 0.03 inch of mercury or more from
the mean pressure during the period of measurement.
prevailing visibility: The visibility that is considered representative of conditions at the
station; the greatest distance that can be seen throughout at least half the horizon
circle, not necessarily continuous.
rain: Precipitation, either in the form of drops larger than 0.02 inch (0.5 mm), or smaller
drops, which in contrast to drizzle, are widely separated; for automated stations,
precipitation that remains in the liquid state upon impact with the ground or other
exposed objects.
Remarks: Plain language or coded data added to the body of the METAR/SPECI to
report significant information not provided for in the body of the report.
rotor cloud: A turbulent cloud formation found in the lee of some large mountain
barriers. The air in the cloud rotates around an axis parallel to the mountain range.
Runway Visual Range (RVR): An instrumentally-derived value, based on standard
calibrations, that represents the horizontal distance a pilot may see down the runway
from the approach end.
sand: Loose particles of granular material.
sandstorm: Particles of sand carried aloft by a strong wind. The sand particles are
mostly confined to the lowest ten feet, and rarely rise more than fifty feet above the
ground.
scattered: A layer whose summation amount of sky cover is 3/8ths through 4/8ths.
scheduled time of report: The time a scheduled report is required to be available for
transmission.
sea-level pressure: The pressure value obtained by the theoretical reduction or
increase of barometric pressure to sea-level.
sector visibility: The visibility in a specified direction that represents at least a 45
degree arc of the horizon circle.
shall: A term used to indicate that a standard is mandatory.
shallow: A descriptor, MI, used only to describe fog when the visibility at 6 feet above
the ground is 5/8ths statute mile or more and the apparent visibility in the fog layer is
less than 5/8ths statute mile.
shallow fog: Fog in which the visibility at 6 feet above ground level is 5/8ths statute
mile or more and the apparent visibility in the fog layer is less than 5/8ths statute mile.
sheet ice: Ice formed by the freezing of liquid precipitation or the freezing of melted
solid precipitation (see snow depth).
A-8
short-term storage: Storage of data for 4 or more days to assist in sensor/system
maintenance and verification of sensor/system records in the event of an aircraft
mishap.
should: A term used to indicate that a standard is recommended.
shower(s): A descriptor, SH, used to qualify precipitation characterized by the
suddenness with which they start and stop, by the rapid changes of intensity, and
usually by rapid changes in the appearance of the sky.
significant clouds: Cumulonimbus, cumulonimbus mammatus, towering cumulus,
altocumulus castellanus, and standing lenticular or rotor clouds.
sky condition: The state of the sky in terms of such parameters as sky cover, layers
and associated heights, ceiling, and cloud types.
sky cover: The amount of the sky which is covered by clouds or obscurations in contact
with the surface.
small hail: Pellets of snow encased in a thin layer of ice which have formed from the
freezing, either of droplets intercepted by the pellets, or of water resulting from the
partial melting of the pellets.
smoke: A suspension in the air of small particles produced by combustion. A transition
to haze may occur when smoke particles have traveled great distances (25 to 100
statute miles or more) and when the larger particles have settled out and the remaining
particles have become widely scattered through the atmosphere.
snow: Precipitation of snow crystals, mostly branched in the form of six-pointed stars;
for automated stations, any form of frozen precipitation other than hail.
snow depth: The vertical height of frozen precipitation on the ground. For this purpose,
frozen precipitation includes ice pellets, glaze, hail, any combination of these, and sheet
ice formed directly or indirectly from precipitation.
snow grains: Precipitation of very small, white, opaque grains of ice.
snow pellets: Precipitation of white, opaque grains of ice. The grains are round or
sometimes conical. Diameters range from about 0.08 to 0.2 inch (2 to 5 mm).
spray: An ensemble of water droplets torn by the wind from an extensive body of water,
generally from the crests of waves, and carried up into the air in such quantities that it
reduces the horizontal visibility.
SPECI: A surface weather report taken to record a change in weather conditions that
meets specified criteria or is otherwise considered to be significant.
squall: A strong wind characterized by a sudden onset in which the wind speed
increases at least 16 knots and is sustained at 22 knots or more for at least one minute.
Standard Atmosphere: A hypothetical vertical distribution of the atmospheric
temperature, pressure, and density, which by international agreement is considered to
A-9
be representative of the atmosphere for pressure-altimeter calibrations and other
purposes (29.92INS or 1013hPa).
standing lenticular cloud: A, more or less, isolated cloud with sharp outlines that is
generally in the form of a smooth lens or almond. These clouds often form on the lee
side of and generally parallel to mountain ranges. Depending on their height above the
surface, they may be reported as stratocumulus standing lenticular cloud (SCSL);
altocumulus standing lenticular cloud (ACSL); or cirrocumulus standing lenticular cloud
(CCSL).
station elevation: The officially designated height above sea-level to which station
pressure pertains. It is generally the same as field elevation at an airport station.
station identifier: A four alphabetic character code group used to identify the observing
location.
Station Information File: A record that documents the site characteristics of an
observing location and the reporting program at the location.
station pressure: The atmospheric pressure at the designated station elevation.
summation layer amount: A categorization of the amount of sky cover at and below
each reported layer.
summation principle: This principle states that the sky cover at any level is equal to
the summation of the sky cover of the lowest layer plus the additional sky cover
provided at all successively higher layers up to and including the layer in question.
surface: The horizontal plane whose elevation above sea level equals the field
elevation. At stations where the field elevation has not been established, the surface
refers to the ground elevation at the observation site.
surface visibility: The prevailing visibility determined from the usual point of
observation.
synoptic surface weather observation: Surface weather observations evaluated in
accordance with WMO regulations (perhaps modified by national practices). These
observations are reported no more frequently than every 3 hours.
temperature: A measure of the hotness or coldness of the ambient air as measured by
a suitable instrument.
thunderstorm: A cumulonimbus cloud that is accompanied by lightning and thunder, or
for automated systems, a storm detected by lightning detection systems.
time of occurrence: A report of the time weather begins and ends.
tornadic activity: The occurrence or disappearance of tornados, funnel clouds, or
waterspouts.
tornado: A violent, rotating column of air touching the ground; funnel cloud that touches
the ground (see funnel cloud and waterspout).
A-10
tower visibility: The prevailing visibility determined from the airport traffic control tower
when the surface visibility is determined from another location.
towering cumulus: A descriptive term for a cloud with generally sharp outlines and with
moderate to great vertical development, characterized by its cauliflower or tower
appearance.
type of report: A code (METAR, SPECI) included in the weather report to indicate the
content of the observation, and to indicate whether certain reporting criteria have been
met.
type of station: A code figure (AO1, or AO2) for automated stations which is included
in the remarks section of the report to indicate the scope of the observation program at
the station that generated the report.
unknown precipitation: Precipitation type that is reported if the automated station
detects the occurrence of precipitation but the precipitation discriminator cannot
recognize the type.
variable ceiling: A ceiling of less than 3,000 feet which rapidly increases or decreases
in height by established criteria during the period of observation.
variable layer amounts: A condition when the reportable amount of a layer varies by
one or more reportable values during the period it is being evaluated (variable sky
condition).
variable prevailing visibility: A condition when the prevailing visibility is less than 3
statute miles and rapidly increases and decreases by 1/2 mile or more during the period
of observation.
variable wind direction: A condition when (1) the wind direction fluctuates by 60
degrees or more during the 2-minute evaluation period and the wind speed is greater
than 6 knots; or (2) the direction is variable and the wind speed is 6 knots or less.
vertical visibility: A subjective or instrumental evaluation of the vertical distance into a
surface-based obscuration that an observer would be able to see.
vicinity: A proximity qualifier, VC, used to indicate weather phenomena observed
between 5 and 10 statute miles of the usual point of observation but not at the station.
virga: Visible wisps or strands of precipitation falling from clouds that evaporate before
reaching the surface.
visibility: The greatest horizontal distance at which selected objects can be seen and
identified or its equivalent derived from instrumental measurements.
visibility reference points: Selected objects at known distances from the weather
station that are used to manually evaluate visibility.
volcanic ash: Fine particles of rock powder that originate from a volcano and that may
remain suspended in the atmosphere for long periods.
A-11
volcanic eruption: An explosion caused by the intense heating of subterranean rock
which expels lava, steam, ashes, etc., through vents in the earth's crust.
water equivalent: The liquid content of solid precipitation that has accumulated on the
ground (snow depth). The accumulation may consist of snow, ice formed by freezing
precipitation, freezing liquid precipitation, or ice formed by the refreezing of melted
snow.
waterspout: A violent, rotating column of air that forms over a body of water, and
touches the water surface; tornado or funnel cloud that touches a body of water (see
funnel cloud and tornado).
well-developed dust/sand whirl: An ensemble of particles of dust or sand, sometimes
accompanied by small litter, raised from the ground in the form of a whirling column of
varying height with a small diameter and an approximately vertical axis.
weather: A category of individual and combined atmospheric phenomena which must
be drawn upon to describe the local atmospheric conditions at the time of observation.
widespread dust: Fine particles of earth or other matter raised or suspended in the air
by the wind that may have occurred at or far away from the station.
will: A term used to indicate futurity; it is not a requirement to be applied to standards.
wind: The horizontal motion of the air past a given point.
wind character: The description of the variability of the wind speed in terms of gusts.
wind direction: The true direction from which the wind is moving at a given location.
wind gust: See "gust."
wind shift: A change in the wind direction of 45 degrees or more in less than 15
minutes with sustained wind speeds of 10 knots or more throughout the wind shift.
wind speed: The rate at which air is moving horizontally past a given point. It may be a
2-minute average speed (reported as wind speed) or an instantaneous speed (reported
as a peak wind speed or gust).
A-12
APPENDIX B: LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND
ACRONYMS 2
$ maintenance check indicator
- light intensity
+ heavy intensity
/ indicator that visual range data follows; separator between
temperature and dew point data.
ACC altocumulus castellanus
ACFT MSHP aircraft mishap
ACSL altocumulus standing lenticular cloud
ALP airport location point
AO1 automated station without precipitation discriminator
AO2 automated station with precipitation discriminator
APRNT apparent
APRX approximately
ATCT airport traffic control tower
AUTO automated report
B began
BC patches
BKN broken
BL blowing
BR mist
C center (with reference to runway designation)
CA cloud-air lightning
CB cumulonimbus cloud
CBMAM cumulonimbus mammatus cloud
CC cloud-cloud lightning
CCSL cirrocumulus standing lenticular cloud
CG cloud-ground lightning
CHI cloud-height indicator
CHINO sky condition at secondary location not available
CIG ceiling
CLR clear
CONS continuous
COR correction to a previously disseminated report
DOC Department of Commerce
DOD Department of Defense
DOT Department of Transportation
DR low drifting
DS duststorm
2The abbreviations, acronyms, contractions, and symbols included in this appendix are defined in
accordance with their usage in this Handbook.
B-1
DSNT distant
DU widespread dust
DZ drizzle
E east, ended
FAA Federal Aviation Administration
FC funnel cloud
FEW few clouds
FG fog
FIBI filed but impracticable to transmit
FIRST first observation after a break in coverage at manual station
FMH-1 Federal Meteorological Handbook No.1, Surface Weather
Observations & Reports
FMH-2 Federal Meteorological Handbook No.2, Surface Synoptic Codes
FROPA frontal passage
FRQ frequent
FT feet
FU smoke
FZ freezing
FZRANO freezing rain sensor not available
G gust
GR hail
GS snow pellets
HZ haze
IC ice crystals, in-cloud lightning
ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization
KT knots
L left (with reference to runway designation)
LAST last observation before a break in coverage at a manual station
LST Local Standard Time
LTG lightning
LWR lower
M minus, less than
METAR aviation routine weather report
MI shallow
MOV moved/moving/movement
MT mountains
N north
N/A not applicable
NCDC National Climatic Data Center
NE northeast
NOS National Ocean Service
B-2
NOSPECI no SPECI reports are taken at the station
NW northwest
NWS National Weather Service
OCNL occasional
OFCM Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorology
OVC overcast
OHD overhead
P greater than
PL ice pellets
PK WND peak wind
PNO precipitation amount not available
PO dust/sand whirls (dust devils)
PR partial
PRESFR pressure falling rapidly
PRESRR pressure rising rapidly
PWINO precipitation identifier sensor not available
PY spray
R right (with reference to runway designation)
RA rain
RVR Runway Visual Range
RVRNO RVR system not available
RWY runway
S south
SA sand
SCSL stratocumulus standing lenticular cloud
SCT scattered
SE southeast
SFC surface
SG snow grains
SH shower(s)
SKC sky clear
SLP sea-level pressure
SLPNO sea-level pressure not available
SM statute miles
SN snow
SNINCR snow increasing rapidly
SPECI an unscheduled report taken when certain criteria have been met
SQ squalls
SS sandstorm
SW southwest
TCU towering cumulus
TS thunderstorm
TSNO thunderstorm information not available
TWR tower
B-3
UP unknown precipitation
UTC Coordinated Universal Time
V variable
VA volcanic ash
VC in the vicinity
VIS visibility
VISNO visibility at secondary location not available
VRB variable
VV vertical visibility
W west
WG/SO Working Group for Surface Observations
WMO World Meteorological Organization
WND wind
WSHFT wind shift
Z zulu, i.e., Coordinated Universal Time
B-4
APPENDIX C: SENSOR STANDARDS
SENSOR STANDARDS
C.1 Runway Visual Range Standards.
Table C-1 lists the required accuracy in feet for runway visual range sensors.
Table C-1. Accuracy for Runway Visual Range
Runway Visual Range In
Accuracy
Feet
<1,300 feet ±30 feet
1,300 through 2,600 feet ±80 feet
>2,600 feet ±10%
C.2 Visibility Sensor Standards.

Table C-2 lists the accuracy for automated visibility sensors.
Table C-2. Accuracy of Automated Visibility Sensors
Visibility from Percentage of Data Within or Exceeding Given Range
Standard Visibility At least 80% No more than No more than
Sensor Within 18% Exceed 2% Exceed
0 through 1 1/4 ± 1/4 ± 1/2 ±1
1 1/2 through 13/4 + 1/4, - 1/2 + 1/2, - 3/4 ±1
2 through 2 1/2 ± 1/2 ±1 ±1
3 + 1/2, - 1 ±1 ±1
4 through 10 ± 1 RV* ± 2 RV* ± 2 RV*
*RV = Reportable value, all other values in miles.
C-1
C.3 Wind Sensor Standards.
Table C-3 lists the units of measure, the range, the accuracy, and the resolution for
pressure parameters.
Table C-3. Units of Measure, Range, Accuracy and Resolution of Wind Parameters
Units of
Parameter Range Accuracy Resolution
Measure
1° to ±5° when speed is ≥5
Direction Degrees 10°
360° knots
2 to 90 ±1 knot up to 10 knots
Speed Knots 1 knot
knots ±10% above 10 knots
C.4 Sky Condition Standards.

Table C-4 lists the range and accuracy for sky condition parameters.
Table C-4. Range and Accuracy of Sky Condition Parameters
Accuracy
Parameter Range
Amounts Heights
Sky Condition 0 - 12,000 ft. (minimum) ±1 Reportable Value ±3 Reportable Values
C.5 Temperature and Dew Point Parameter Standards.

Table C-5 lists the range, accuracy, and resolution in degrees Celsius for temperature
and dew point parameters.
Table C-5. Temperature and Dew Point Sensor Accuracy and Resolution (Co)
-62 to -50 ±1.1 0.1

Temperature -50 to +50 ±0.6 0.1
+50 to +54 ±1.1 0.1
-34 to -24 ±2.2 0.1

Dew point -24 to -01 ±1.7 0.1
-01 to +30 ±1.1 0.1
C.6 Pressure Parameter Standards.

Table C-6 lists the units of measure, the range, the accuracy, and the resolution for pressure
parameters.
C-2
Table C-6. Units of Measure, Range, Accuracy and Resolution of Pressure Parameters
Units of
Measure
Inches of
Station Pressure 4 ±0.02 0.005 inch
Mercury
Inches of
Altimeter Setting 4 ±0.02 0.01 inch
Mercury
Sea-Level Pressure Hectopascals 136 ±0.68 0.1 hectopascal
C-3
APPENDIX D: RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE TABLES
RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE TABLES
Table D-1. RVR Transmittance Conversion Table for Tasker 400 and Equivalent Systems with 250-
Foot Baseline -- Contrast Threshold 5.5 Percent
Day Night
RVR (FT)
Light Setting 5 Range Light Setting 5 Range
.0299-.1038 .0013-.0113 600
.1038-.1974 .0113-.0351 800
.1974-.2905 .0351-.0707 1000
.2905-.3746 .0707-.1134 1200
.3746-.4479 .1134-.1590 1400
.4479-.5107 .1590-.2048 1600
.5107-.5644 .2048-.2492 1800
.5644-.6104 .2492-.2913 2000
.6104-.6499 .2913-.3307 2200
.6499-.6840 .3307-.3674 2400
.6840-.7136 .3674-.4014 2600
.7136-.7395 .4014-.4328 2800
.7395-.7774 .4328-.4820 3000
.7774-.8194 .4820-.5415 3500
.8194-.8431 .5415-.5906 4000
.8431-.8584 .5906-.6317 4500
.8584-.8710 .6317-6662 5000
.8710-.8815 .6662-.6957 5500
.8815-.8905 .6957-.7209 6000
Note: When a given value of RVR is being reported, the transmittance shall be
between the two adjacent values listed in the table.
D-1
Table D-2. RVR Transmittance Conversion Table for Tasker 500 and Equivalent Systems with 250-
Foot Baseline -- Contrast Threshold 5.0 Percent
Day Night
RVR (FT)
Light Setting 5 Range Light Setting 5 Range
.0449-.0823 .0027-.0075 600*
.0823-.1264 .0075-.0159 700*
.1264-.1974 .0159-.0351 800
.1974-.2905 .0351-.0707 1000
.2905-.3746 .0707-.1134 1200
.3746-.4479 .1134-.1590 1400
.4479-.5107 .1590-.2048 1600
.5107-.5644 .2048-.2492 1800
.5644-.6104 .2492-.2913 2000
.6104-.6499 .2913-.3307 2200
.6499-.6840 .3307-.3674 2400
.6840-.7136 .3674-.4014 2600
.7136-.7395 .4014-.4328 2800
.7395-.7774 .4328-.4820 3000
.7774-.8190 .4820-.5415 3500
.8190-.8384 .5415-.5906 4000
.8384-.8541 .5906-.6317 4500
.8541-.8671 .6317-.6662 5000
.8671-.8779 .6662-.6957 5500
.8779-.8871 .6957-.7209 6000
*Nighttime readings on the recorder cannot be determined for less than 700 feet. Report, if appropriate,
M0700FT.
Note: When a given value of RVR is being reported, the transmittance shall be between the two
adjacent values listed in the table.
D-2

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U.S.

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE/ National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

OFFICE OF THE FEDERAL COORDINATOR FOR

FEDERAL METEOROLOGICAL HANDBOOK No. 1

Changes are indicated by a vertical line in the margin next to the

Review Date Comments Initials

1325 EAST-WEST HIGHWAY, SUITE 7130

FEDERAL METEOROLOGICAL HANDBOOK

SURFACE WEATHER OBSERVATIONS AND REPORTS

1.2 Applicability of Standards

1.3 Relation to Other Handbooks and Manuals

1.4 Format of This Handbook

Federal Meteorological Handbook No.1

1.5 Changes to The Handbook

1.6 Agency Procedures and Procedural Changes

Federal Meteorological Handbook No.1

1.7 Reference Library

1.8 Unforeseen Requirements

1.9 Other Questions and Suggestions Regarding FMH-1

Federal Meteorological Handbook No.1

2.3 Surface Weather Observation Program

2.4 Aviation Weather Observing Locations

2.5 Types of Reports

Federal Meteorological Handbook No.1

2.6 Observing Standards Applicable to All Stations

Federal Meteorological Handbook No.1

Federal Meteorological Handbook No.1

2.10 Delayed Reports

Federal Meteorological Handbook No.1

3.3 Certification Requirements

3.4 Quality Control

Federal Meteorological Handbook No.1

Federal Meteorological Handbook No.1

3.5 Quality Control Performed at Central Locations

3.6 Customer Feedback

Federal Meteorological Handbook No.1

4.3 Types of Records

Federal Meteorological Handbook No.1

Federal Meteorological Handbook No.1

Federal Meteorological Handbook No.1

5.3 Wind Parameters

5.4 Wind Observing Standards

Federal Meteorological Handbook No.1

5.4.6 Wind Shifts.

5.5 Wind Reporting Standards

Federal Meteorological Handbook No.1

5.6 Summary of Wind Observing and Reporting Standards

Federal Meteorological Handbook No.1

6.3 Visibility Parameters

6.4 Visibility Observing Standards.

6.5 Visibility Reporting Standards

Federal Meteorological Handbook No.1

6.6 Summary of Visibility Observing and Reporting Standards

Visibility Automated Station Manual Station

Represents 10-minutes of Visual evaluation of visibility

Federal Meteorological Handbook No.1

7.3 Runway Visual Range (RVR) Parameter

7.4 Runway Visual Range Observing Standards

7.5 Runway Visual Range Reporting Standards

Federal Meteorological Handbook No.1

7.6 Summary of Runway Visual Range Observing and Reporting

RVR Observing and Reporting Standard

Federal Meteorological Handbook No.1