electronics
Article
A Wireless Electrooculogram (EOG) Wearable Using
Conductive Fiber Electrode
Kee S. Moon 1, *, Sung Q. Lee 2, * , John S. Kang 1 , Andrew Hnat 1 and Deepa B. Karen 1
Citation: Moon, K.S.; Lee, S.Q.;
Kang, J.S.; Hnat, A.; Karen, D.B. A
Wireless Electrooculogram (EOG)
Wearable Using Conductive Fiber
Electrode. Electronics 2023, 12, 571.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
electronics12030571
Academic Editor: Enzo Pasquale
Scilingo
Received: 2 December 2022
Revised: 17 January 2023
Accepted: 18 January 2023
Published: 23 January 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Electronics 2023, 12, 571. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics12030571
1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, San Diego State University,
San Diego, CA 92182, USA
2 Future & Basic Technology Research Division, ICT Creative Research Laboratory, Electronics and
Telecommunications Research Institute, Daejeon 34129, Republic of Korea
* Correspondence: kmoon@sdsu.edu (K.S.M.); hermann@etri.re.kr (S.Q.L.)
Abstract: Electrooculography (EOG) is a technique for detecting electrical signals from the extra-
ocular muscles. The EOG is a precise method for quantifying eye movements, including drowsiness-
induced eye closure, and is also a promising technology for its potential use as a contributing
mechanism for brain–computer interface applications. Despite the fact that EOG signals change as
humans move their eyes, it is still difficult to monitor eye movement patterns in natural behaviors,
such as everyday activity. Wearable convenience is essential for obtaining EOG signals while moving
freely. This paper proposes the development and use of semi-dry electrodes with low impedance and
excellent wearability, as well as a small, portable device with wireless communication capabilities,
to increase the likelihood of use in real-life scenarios. The semi-dry electrode produced by the
electrospinning technique had an impedance that was 3.5 times lower than that of the existing dry
electrode and demonstrated low impedance drift even after long-term use. Furthermore, three steps
of eye motion separation were performed using a signal obtained from the wearable device. It was
confirmed that the classification of eye movements was at a meaningful level.
Keywords: biopotential electrode; electrooculography; everyday activity
1. Introduction
It has been noted that very little eye movement research over the last century has fo-
cused on everyday activities. For example, studies of eye movement during sleepy driving
can help to prevent car accidents [1]. Electrooculography (EOG) is one of many methods
used to evaluate a person’s level of alertness. Eye movement signals help in determining
whether a person is sleeping or awake [2,3] However, the real-time characterization of eye
movements in natural tasks is still a work in progress. The recent advancement in mobile
wireless sensor technology can enable eye tracking in everyday tasks [4].
Wearable convenience is essential for obtaining EOG signals while moving freely.
First of all, a low impedance electrode with high signal stability and easy attachment and
detachment is an important factor in such convenience. Second, it is necessary to design a
sufficiently small and compact device that is comfortable to wear in everyday life.
The voltage can be measured by placing an electrode with a low electric potential
between the corneas and retinas of the eyes. EOG is a technique for measuring the retina’s
action potential. The voltage difference measured between the retina and cornea of the
eye is negligible—the resting eye potentials range from 15 V to 50 V. When there is a
slight eye movement, the voltage difference can be increased to the micro-volt range [5].
One disadvantage of the EOG system is the placement of the electrodes around the eyes,
which can cause discomfort for users. People’s EOG signal patterns differ in shape due to
individual physiological properties and different ways to move the eyes, as well as skin
conductance [6].
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/electronics
Electronics 2023, 12, 571 2 of 14

The goal of this research is to develop a real-time wearable EOG interface using a
novel conductive polymer fiber core electrode fabricated through an electrospinning. One
of the most commonly used biopotential electrodes in EOG testing is a wet electrode with
adhesive gel embedded in it to improve conductivity between the electrode and the skin.
However, because of this gel, applying adhesive-type electrodes to the skin is extremely
inconvenient, especially for wearable applications. Dry electrodes with no gel are also
available; however, they have limitations in terms of EOG sensitivity. As a result, the
purpose of this study was to put prototype semi-dry electrodes to the test. In this paper, we
present a semi-dry polymer fiber core electrode with an electrolyte gel impregnated inside
the micro-fiber core. The gel-impregnated fiber core is critical in increasing the amount of
ion exchange for biopotential signal transduction due to the fiber core’s high surface area
with a small amount of gel.
In the eye tracking moment, there are two candidates for a sufficiently small compact
device at a level that is convenient to wear in daily life. The first is the optical method and
the second is the EOG method. Several methods for optically tracking eye movements
have been studied and are now widely used in research and commercial applications.
These techniques are video-oculography (VOG), video-based infrared (IR), pupil–corneal
reflection (PCR), and electrooculography [7]. The term video-oculography refers to the
use of a camera-based eye-tracker [8]. A video tracking system requires an unobstructed
view of the eye. The reflection of eyeglasses, changing lighting conditions, droopy eyelids,
or heavy makeup can all have an impact on tracking quality [8]. An EOG is a technique
that detects eye movements by measuring the voltage between two electrodes. An elec-
trooculogram is a system that uses electrodes to measure the potential resting difference
between the cornea and retina. However, the potential is extremely small [9]. The vertical
and horizontal EOG components are recorded using biopotential electrodes. Vertical eye
movement is recorded using EOG up and EOG down, while horizontal eye movement
is recorded using EOG right and EOG left. Silver–silver chloride electrodes are the most
commonly used electrodes for recording eye movements. A difference in electric poten-
tial can result in a difference in dipole positioning, which can be measured to track eye
movements [5]. Appendix A Table A1 of the supplement summarizes a brief comparison of
the two methods, suggesting An EOG with a semi-dry electrode has a significant advantage
over other schemes.
When compared to a video-based eye-tracking system, the EOG system has some
advantages. One of them is that it does not require multifaceted video or image processing,
and the signal processing is computationally light. Another advantage of the EOG system
is that changing the lighting condition only has a minor effect on EOG signals. It can also be
measured with the eyes closed or in complete darkness. Because of these factors, the EOG
is a well-known measurement method for recording eye movements. Using eye-tracking
solutions is also important in cognitive studies, medicine, and psychology. This growing
interest in the use of eye-tracking devices, in turn, drives additional advances for new
results [10].
In Section 2, the paper describes the electrode design and manufacturing process
of a semi-dry electrode with low impedance, high signal stability, and easy attachment
and detachment. Section 3 provides an overview of the EOG wearable system, which
is a sufficiently small compact device that is comfortable to wear in daily life. Section 4
describes the experimental results and analysis method for monitoring EOG signals. Finally,
in the Conclusion Section, we summarize the findings of the study.

2. Electrospun Conductive Biopotential Electrode with Porous Fiber

2.1. Overview of Conductive Biopotential Electrodes
Most currently available electrodes use metallic material in conjunction with an elec-
trolyte gel to drive ion exchange via redox reactions. The majority of biopotential electrodes
on the market today are either wet or dry. They either use an adhesive or electrolyte gel, or
they rely solely on the geometry of the electrode to make contact with the skin, with no gel
Electronics 2023, 12, 571 3 of 14

or adhesive. Wet electrodes are heavily reliant on skin abrasion and preparation. Due to
their geometry, which incorporates spikes, needles, or bristles to push past the SC layer into
the more conductive skin regions, dry electrodes are frequently uncomfortable [11]. The gel
used with the wet electrodes aids in lowering the resistance of the skin interface. The main
difference in skin interface between typical wet, semi-dry, and dry electrodes is that they
either use electrolyte gel or a spiked geometry to create a more conductive skin contact
medium [11–15]. However, in this study, conductive polymer materials were investigated
and tested as an alternative to performing this ion exchange and transfer.
Carbon graphitization occurs when the material’s atoms form a distinct honeycomb
lattice structure. Graphene, a single atomic layer of graphite, is a layer of carbon aromatic
ring chains [16]. The honeycomb lattice structure of graphene provides excellent struc-
tural properties (approximately 200 times stronger than steel), but more importantly in
this case, the nature of the carbon bonds in this specialized structure is what gives the
plastic its electrically conductive properties [17]. The conductive graphene polymer, in
conjunction with the electrolytic gel, could perform a similar function in ion transfer and
exchange, which is typically performed by the previously described redox reactions of
the silver–silver chloride electrodes. The combination of the conductive nature of the
graphene-infused polymer and the highly conductive electrolyte gel could be an excellent
substitute for conventional electrode materials. The EOG prototype electrode was made by
electrospinning a conductive polymer fiber core. Electro-spinning is a technique used to
create micro- or nanofiber materials. Because of their high surface area-to-volume ratio,
micro- or nanofibers are desirable materials for many applications [18]. These ratios are
made possible by manufacturing fibers ranging in size from micron to nanoscale. Further-
more, the large surface area made possible by the small diameter fibers is beneficial in
many processes. Electrospinning is the process of extruding a polymer solution or melted
polymer in the presence of a strong electric field. The extruding nozzle of the polymer
solution or melt is connected to a positive high-voltage connection from a high-voltage
power supply in both cases. When high voltage is applied to the setup, the polymer is
extruded at a specific rate, and the electrospinning process begins [19].

2.2. Fabricating Process of Semi-Dry Electrode with Porous Fiber

In this study, the electrode was produced by electrospinning to create a highly porous
fiber ‘ball’ with a large surface area for ion exchange to occur. The concept behind this elec-
trode is to replace the traditional silver–silver chloride sensor core and its redox reactions
with a conductive graphene-based polylactic acid (PLA) polymer. As previously stated, the
open carbon pi (π) bonds in the graphene sheet that form electron clouds could serve as a
substitute for conducting electron transfer for biopotential signal transduction across the
skin–electrode interface.
Figure 1 shows the melt electrospinning system setup with a high-voltage power
supply and heating element coil used for conductive fiber fabrication [20]. The polymer
solution or melt extruding nozzle is attached to a positive high-voltage connection from a
high-voltage power supply. A collector basket connects the ground to an aluminum base.
When high voltage is applied to the setup, the electrospinning process begins, and the
polymer is extruded at a specific rate. A 12-volt lithium–iron–phosphate battery was used
to power the heating element, which was wired to the structure’s positive and negative
terminals. This setup made use of an Acopian P030HA2 power supply, which is voltage-
adjustable and has a maximum output of 10 kV. An alligator clamp was used to secure
the high-voltage positive lead to the nozzle of the electrospinning setup. Another alligator
clip was used to connect the negative lead to the aluminum foil collector plate sheet. The
nozzle-collector distance was set at 150 mm to allow the polymer fiber to perform the
electrospinning whipping motion without colliding with the negative plate and short-
circuiting. The temperature at which the polymer melt was extruded was 230 ◦ C, as
measured and confirmed by an infrared laser thermometer. A higher nozzle temperature
was found to help reduce the viscosity of the polymer melt and create more pressure within
 nomenon, in which the whipping motion appeared to pull and draw down the molten
polymer fiber into a noticeably smaller diameter. This success in fiber production
prompted more tinkering with some of the parameters, most notably the applied voltage,
in order to optimize the fiber size. The final resulting input voltage used to induce the
electric field for electrospinning of the conductive polymer fiber was 3.2 kV, as measured
Electronics 2023, 12, 571 with an industrial multimeter. 4 of 14
In this study, we created and tested an experimental electrode that is a hybrid, semi-
dry design that falls somewhere between the two main types of dry and wet electrodes
currently
the nozzle, used in healthcare.
causing the molten The impedance
plastic should
to jet out of thebenozzle
reduced at asignificantly
much fasterby increas-
rate at the
ing thecone.
Taylor surfaceAscontact area was
the plastic by filling in theinto
extruded microfibers.
the electricThe dryatelectrode,
field on the other
a lower viscosity but
hand, reliespressure,
at a higher solely onsmaller
the spikes to of
pieces make contactfiber
extruded with the skin. Figure
experienced 2 shows motion
the whipping a SEM
image of a successful
phenomenon, in whichelectrospun
the whipping fiber formation.
motion appearedThistostudy made
pull and use down
draw of a tabletop Hi-
the molten
tachi TM3000
polymer SEM.
fiber into It depicts four
a noticeably different
smaller SEMThis
diameter. captures
successof in
thefiber
fiberproduction
network on the sec-
prompted
ond
moreprototype
tinkering electrode’s
with some fiber
of thecore at magnifications
parameters, most notablyof 60×,
the120×, 200×,
applied and 400×.
voltage, The
in order
figure showsthe
to optimize thatfiber
the size.
electrospinning process produced
The final resulting human
input voltage usedhair-like conductive
to induce pol-
the electric
field for
ymer electrospinning of the conductive polymer fiber was 3.2 kV, as measured with an
fibers.
industrial multimeter.

Figure 1. Melt
1.Melt electrospinning
electrospinning system
system setup
setup with with a high-voltage
a high-voltage power power
supply supply and element
and heating heating
coil.
element coil.

In this study, we created and tested an experimental electrode that is a hybrid, semi-
dry design that falls somewhere between the two main types of dry and wet electrodes
currently used in healthcare. The impedance should be reduced significantly by increasing
the surface contact area by filling in the microfibers. The dry electrode, on the other hand,
relies solely on the spikes to make contact with the skin. Figure 2 shows a SEM image of a
successful electrospun fiber formation. This study made use of a tabletop Hitachi TM3000
SEM. It depicts four different SEM captures of the fiber network on the second prototype
electrode’s fiber core at magnifications of 60×, 120×, 200×, and 400×. The figure shows
that the electrospinning process produced human hair-like conductive polymer fibers.

2.3. Impedance Analysis of Semi-Dry Electrode

At the forefront of modern technology is research on flexible electrodes with low skin
contact resistance, with graphene being a prime example. Their skin contact resistance is
reported to be between 500kohm@100Hz and 68kHz@10Hz, and they are aiming for low
skin contact resistance [21]. Table 1 compares the electrodes developed in this study to
commercial products to assess impedance, a key performance of electrodes. An impedance
analysis showed that, on average, the fiber core electrode had the same or lower impedance
as industry-standard ECG electrodes. Lower impedance and equivalent circuit values
indicate clearer signal transduction between the skin–electrode interface, resulting in more
explicit EOG recordings. In Table 1, all of the measurements were taken five times to
obtain an average, and the standard deviation of the measured impedance in each case was
between 5% and 10% of the average value. When compared to the 3M adhesive electrode,
 Electronics 2023, 12, 571 5 of 14

the data set from the semi-dry fiber-PLA showed a 50% improvement using 1.0 mL of
gel at both 50 Hz and 250 Hz. Furthermore, the data set from the semi-dry fiber-PLA at
50 Hz showed a 70% improvement using 1.0 mL of gel compared to the semi-dry fiber-PLA
electrode with 0.1 mL of gel. The results also demonstrate how important the gel is for
the successful operation of the second prototype semi-wet fiber core electrode. The gel
is essential for filling voids within the fiber core and allowing ion exchange between the
skin, gel, and polymer for a good connection and signal read-out. The tests also show that
the prototype electrospun fiber core electrode requires a small amount of electrolyte gel to
saturate the entire fiber core of the electrode for clearer signal transduction. Only the skin
end of the electrode core could be impregnated with less gel. The increased surface area of
the electrospun fiber core combined with the conductive electrolytic gel was found to have
ronics 2023, 12, 571
a high sensitivity in transducing biopotential signals. A series of trials were performed to
analyze the impedance of each electrode over a range of frequencies using an Agilent 4294a
impedance analyzer (40–110 MHz, Agilent, Santa Clara, CA, USA).

Figure 2. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of the porous electrospun fiber network at
Figure 2. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of the porous el
various magnifications. (a) 60×, (b) 120×, (c) 200×, and (d) 400×.
various magnifications. (a) 60×, (b) 120×, (c) 200×, and (d) 400×.
Table 1. The impedance comparison of manufactured samples with other commercials.

Specification (CASE) 2.3. Impedance

Impedance *
(50 Hz, kΩ)
Analysis of Semi-Dry
Impedance *
(250 Hz, kΩ)
Value Electrode Comments

A: wet adhesive-AgCl
B: dry spiked-AgCl
74.218
108.453
At the forefront
47.895
87.053
of modern Wet
Dry
technology is research on flexible
Commercially available (3M)
Commercially available (OPENBCI)
C: semi-dry fiber-PLA contact
121.274 resistance,
77.552 with graphene Semi-dry:
0.1 mL of gel
being a prime example. Their
Proposed

D: semi-dry fiber-PLA reported

36.882 to be23.638
between 500kohm@100HzSemi-dry:
1.0 mL of gel
andProposed
68kHz@10Hz, and
(ref) ACS Appl. Nano Mater. 2022, 5,
E: dry Graphene on Polymer skin~500 contact resistance - [21]. 60Table
Flexible, 1 compares
times reuse the electrodes de
8, 10137–10150 [21]
commercial
* Average products to assess impedance, a key performance o
of 5 measurements.

ance analysis
A 15-min showed
impedance drift testthat,
was also onincluded
average, the the
to measure fiber core char-
impedance electrode
impedance
acteristics as industry-standard
of the electrodes [22]. Table 2 compares ECG electrodes.
the impedance Lower
drift, which impedan
can be a
problem in everyday life: sensitivity changes as impedance increases, and the proposed
values indicate clearer signal transduction between the skin–elec
in more explicit EOG recordings. In Table 1, all of the measureme
to obtain an average, and the standard deviation of the measured
 lem in everyday life: sensitivity changes as impedance increases, and the pr
trode showed a relatively small drift. Table 2 and Figure 3 show that the i
most electrodes remained relatively stable and varied by less than one-tent
Electronics 2023, 12, 571 6 of 14
promising results of the in-lab developed electrodes have demonstrated a stro
for a new design of biopotential sensors to be investigated for designing an E
interface without the use
electrode showed of conventional
a relatively small drift. Tablesticky electrodes.
2 and Figure 3 show that the impedance of
most electrodes remained relatively stable and varied by less than one-tenth of kΩ. The
promising results of the in-lab developed electrodes have demonstrated a strong potential
Table 2. Thefor
impedance
a new design drifts of thesensors
of biopotential test samples (15-min
to be investigated measurements
for designing at 50 kHz).
an EOG wearable
interface without the use of conventional sticky electrodes.
Specification
Table 2.(CASE) Mean
The impedance drifts of the (kΩ) Standard
test samples (15-min Deviation
measurements (kΩ)
at 50 kHz). Total C
A: wet adhesive-AgCl
Specification (CASE)
0.321
Mean (kΩ)
0.187 Total Change (kΩ)
Standard Deviation (kΩ)
0
B: dry spiked-AgCl
A: wet adhesive-AgCl 1.944
0.321 0.187 0.053 0.005 0
D: semi-dry fiber-PLA
B: dry spiked-AgCl 0.254
1.944 0.053 0.001 0.177 0
D: semi-dry fiber-PLA 0.254 0.001 0.002

3. The impedance drifts of the test samples (15-min measurements at 50 kHz).

Figure 3. TheFigure
impedance drifts of the test samples (15-min measurements at 50 kHz)
3. EOG Experimental Setup and Results
3.1. Wireless EOG Device for Wearable Applications
3. EOG Experimental Setup and Results
It is critical to configure a sufficiently small compact device that is comfortable to wear
3.1. Wirelessin daily life. Figure 4 shows a wireless wearable EOG sensor that can remotely monitor and
EOG Device for Wearable Applications
record the EOG biopotential signals of the eye movements onto their computing system for
It is critical to configure
further visualization a sufficiently
and analysis. small
The wearable sensor compact
system device
includes sensor that is co
electrodes,
a data acquisition and signal-processing circuit, and a wireless data transmission chip. The
wear in daily life. Figure
transmitted signals are4 shows a real
analyzed in wireless
time by anwearable EOGsystem.
external computer sensor that can re
As shown in Figure 4, EOG detection is accomplished
itor and record the EOG biopotential signals of the eye movements by placing a pair of semi-dry
onto the
electrodes mounted on a small headphone on the sides of the eyes (c). In the wearable, the
system for further visualization
electrodes convert eye movementsand analysis.
into Thesignals.
analog electrical wearable sensor
Furthermore, system inc
the system
can wirelessly transmit signals up to 10 m to a remote processing network, promoting
electrodes, potential
a data assistive
acquisition and signal-processing circuit, and a wireless d
driving applications. It also allows for automatic interpretation in
sion chip. The transmitted
drowsiness diagnostics. signals are analyzed in real time by an external co
The digital electrophysiology interface chips from Intan Technologies, LLC (Los Angeles,
tem. CA, USA) are used for the signal acquisition module. The RHD2216 chip, a low-power
16-channel differential amplifier integrated with a 16-bit analog-to-digital converter (ADC),
was used to record the EOG. Because of its low power consumption and flexibility, we chose
 Electronics 2023, 12, 571 7 of 14

the Nordic Semiconductor nRF52832 System-on-Chip (SoC) for computing and wireless
data transmission on the module. It is based on an ARM cortex-M4 processor with a 64
MHz clock and single-cycle multiply and accumulate (MAC) instructions. Furthermore,
the processor’s single-precision floating-point unit (FPU) is suitable for real-time analysis
of the incoming neural signals. We designed the device to call the interrupt service routine
(ISR) at 4096 Hz from a crystal oscillator at 32,768 Hz, resulting in a sampling frequency of
4.096 kHz. The wearable interface communicates wirelessly with a local external computer
71 7
via BLE technology, where the signal data is processed and classified in real-time using a
custom executable C program. Table 3 contains detailed descriptions of the wireless EOG
device components, as well as their specifications.

Figure 4. OverallFigure
system block
4. Overall diagram
system of theofwireless
block diagram the wirelessEOG device.
EOG device.

Table 3. The specifications of the wireless wearable EOG interface.

As shown in Figure 4, EOGDescription
Specification
detection is accomplished byValue placing a pair of semi
electrodes mounted
EOG sensor circuit size on a small headphone
PCB & battery on the sides of the (30 ×eyes (c).
10 × 3) mmIn the wearable
electrodes convert eye movements into analog electrical signals. Furthermore, the sy
Power source Rechargeable battery 8 h/charging
Data transmission Bluetooth wireless 1M bps in 2 m
canEOGwirelessly
electrodes transmit signals up tomicro-fiber
Reusable semi-dry 10 m to core a remote processing
5 mm diameternetwork, promo
Front-end circuit Intan Tech Chip 10 mV, 16 bit, 1 ch
potential
Onboard CPU
assistive driving applications. ARM Cortex M4
It also allows4096 for automatic interpretatio
Hz/ch sampling rate
drowsiness
Wireless circuitdiagnostics. NRF 52X 2.4 G ESB RF

The digital electrophysiology interface chips from Intan Technologies, LLC (Los
In this study, we performed a feasibility experiment with a standard commercial wired
geles, CA, USA) are used for the signal acquisition module. The RHD2216 chip, a
five-electrode and wearable setup for comparison (Figure 5). The experiment was carried
power 16-channel out in differential amplifier
a lab setting using commercialintegrated
instrumentationwith a step.
in this 16-bit analog-to-digital
To obtain accurate
verter (ADC), was standard
usedEOGto signals,
recorda subject
thewasEOG.seated in front of of
Because a computer
its lowscreenpowerat a distance of
consumption
60 cm and was not allowed to move the upper body or head during the experiment.
flexibility, we chose the Nordic Semiconductor nRF52832 System-on-Chip (SoC) for c
puting and wireless data transmission on the module. It is based on an ARM cortex
processor with a 64 MHz clock and single-cycle multiply and accumulate (MAC) ins
tions. Furthermore, the processor’s single-precision floating-point unit (FPU) is sui
for real-time analysis of the incoming neural signals. We designed the device to cal
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using
using
recorded aausing
commercial
commercial
a commercial
aUSA) INTAN
INTAN
commercial INTAN 512
512
INTAN512channels
channels
channels
512 recording
recording
recording
channels controller
controller
controller
recording (Intan
(Intan
(Intan
controller Tech-
Tech-
Tech-
(Intan
nologies,
nologies, Los
Los Angeles,
Angeles, CA,
CA, USA) inin the
the standard
standard recording,
recording, and
and wewe used
used a wireless
aaawireless EOG
EOG
nologies,
nologies,
nologies, Los
Los
Technologies, Angeles,
Angeles,
Los Angeles,
Los CA,
CA,
Angeles,CA, USA)
USA)
USA)
CA, in
in the
the
in
USA) standard
standard
the
in standard
the recording,
recording,
recording,
standard and
and
and
recording, we
wewe used
used
and used
we wireless
wireless
a wireless
used a EOG
EOG EOG
wireless
devicedeveloped
device developedininthis thisstudy
studyininthethewearable
wearablerecording.
recording.TableTable44describes
describesthe thetwotwotypes
types
device
device
device developed
developed
developed in
in this
inthis study
study
this in
studyin the
inthethewearable
wearable
wearable recording.
recording.
recording. Table
Table
Table 4
4 describes
describes
4 describes the
thethetwo
two
two types
types
types
ofofEOGEOGdevice
EOG
developed
patterns.
patterns. TheEOG
The
in this
EOG studyin
patterns
patterns in
in the
the
the “wearable”
wearable recording.
“wearable” columnshow
column
Table that
show 4 describes
that theproposed
the
the two
proposed
of EOG
oftypes
EOG
of EOG ofpatterns.
patterns.
patterns.
EOG The
The
The
patterns. EOG
EOGEOG
The patterns
patterns
patterns
EOG in
patterns the
ininthethe
in “wearable”
“wearable”
“wearable”
the “wearable”column
column
column
column show
show
show
show that
that
thatthe
thatthetheproposed
proposed
proposed
proposed
wearableEOG
wearable EOGinterface
interfaceprovides
providesan anEOG EOGsignalsignalquality
qualitycomparable
comparabletotothe thestandard
standardwired wired
wearable
wearable
wearable
wearable EOG
EOGEOG
EOG interface
interface
interface
interface provides
provides
provides
provides an
an EOG
an
an EOGEOG
EOG signal
signal
signal
signal quality
quality comparable
comparable
quality
quality comparable
comparable to the
totothe
to standard
the
the standard
standard
standard wired
wired
wired
wired
EOG
EOG method.
method.
EOG
EOGEOG
EOG method.
method.
method.
method.
Table
Table
Table 4.4.4.The
Theverification
verification experimental
experimentalresults.
results.
Table
Table 4.The
4.
Table The
The
4. verification
verification
verification
The experimental
experimental
experimental
verification results.
results.
results.
experimental results.
Eye
Eye
Eye Motion Pattern
MotionPattern
Motion Pattern Wearable
Wearable *****
Wearable Standard **
Standard**
Standard **
Eye
Eye
EyeMotion
Motion
MotionPattern
Pattern
Pattern Wearable
Wearable
Wearable * Standard
Standard **
Standard****

Blinks
Blinks
Blinks
Blinks
Blinks
Blinks

Horizontals
Horizontals
Horizontals
Horizontals
Horizontals
Horizontals

****Wearable:
Wearable:
*Wearable:
*Wearable:
Wearable:
Wearable:
theEOG
the
the
the
EOGraw
EOG
EOG
thethe
EOG
EOG
raw
raw
raw
rawraw
signals
signals
signals
signals
signals from
signals
from
fromthe
from
from
from
theEOG
the
EOG
the
EOG
EOG
thetheEOG
EOG
system
system
system
system
system
system
with
with with
the
with
with
theelectrospun
the
the
with
electrospun
electrospun
electrospun
thethe
electrospun
electrospun
electrodes.
electrodes.
electrodes.
electrodes.
electrodes. **** the
**
electrodes.
Standard:
**Standard:
** Standard: EOG raw
Standard:
Standard:
** Standard:
thethe EOG
signals
EOG raw
from
raw signals
of the
signals from
INTAN
from of the
recorder.
of the INTAN
INTAN recorder.
recorder.
the EOG
thetheEOG raw
raw signals
signals from
from of
of the
the INTAN
INTAN
EOG raw signals from of the INTAN recorder. recorder.
recorder.

3.2.
3.2.3.2.Single
Single
Single Eye
EyeEye Movements
Movements
Movements Discrimination
Discrimination
Discrimination
3.2.
3.2. Single
Single
3.2. SingleEye
EyeEyeMovements
Movements
Movements Discrimination
Discrimination
Discrimination
The
The EOG
EOG experimental
experimental study
study todetect
detect typical eye movements isdescribed
described inthis
this
The
The
The EOG
EOG
TheEOG experimental
experimental
EOGexperimental
experimental study
study
study
study toto
to
to to
detect
detect
detect
detect
typical
typical
typical
typical
typicaleye
eye
eyeeye
eye
movements
movements
movements
movements
movements isisis
is described
described
described
is described ininin
in this
this
this
in this
section.
section.
section. All
AllAll of
ofof the
the experiments
experiments
experiments were
were
were carried
carried
carried out
outout with
with
with the the
the subject
subject
subject sitting.
sitting.
sitting. The The
Thestudy study
study col-
collected
col-
section.
section.
section.All
All of
Allofofthe
thetheexperiments
experiments
experiments were
were
were carried
carried
carried out
outoutwith
with
with the
the subject
thesubject
subject sitting.
sitting.
sitting. The
The The study
study
study col-
col-
col-
lected a experimental
a set aof setofofexperimental
experimentalsensorsensor sensorsignals
signals signals
from fromaahealthy
a healthy healthyindividual
individual who isofalso oneofof
lected
lected
lected
lectedaaset
set
set
a setof
ofofexperimental
experimental
experimental sensor
sensor
sensor signals
signals
signals from
from
from from aa individual
healthy
healthy
a healthy
who is also
individual
individual
individual who
who
who
one
who isisalso
is theone
also
also
is also
authors.
one
oneone of
ofof
the
theThe authors.
two types
authors. The
The two
oftwoEOG types
patterns
types ofofEOGEOG
producedpatterns
patterns aproduced
by produced
single channel byaasingle
by singlesystem
EOG channel
channel with EOG
EOG system
electrospun
system
the
the authors.
theauthors.
authors. The
TheThe two
twotwo types
types
types of
ofof EOG
EOGEOG patterns
patterns
patterns produced
produced
produced by
bybyaa single
asingle
single channel
channel
channel EOG
EOGEOG system
system
system
withelectrodes
with electrospunwere
electrospun attached
electrodes
electrodes to a
were
were commercial
attached
attached toheadset.
to a commercial headset.
with
with
withelectrospun
electrospun
electrospun electrodes
electrodes
electrodes were
werewere attached
attached
attached toato
to aacommercial
commercial
commercial
a commercial headset.
headset.
headset.
headset.
The
The
The purpose
purpose
purpose ofofofthis
this study
study isistoto show
show the
the feasibility
feasibility ofofusing
using anew
aaaanew new approach
approach ofofusing
using
The
TheThepurpose
purpose
purpose ofthis
of this
this
of study
thisstudy
study
study isisto
is toshow
to
is show
toshow
show the
the
the feasibility
thefeasibility
feasibility
feasibility ofofusing
of using
using
of using new
new
a new approach
approach
approach
approach ofofusing
of using
using
of using
semi-dry
semi-dry
semi-dry conductive
conductive
conductive fiber
fiber
fiber core core
core electrodes
electrodes
electrodes toto to generate
generate
generate a a visual
visual
aaavisual EOG
EOG EOG pattern
pattern
pattern with
with
with a a wire-
wire-
aaawire-
semi-dry
semi-dry
semi-dry conductive
conductive
conductive fiber
fiber
fibercore
core
core electrodes
electrodes
electrodes to
toto generate
generate
generate visual
visual
a visual EOG
EOG EOG pattern
pattern
pattern with
with
with wire-
wire-
a wire-
freefree
free wearable
wearable
wearable interface.
interface.
interface. The
The The following
following
following three
three
three common
common common eye
eyemovements
eye movements
movements werewere
were usedused
used inin anin ex-an
free
free wearable
wearable
free wearable interface.
interface.
interface. The
TheThe following
following
following three
three
three common
common
common eye
eyeeyemovements
movements
movements were
were
were used
usedused inan
in an
in ex-
ananex-
ex-ex-
experimental
perimentalstudy
perimental study
studytotodetect to detect
detecteye eye
eyemovements: movements:
movements:“rest”, “rest”,
“rest”,“horizontal,” “horizontal,”
“horizontal,”and and
and“blink.” “blink”.
“blink.”For Forthe theEOGFor
EOG the
perimental
perimental
perimental study
study to
study toto detect
detect
detect eye
eye movements:
movements: “rest”,
“rest”, “horizontal,”
“horizontal,” and
and “blink.”
“blink.” For
For the
the EOG
EOG
EOG
experiment, experiment,
experiment, onlytwo
only two only twoeye
electrodes
electrodes
movements:
electrodes
wereplaced
were were
placed
“rest”,
placed
around
around
“horizontal,”
around
the
the the and
eyeregion.
eye region. eye “blink.”
region.
Figures
Figures 6–8
For the EOG
6–8Figures
showthe
show 6–8
the
experiment,
experiment,
experiment, only
onlyonly two
twotwo electrodes
electrodes
electrodes were
werewere placed
placed
placed around
around
around the
the theeye
eyeeyeregion.
region.
region. Figures
Figures
Figures 6–8
6–86–8show
show show the
thethe
show the time and amplitude characteristics of typical EOG signals obtained from blinking,
resting, and left–right movement at the side of the eye. Figure 6 depicts the detection of
the peaks of each absolute peak of the EOG signals. Figure 7 also shows that there is clear
 time and amplitude characteristics of typical EOG signals obtained from blinking,
timeleft–right
and and amplitude characteristics
movement at the sideofoftypical
the eye.EOG signals
Figure obtained
6 depicts the from blinking,
detection of th
Electronics 2023, 12, 571 and left–right movement at the side of the eye. Figure 6 depicts the
of each absolute peak of the EOG signals. Figure 7 also shows that there is clear detection
9 of 14 of th
ev
of decreased intervals between each peak of the EOG signals at the measuring ev
of each absolute peak of the EOG signals. Figure 7 also shows that there is clear lo
of decreased
Figure 8 shows intervals
that thebetween
interval each peakinofhorizontal
increases the EOG signals at the measuring lo
movement.
evidence8 of
Figure decreased
shows thatintervals between
the interval each peak
increases inof the EOG signals
horizontal at the measuring
movement.
location. Figure 8 shows that the interval increases in horizontal movement.

Figure 6. The EOG pattern of “blink” eye movement from one channel EOG system with
trospun The
TheEOGEOGpattern
Figure 6.6.electrodes
Figure of “blink”
pattern
assembledof on a eye
“blink” movement
eye movement
headset. from
(y-axis one achannel
from
unit: EOG system
one channel
normalized EOG
value with the with
ofsystem
millivolt).
electrospun
trospun electrodes assembled
electrodes assembled onon
a headset. (y-axis
a headset. unit: aunit:
(y-axis normalized value of millivolt).
a normalized value of millivolt).

Figure 7.7.The
Figure TheEOG
EOGpattern of “rest”
pattern eye movement
of “rest” from one from
eye movement channel EOG
one system EOG
channel with the electro-with the
system
spun
Figureelectrodes
7. The assembled
EOG on
pattern a headset.
of “rest”(y-axis
eye unit: a
movementnormalized
from value
one of millivolt).
channel EOG
spun electrodes assembled on a headset. (y-axis unit: a normalized value of millivolt). system with the
spun electrodes assembled on a headset. (y-axis unit: a normalized value of millivolt).
Electronics 2023, 12, 571
Electronics 2023, 12, 571 10 of 14

Figure 8.8.The
Figure TheEOG
EOGpattern of “horizontal”
pattern eye movement
of “horizontal” from one channel
eye movement EOGchannel
from one system with thesystem
EOG
electrospun electrodes
electrospun assembled
electrodes on a headset.
assembled (y-axis unit:
on a headset. a normalized
(y-axis value of millivolt).
unit: a normalized value of millivolt
In this paper, we present two new indices for estimating the EOG signal’s characteristic
In this
changes paper,
for our we present
wearable interface. two
As a new indices
first index, we for estimating
define the eye beattherate
EOG signal’s
(EBR) as cha
istic changes for our wearable interface. As a first index, we define the eye beat rat
the number of low-frequency beats per minute, as shown in Figures 6–8.
as theThe i-th eachof
number successive time difference
low-frequency beatsbetween the twoas
per minute, beats xi in the
shown in low-frequency
Figures 6–8.
eye beat cycles is calculated as:
The i-th each successive time difference between the two beats xi in the low-fre
x i = t n − t n −1 (1)
eye beat cycles is calculated as:
where tn denotes the inter-beat interval of the n-th peak in the signal.
EBR = [(∑i=1,N xi )/N ]−1 (2)
where
where Ntndenotes
denotesthethe
totalinter-beat interval
number inter-beat of the in
intervals n-th
the peak
signal in
perthe
unitsignal.
period.
As a second index, the eye beat rate variability (EBRV) is defined as the root mean
/
square of successive differences between eye beats that are obtained by first calculating
each successive time difference between the beats in ms (x,i ) from Equation (1). Then, each
of the values of xi is squared and averaged. We expect the EBRV reflects the time-domain
where N denotes
index used to estimatethethetotal number
short-term EOGinter-beat intervals in the signal per unit period
signal changes.
As a second index, the eye beat r rate variability (EBRV) is defined as the roo
1
N ∑i=1,N i
=
EBRV between 2
square of successive differences eye xbeats that are obtained by(3) first calc
each successive time difference between the beats in ms (xi) from Equation (1). The
The EBRV measures eye movement function and could be caused by eye–brain in-
of the values of xi is squared and averaged. We expect the EBRV reflects the time-d
teractions, though more research is needed in the future. Furthermore, the EBRV can
index
be usedused
as antoindex
estimate the
to help us short-term EOG signal
monitor sleepiness changes.
while driving. Table 5 and Figure 9
show the EBR and EBRV indices in each eye movement pattern. It is notable that the
ERB and ERBV are effective indices for classifying eye 1 motion. In the two indices, EBR
showed a clear difference in distinguishing whether the eye moves, and EBRV can clearly
,
distinguish whether the eye moves or not, but also beyond a significant margin of error in
distinguishing whether the eye blinks or moves left and right. This suggests that simple
The EBRV measures eye movement function and could be caused by eye–brai
indices of single-channel EOG could be useful in studies of automated eye movement char-
actions, though
acterization. morediscrete
Previously, research is needed
wavelet in the
transform future.
(DWT), Furthermore,
refined the EBRV can b
composite multiscale
as an index to help us monitor sleepiness while driving. Table 5 and Figure 9 sh
EBR and EBRV indices in each eye movement pattern. It is notable that the ERB and
are effective indices for classifying eye motion. In the two indices, EBR showed
difference in distinguishing whether the eye moves, and EBRV can clearly dist
Electronics 2023,
Electronics 2023,12,
12,571
571 11
11 of 14
of 14

analyze single
dispersion channel
entropy EOG signals
(RCMDE), and the[3]. However, the
autoregressive proposed
(AR) method
model, for of computing
example, were used
to analyze single channel EOG signals [3]. However, the proposed method of time
EBR and EBRV has the advantage of analyzing and selecting features in real due to
computing
the small
EBR data size.
and EBRV has the advantage of analyzing and selecting features in real time due to
the small data size.
Table 5. The outcomes of the wireless wearable EOG interface. (2 s time period, 6-sample aver-
age). 5. The outcomes of the wireless wearable EOG interface. (2 s time period, 6-sample average).
Table

Eye Eye Motion

Motion Patterns
Patterns EBR
EBR (per (per min)
min) EBRV
EBRV (ms)(ms)
“rest”
“rest” 882 882 18 18
“blink”
“blink” 814 814 25 25
“horizontal”
“horizontal” 801 801 28 28

Figure 9. Eye
Figure 9. Eye movement
movement classification
classification using
using the
the wearable
wearable EOG.
EOG.
4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
Previous applications of EOG have been limited because EOG signals are obtained by
Previous applications of EOG have been limited because EOG signals are obtained
placing five electrodes around both eyes to record eye movements. As a result, most EOG
by placing five electrodes around both eyes to record eye movements. As a result, most
applications have been limited to the medical field of diagnosis, such as child development,
EOG applications have been limited to the medical field of diagnosis, such as child devel-
sleep studies, and other areas. In this study, we proposed a wireless wearable EOG interface
opment,
for sleep eye
monitoring studies, and other
movements with areas. In thisaccuracy
reasonable study, we proposed
using a wireless
novel semi-dry wearable
conductive
EOG interface for
fiber core electrodes. monitoring eye movements with reasonable accuracy using novel semi-
dry conductive fiber core electrodes.
The prototype electrode was a semi-dry design that made use of a conductive polymer
and anThe prototypegel
electrolytic electrode
made fromwas aelectrospun
semi-dry design fibers.that
Themade use
results ofof a conductive
static poly-
and long-term
mer and
drift an electrolytic
impedance analysisgel
testsmade fromthat,
revealed electrospun
on average, fibers.
the The results polymer
conductive of static and
fiberlong-
core
term drift impedance analysis tests revealed that, on average, the
electrode exhibited equal or lower impedance values than standard wet-type electrodes. conductive polymer fi-
ber core electrode exhibited equal or lower impedance values than standard
The application of a thin layer of conductive gel on the surface of this electrode creates an wet-type elec-
trodes.
ionic The application
conducting of the
route for a thin layer of
purpose of sensing
conductive eye gel on the surface
movement signals.ofThe thisadvantage
electrode
is that it outperforms dry electrodes while eliminating the need for routine disposalThe
creates an ionic conducting route for the purpose of sensing eye movement signals. of
advantage
wet is that it outperforms dry electrodes while eliminating the need for routine
electrodes.
disposal of wet
The ERB andelectrodes.
ERBV indices are proposed to classify eye motion through offline calcu-
The ERB
lation from the EOGand ERBV
data indices
that wasare proposed
simply measuredto classify eye motion
and wirelessly through offline
transmitted to the cal-
PC
culation from the EOG data that was simply measured and wirelessly
using the BLE communication protocol. In a future study, we will use Arm Cortex, which transmitted to the
PCbuilt
is using
intothe BLE
this communication
wearable protocol. ERB
EOG, to calculate In a and
futureERBVstudy, we will
in real time use
andArm Cortex,
process eye
which isdiscrimination
motion built into this wearable
instantly. EOG, to calculate
This method ERB and
is expected toERBV
benefitinfrom
real time and process
the convenience
eye
of motionwhile
wearing discrimination
also being instantly.
advantageous This inmethod
terms is ofexpected to benefit from
power consumption due the conven-
to real-time
ience of wearing
onboard computing. while also being advantageous in terms of power consumption due to
real-time onboard computing.
The developed EOG interface and classification indices presented here are useful
The developed
tools for automatically EOG interface
detecting andand classification
analyzing indices presented
eye movements. here are
It is simple to useful
apply
tools
to for automatically
specific eye movements detecting andactivities.
in daily analyzingPlease eye movements.
keep in mind, It is simple
however, to apply to
that the
author
specificonly conducted our
eye movements human
in daily study due
activities. to the
Please keep IRBinunder
mind,the COVID-19
however, that pandemic.
the author
The
onlyEOG wearable
conducted our interface,
human study we believe,
due to the will
IRB benefit
undereye-tracking
the COVID-19 studies in a variety
pandemic. The EOG of
disciplines, including
wearable interface, wephysiology,
believe, will human
benefitfactors, and assistive
eye-tracking studiesdriving. Moreofparticipants
in a variety disciplines,
can be recruited in the future to see if the EOG interface works well for all people in
natural environments.
Electronics 2023, 12, 571 12 of 14

Electronics 2023, 12, 571

including physiology, human factors, and assistive driving. More participants can be re-
12 of 14
cruited in the future to see if the EOG interface works well for all people in natural envi-
ronments.
Surprisingly, we discovered a small clue that our device can be used in human–com-
puterSurprisingly, weresearch
interface (HCI) discovered
[23].aFigure
small 10
clue that our the
represents device
EOGcan be used
signals in human–
obtained from
computer interface (HCI) research [23]. Figure 10 represents the EOG signals
the left–right side of the eye location, with the first 2-s representing the “blink” obtained
phase
from the left–right side of the eye location, with the first 2-s representing the “blink” phase
(shown in an orange box) and the following 2-s representing the “rest” phase. It is clear
(shown in an orange box) and the following 2-s representing the “rest” phase. It is clear that
that the low- (EOG-alpha) and high- (EOG-beta) frequency filtered “blink” and “rest”
the low- (EOG-alpha) and high- (EOG-beta) frequency filtered “blink” and “rest” phases
phases can be monitored concurrently. In the future, we will improve eye motion classifi-
can be monitored concurrently. In the future, we will improve eye motion classification by
cation by using EOG signals, as well as filtered EOG-alpha and EOG-beta.
using EOG signals, as well as filtered EOG-alpha and EOG-beta.

Figure 10.
Figure Theone
10. The onechannel
channelEOG
EOG contains
containsEEG
EEG information:
information: alpha
alphaand
andbeta
betawaves
wavescan
canbe
bedriven
drivento
to
match
match eye
eye motion.
motion.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, K.S.M. and S.Q.L.; methodology, K.S.M., J.S.K. and S.Q.L.;
software, K.S.M. and S.Q.L.; validation, K.S.M.; formal analysis, K.S.M., A.H., D.B.K. and S.Q.L.;
investigation, K.S.M.; resources, K.S.M. and S.Q.L.; data curation, K.S.M., A.H., D.B.K. and S.Q.L.;
writing—original draft preparation, K.S.M., A.H., D.B.K. and S.Q.L.; writing—review and editing,
K.S.M. and S.Q.L.; visualization, K.S.M., A.H., D.B.K. and S.Q.L.; supervision, K.S.M.; project ad-
ministration, K.S.M.; funding acquisition, K.S.M. and S.Q.L. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was partially supported by the SDSU Big Idea grant and the Electronics and
Telecommunications Research Institute grant funded by the Korean government (22ZB1160, Neu-
romorphic decoder-encoder technology and 22YB1200, Collective Brain-Behavioral Modelling in
Socially Interacting Group).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank the SDSU Big Idea team and the Smart Health
Institute for their kind support.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Electronics 2023, 12, 571 13 of 14

Appendix A
Various methods have been investigated to track eye movements. An EOG with a
semi-dry electrode is a method that has more advantage over other schemes. It measures
the voltage between two electrodes and detects eye movements so that it is robust to
environmental conditions, such as light. Semi-dry electrodes provide less impedance and
longer recording time merits.

Table A1. Wearable eye movement tracking scheme comparison.

Scheme Details Advantage Disadvantage

Varying light conditions
VOG
Detect capturing eye motion Direct eye tracking Droopy eyelids,
(Video-oculography)
Heavy image processing
Capturing black area of Droopy eyelids,
VOG Direct eye tracking
the pupil Heavy power consumption
(Video based IR) Robust to light environment
by illuminating IR Hard to wear (heavy equipment)
Wearable (by wireless)
EOG High contact impedance
Bio potential measurement Low power consumption
(Dry electrode) (weak to noise)
Robust to light environment
Wearable (by wireless)
EOG Short time recording
Bio potential measurement Low power consumption
(Wet electrode) Uncomfortable using gel
Low contact impedance
Wearable (by wireless)
EOG Low power consumption
Bio potential measurement Indirect eye tracking
(Semi-dry electrode) Low contact impedance
Long time recording

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