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Analysis of Control Strategies Based on Virtual Inertia for the Improvement of

Frequency Stability in an Islanded Grid with Wind Generators and Battery
Energy Storage Systems

Article in Energies · January 2021

DOI: 10.3390/en14030698

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 energies
Article
Analysis of Control Strategies Based on Virtual Inertia for the
Improvement of Frequency Stability in an Islanded Grid with
Wind Generators and Battery Energy Storage Systems
Iván Pazmiño 1 , Sergio Martinez 2, *






Citation: Pazmiño, I.; Martinez, S.;
Ochoa, D. Analysis of Control
Strategies Based on Virtual Inertia for
the Improvement of Frequency
Stability in an Islanded Grid with
Wind Generators and Battery Energy
Storage Systems. Energies 2021, 14,
698. https://doi.org/10.3390/
en14030698
Academic Editor:
Mohamed Benbouzid
Received: 6 January 2021
Accepted: 26 January 2021
Published: 29 January 2021
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affil-
iations.
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Energies 2021, 14, 698. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14030698
and Danny Ochoa 3
1 Faculty of Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Universidad Laica Eloy Alfaro de Manabí,
Manta 130214, Ecuador; ivan.pazmino@uleam.edu.ec
2 Area of Electrical Engineering, ETSI Industriales, Universidad Politecnica de Madrid, 28006 Madrid, Spain
3 Department of Electrical, Electronic and Telecommunication, Universidad de Cuenca,
Cuenca 010203, Ecuador; danny.ochoac@ucuenca.edu.ec
* Correspondence: sergio.martinez@upm.es
Abstract: Rising levels of non-synchronous generation in power systems are leading to increasing
difficulties in primary frequency control. In response, there has been much research effort aimed at
providing individual electronic interfaced generators with different frequency response capabilities.
There is now a growing research interest in analyzing the interactions among different power system
elements that include these features. This paper explores how the implementation of control strategies
based on the concept of virtual inertia can help to improve frequency stability. More specifically, the
work is focused on islanded systems with high share of wind generation interacting with battery
energy storage systems. The paper presents a methodology for modeling a power system with virtual
primary frequency control, as an aid to power system planning and operation. The methodology and
its implementation are illustrated with a real case study.
Keywords: ancillary services; battery energy storage system; fast frequency response; islanded
microgrid; low inertia power systems; primary frequency control; wind energy integration
1. Introduction
In the last two decades, electric power systems have experienced very significant
changes in their operational requirements, mainly due to a growing share of non-conventional
renewable energy in the electricity generation mix, along with the operation of grids with a
higher degree of complexity [1–3]. From the beginning of the massive electrical generation
industry at the beginning of the 20th century, conventional synchronous generators have
been responsible for guaranteeing frequency stability [4], among other tasks within the
operation of a power system. However, mainly in weak or islanded networks, synchronous
machines do not always have the capacity to respond fast enough to keep the system
stable in the face of power disturbances caused by imbalances between generated and
demanded power [5–7].
If an increasing share of electricity generation based on non-conventional renewable
energy resources is added to this type of power systems, one of the consequences is a
significant reduction of the equivalent inertia of the system [8]. This is due to the fact
that such renewable generators have an interface for connection to the grid based on the
use of electronic power converters, in which a frequency variation in the grid side does
not entail a modification of the active power supplied, as the latter keeps a value close
to the reference set by its corresponding control system. From the point of view of the
power system, this is seen as a lack of inertial response. To address this issue, previous
works have outlined the design and implementation of additional control schemes that
provide certain complementary regulation capabilities to certain renewable generators
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies
Energies 2021, 14, 698 2 of 18

(e.g., photovoltaic [9,10], wind [11,12], hybrid of both [3,13]) and battery energy storage
systems [14,15], with the aim of modifying the active power injected into the network in
response to variations in frequency, similar to how conventional synchronous generators
do; hence, the use of the term “virtual inertia”. Further, very interesting review papers
addressing inertia and frequency control strategies can be found in [8,16,17].
One of the most used resources to improve frequency stability in island-type micro-
grids is a battery energy storage system (BESS), with an increasing degree of utilization
in electrical systems worldwide, for example, in South Australia or China, with 100 MW/
129 MWh and 200 MW/800 MWh, respectively [18]. However, despite the effectivity of BESS
in technical terms, it is not possible to ignore its significant economic cost [19,20]. This has
motivated the exploration of less cost-intensive alternatives or complementary technologies.
In this sense, scientific contributions presented in [21,22] propose the use of additional
control schemes in variable speed wind turbines that make use of the inertial resources
existing in their rotating masses, giving support to the frequency recovery of the system in
the event of power disturbances. This ancillary service is also provided by wind turbines
by controlling the pitch angle of their blades to limit the incoming wind power and to
contribute to the power balance of the grid [23,24]. The application of these solutions allows
a grid-friendly integration of wind turbines in terms of the frequency recovery capability
of the whole system. In these works, detailed models are employed to accurately represent
the time-domain behavior of the power system elements in a simulation environment.
However, their application in multi-machine systems may be impractical due to the huge
computational effort required. In inertial response and frequency control studies, the
dynamics of different agents of the system can be represented by a load frequency control
scheme [10,25] which allows to achieve a noticeable modeling simplification without pe-
nalizing the accuracy of numerical results. This paper proposes a methodological guide for
modeling the elements of a wind-diesel-energy storage islanded grid, based on the load
frequency control scheme along with its implementation in a computational environment.
The resulting model can be used to represent other power systems with similar charac-
teristics, and it facilitates the integration of additional energy agents: generation, storage,
and consumption.
This work presents a comparative study of the potential benefits obtained by the
implementation of two control strategies designed to improve the frequency control actions
of the system: one, based on the use of BESS, and the other, on the use of the inertial
resources existing in a variable speed wind turbine. The hypothesis of this research is
that the combined action of these two solutions will lead to more effective results in the
mitigation of frequency fluctuations and the reduction of the frequency nadir, compared to
applying such strategies separately.
It is intended that, with the results of this study, the operators of weak and isolated
power systems with a significant penetration of wind generation can have an analysis
tool that allows them to define new operating procedures and expansion plans of the
system in order to improve the quality of the frequency response to disturbances caused by
power imbalances.
This paper is organized as follows: Section 2 details the methodology used to carry
out the analysis of the grid frequency control, describes the electrical system considered
as a case study, and presents the computer simulation modeling of the system under
study; Section 3 shows the results obtained when analyzing the behavior of the system in
four operating scenarios along with a critical discussion; and Section 4 draws the main
conclusions of the study.

2. Methodology
2.1. System Description
As a case study, the electrical system of San Cristobal Island (Galapagos, Ecuador) has
been considered, whose electricity demand is supplied by a hybrid wind-diesel generation
system [26]. Given its geographical conditions, an interconnection with a continental power
 This operating situation constitutes a latent risk for the continuity of the power sup-
ply, since such frequency excursions could lead to the tripping of certain over/under-fre-
quency protection relays installed in different pieces of equipment of the system, a situa-
tion that has actually occurred on occasions in the system under study. An immediate
Energies 2021, 14, 698 solution to this problem would be to increase the number of diesel units in the microgrid, 3 of 18
in order to strengthen the equivalent inertial response of the system. However, this meas-
ure is difficult to apply given the island’s enormous ecological interest [27,28].
The analysis of this system has been carried out with the Matlab/Simulink® (Math-
system
Works,isNatick,
technically and economically
Massachusetts, unfeasible,
USA) computer so this constitutes
simulation a typical
tool, in which case of aof
the elements
microgrid operating in island mode, with diesel generation plants and high penetration
interest have been modeled and parameterized taking as a reference the work presented of
wind generation.
in [26]. The simplified single-line diagram of this system is illustrated in Figure 1.

WT 1 WT 2 WT 3
800kW 800kW 800kW
1000 V 1000 V 1000 V Wind
farm

1MW 1MW 1MW Load

Fed. 1 Fed. 2 Fed. 3
13.2 kV-60Hz

13.2 kV-60Hz

1MW 1MW 1MW

Diesel
power
DG 1 DG 2 DG 3
650kW 650kW 650kW plant
480 V 480 V 480 V

Figure1.1.Single-line
Figure Single-linediagram
diagramofofthe
theSan
SanCristobal
Cristobalhybrid
hybridwind-diesel
wind-dieselpower
powersystem.
system.

Regarding the operating

An imbalance conditionsand
between generated of the case study,
demanded powerhistorical
of ±0.1records
p.u. hasofbeen
operation
consid-
and
ereddispatch of the real
as a disturbing system
event have been analyzed
to quantitatively evaluatetotheselect a particularly
impact problematic
of incorporating each of
case in terms of frequency control, with a wind penetration of 66%
the proposed strategies on frequency stability in the system under study. in a peak demand
situation (2424 kW) [26]. Under these high wind conditions, the system tends to undergo
pronounced frequency fluctuations, given the inability of the existing thermal generation
to fully absorb the fluctuations of injected wind power.
This operating situation constitutes a latent risk for the continuity of the power supply,
since such frequency excursions could lead to the tripping of certain over/under-frequency
protection relays installed in different pieces of equipment of the system, a situation that
has actually occurred on occasions in the system under study. An immediate solution to
this problem would be to increase the number of diesel units in the microgrid, in order
to strengthen the equivalent inertial response of the system. However, this measure is
difficult to apply given the island’s enormous ecological interest [27,28].
The analysis of this system has been carried out with the Matlab/Simulink® (Math-
Works, Natick, MA, USA) computer simulation tool, in which the elements of interest have
been modeled and parameterized taking as a reference the work presented in [26].
An imbalance between generated and demanded power of ±0.1 p.u. has been consid-
ered as a disturbing event to quantitatively evaluate the impact of incorporating each of
the proposed strategies on frequency stability in the system under study.
In addition, four operational scenarios have been analyzed: in the first one, the grid
frequency control tasks are performed only by diesel generators; in the second scenario, a
virtual inertia algorithm is incorporated in the variable speed wind turbines to contribute to
the frequency support of the system together with the operational synchronous generation;
in the third one, the corrective action provided by a battery storage system is evaluated
by implementing an emulated inertial response in the power controller of its electronic
Energies 2021, 14, 698 4 of 18

converter; and, in the fourth scenario, the impact of both improvement strategies acting
simultaneously, and in interaction with conventional thermal generation, is analyzed.
For assessing the magnitude of frequency deviations experienced by the system in the
different scenarios, an actual national grid code is taken as a reference framework. In this
sense, the Ecuadorian Electricity Regulation and Control Agency establishes, in Dispatch
and Operation Procedure V2, Chapter 5.3 [29], that the target frequency of the National
Interconnected System is 60.00 Hz, with a range of variation in normal operation conditions
between 59.85 and 60.15 Hz, except for emergency states, faults, and restoration periods.
It is worth noting that, in the case of island systems, grid codes tend to be more
permissive in their minimum and maximum limits in respect to what is established for
continental systems, given their constructive and operational characteristics. Table 1
summarizes the frequency ranges within which the calibration of the frequency relays
protecting the Ecuadorian power system generators is recommended.

Table 1. Admissible frequency ranges in generator operation.

Range (Hz) Relay Operate Time

57.5–62 Instantaneous
57.5–58 or 61.5–62 <10 s
58–59 or 61–61.5 <20 s
59–61 Unlimited

2.2. System Modeling

In traditional electrical systems, the inertial power response is directly associated with
the kinetic energy stored in rotating machines. In a synchronous machine, this energy can
be expressed as [4]
Ekinetic = 0.5J [kg·m2 ] ω 2 [rad/s] (1)
where J is the moment of inertia of the turbine-generator set and ω is the angular speed
of the rotor of the machine. On the other hand, the rotor speed variation depends on the
balance between electrical and mechanical torque, as follows:

Pm Pe dω
Tm − Te = − =J (2)
ω ω dt
where Tm and Te represent the electrical and mechanical torque and Pm and Pe are the
mechanical and electrical power, respectively.
The rate of change of frequency (RoCoF) can be expressed as:

dω ω ( P m − Pe )
= (3)
dt 2H ·S
where H is the inertia constant of the set, defined by the relationship between the kinetic
energy stored in the rotating masses and the nominal power of the machine S:

Ekinetic
H= (4)
S
Since the frequency stability of the system will be evaluated, it is convenient to
introduce the simplified models of each one of the generating units in the representation
given by the oscillation equation. As a function of incremental magnitudes, in values per
unit, according to [4,30], this equation is:

d ∆ω [ pu]
2H T + D∆ω [ pu] = ∆Pm[ pu] − ∆Pe[ pu] , (5)
dt
where HT is the equivalent inertia constant of the system and D is the coefficient of variation
of demand with frequency.
 according to [4] and [30], this equation is:
d Δω[pu]
2HT + DΔω[pu] = ΔPm[pu] − ΔPe[pu] , (5)
dt

where HT is the equivalent inertia constant of the system and D is the coefficient of varia-
Energies 2021, 14, 698 tion of demand with frequency. 5 of 18
From the previous equation, it is possible to obtain the model of the system as shown
schematically in Figure 2 [4,30], where:
 ΔPL isthe
From theprevious
deviation in the value
equation, of the load
it is possible that the
to obtain thesystem
model ofexperiences
the systeminasper unit.
shown
It will be negative if the charge
schematically in Figure 2 [4,30], where: decreases and positive when the opposite happens.
 ΔPdn represents the power compensation contribution generated by each diesel gen-
• ∆PL is the deviation in the value of the load that the system experiences in per unit. It
erator to contribute to the recovery of the system frequency.
will be negative if the charge decreases and positive when the opposite happens.
• vn represents
∆P the incident wind speed at each wind turbine.
dn represents the power compensation contribution generated by each diesel gener-
 ator
wi istothe
contribute to thefactor
participation of each
recovery generation
of the unit, both in the frequency support of
system frequency.
• the system and in the coverage of demand.
vn represents the incident wind speed at each wind In per turbine.
unit values, this factor is defined
• was the relationship between the installed capacity of each generation unit and the base
i is the participation factor of each generation unit, both in the frequency support of
power
the system considered forcoverage
and in the the analysis. For example,
of demand. in this
In per unit studythis
values, thefactor
installed powerasof
is defined
diesel power plants has been taken (S base = 3 × 0.813 MVA = 2.439 MVA), with which
the relationship between the installed capacity of each generation unit and the base
the participation
power consideredfactors
for the are: w1 = 0.813/2.439
analysis. For example, = 1/3
in[pu], w2 = 0.8/2.439
this study = 0.328
the installed [pu]. of
power
The modeling
diesel of the
power plants diesel
has beenand wind
taken (Sbase = 3 × 0.813
generation units
MVAis described below,
= 2.439 MVA), as which
with a sum-
mary ofparticipation
the what is described inare:
factors w1 =detail
greater in [26],=as1/3
0.813/2.439 well as the
[pu], w2 =
energy storage
0.8/2.439 unit.[pu].
= 0.328

 Pd 1
w1
ΔPL
Δf
DG1
+ -
Pd 2 + + 1
w1 Σ Σ
+ + 2HT s  D
+
DG2
Pd 3
w1

DG3

v1 PAg 1
w2

WT1
+
v2 PAg 2
w2 Σ
+
+
WT2
v3 PAg3
w2

WT3

ΔPB
w3

BESS

Figure2.2.Load
Figure Loadfrequency
frequencycontrol
controlscheme
schemeofofthe
thetest
testsystem.
system.

The modeling of the diesel and wind generation units is described below, as a summary
of what is described in greater detail in [26], as well as the energy storage unit.

2.2.1. Diesel Power Plant

The thermal power plant of the system under study is made up of 3 units, each
of which has a synchronous generator with salient poles and an exciter with rotating
diodes. Its general configuration is schematically represented in Figure 3 [26] and its main
characteristics are listed in Appendix A.
 Stator
terminals
2.2.1. Diesel Power Speed
Plant
governor
The thermal power plant of the system under study is made up of 3 units, each of
which has a synchronous generator with salient poles and an exciter with rotating diodes.
Energies 2021, 14, 698 ωr is schematically represented in Figure 3 [26] and its main6 char-
of 18
Its general configuration
Sync.
P d
acteristics are listed in Appendix
generatorA.
Active power
(output)
Stator
Diesel engine Pm
terminals
Speed
Figure 3. Schematic representation
governor of the thermal generation under study.

ωr model, the one proposed by [31], particularized for this case study,
As a diesel engine
P
has been used. Figure 4 shows the schematicd representation of the proposed model and
Sync.
generator parameters are indicated in Appendix B, where
the values assigned to its different
Active power
 ωr is the angular velocity of the generator. (output)
P
 Diesel
Tmax andengine
Tmin arem the mechanical torque limits, Tm, that are input to the actuator.
Figure
ΔP3.m Schematic
representsrepresentation
the deviationofofthethe mechanical
thermal power
generation compared
under study. to a pre-established
Figure 3. Schematic representation of the thermal generation under study.
initial value, Pm0.
As isaaimportant
ItAs diesel
dieselengine
engine model,
thatthe
model,
to note theone
the one proposed
proposed
physical by
by[31],
processes[31],particularized
particularized
involved for
forthis
thiscase
in the control casestudy,
study,
actions are
has
hasbeen
beenused.
represented byFigure
used. Figure4 shows
4 shows
first-order thethe
systems schematictimerepresentation
schematic
with representation
constants of the
T2 and T3proposed
of the by a model
andproposed
delay and the
model and
function
values
thevalue
of assigned
values to itsto
T1.assigned different
Additionally, its K parameters
different
P and are theare
KI parameters indicated in
are indicated
PI controller Appendix
gains. B, where
in Appendix B, where
 ωr is the angular velocity of the generator.
 TPI-control
max and Tmin and
are the mechanical torque limits, Tm, that are input to the actuator.
r [pu]
 filtering
ΔPm represents the deviation of the mechanical power compared to a pre-established
 K P s Pm0.
K I value, Pm[pu] Pm[pu]

initial
(1  T3 s ) to note 
Δ[pu]It is simportant that thephysical processes involved in the control actions are


Tmax[pu]
represented by first-order Tm [pu] with time constants T2 and T3 and by a delay function
systems
of value T1. Additionally, KP and KI are Pm0the PI controller gains.
1 [pu]

1  T2 s and
PI-control
e T1s
Tmin[pu]
filtering r [pu]
Actuator Diesel engine
KI  KP s Pm[pu] Pm[pu]
Figure 4.
Figure 4. Speed
Speed governor
governor model
Δ[pu] s (1  T3 s ) model of the
of

the thermal
thermal generation

generation used
used in
in the
the study.
study.


•2.2.2.ωWind
r is the Tmax[pu]
angular
Power velocity of
Plant Tm the
[pu] generator.
• Tmax and Tmin are the mechanical torque limits, Tm , that are input to the actuator.
P [pu]up of three variable speed wind turbines with
The San 1Cristóbal wind farm is made
• ∆Pm represents the deviation
 T s of the m0
mechanical power compared to a pre-established
full power electronic converter e (type IV, from the manufacturer MADE, model A-59).
1
 T2 s Pm0 .
initial 1value,
Each one has a brushless synchronous generator driven by a horizontal axis turbine. It is
Tmin[pu]
schematicallyActuator
It is important
represented Diesel
to note in engine
that the physical
Figure 5 [26]. processes involved in the control actions are
represented by first-order systems with time constants T2 and T3 and by a delay function
Figure 4. Speed governor model of the thermal generation used in the study.
of value T1 . Additionally, KP and KI are the PI controller gains.
2.2.2. Wind Power Plant
2.2.2. Wind Power Plant
The San Cristóbal wind farm is made up of three variable speed wind turbines with
The San Cristóbal wind farm is made up of three variable speed wind turbines with
fullpower
full power electronic
electronic converter
converter (type
(type IV,
IV,from
fromthe
themanufacturer
manufacturerMADE,
MADE, model
model A-59).
A-59).
Each one has a brushless synchronous generator driven by a horizontal axis turbine. ItItisis
Each one has a brushless synchronous generator driven by a horizontal axis turbine.
schematicallyrepresented
schematically representedininFigure
Figure55[26].
[26].
Its representation derives from some of the author’s proposal [21], consisting of a
simplified electromechanical model of a variable speed wind turbine conceived particularly
for the study that is the object of this work. The relevant technical information for the
implementation of the wind turbine model is summarized in Appendix C. Given that the
objective of this study is based on the application of virtual inertia, a brief presentation of
the concept and its application in a variable speed wind turbine will be given next.
This concept consists of introducing changes in the active power command signal
dispatched by the wind turbine in response to the variation of some variable of interest; in
this case, the network frequency. This characteristic, supported by the kinetic energy stored
in the wind turbine, is implemented in the active power controller of the machine. The
virtual inertia control scheme used in this study has been taken from [21] and is outlined
later in Figure 8. Before describing the mechanics of the method, some aspects concerning
the control criteria of the active power dispatched by the wind turbine are addressed.
 DC-link g
ωg

Wind tu
Electric
generator Speed
Gear-box control Active
Pitch (MPPT) power
Energies 2021, 14, 698 control (output) 7 of 18
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 18
β
Figure 5. General scheme of the variable speed wind turbine.
Back-to-back electronic converter
v Its representation
Wind speed derives from some of the author’s proposal [21], consisting of a
(input)
simplified electromechanical model of a variable speed wind turbine conceived particu-
larly for the study that is the object ofMSC this work. TheGSCrelevant technical information for
Grid
the implementationSynchronous
of the wind turbine model is summarized in Appendix C. Given that
Wind turbine
generator
the objective of this study is based on the applicationDC-link of virtual inertia,Pag brief presentation
ω
of the concept and its application ing a variable speed wind turbine will be given next.
Electric
This concept consists generatorof introducing changes inSpeed the active power command signal
dispatched Gear-box
by the wind turbine in response to the variation control of some variable of interest;
Active
in this case, thePitchnetwork frequency. This characteristic, (MPPT)supportedpower
by the kinetic energy
stored in the wind control
turbine, is implemented in the active power controller (output) of the machine.
The virtual βinertia control scheme used in this study has been taken from [21] and is out-
lined later in Figure 8. Before describing the mechanics of the method, some aspects con-
cerning
Figure5.5.the control
General criteria
scheme theof
ofthe the active
variable speed power dispatched by the wind turbine are ad-
windturbine.
turbine.
Figure General scheme of variable speed wind
dressed.
ItsFigure
In
In representation
Figure 6, the
6, derives from
the characteristic
characteristic P-ω
P-ωsome of the
curve
curve of aaauthor’s
of proposal
three-bladed
three-bladed wind[21],
wind consisting
turbine
turbine of a
is shown,
is shown,
simplified electromechanical
particularized
particularized forthe
for thecommercial
commercialmodel of aadopted
model
model variable
inspeed
adopted wind
in this
this turbine
study.
study. The The conceived
maximummaximumpowerparticu-
power
point
larly for
point
tracking the study
tracking
(MPPT) (MPPT) thatcharacteristic
is the object
characteristic of this
has
has been beenwork. The relevant
superimposed
superimposed technical
on curves
on the the curves information
of the
of the for
mechan-
mechanical
the power
ical
powerimplementation
developed
developed by of the
by
the thewind turbine model is summarized in Appendix C. Given that
turbine.
turbine.
the objective of this study is based on the application of virtual inertia, a brief presentation
of the concept and its application in a variable speed wind turbine will be given next.
This concept consists of introducing changes in the active power command signal
dispatched by the wind turbine in response to the variation of some variable of interest;
in this case, the network frequency. This characteristic, supported by the kinetic energy
stored in the wind turbine, is implemented in the active power controller of the machine.
The virtual inertia control scheme used in this study has been taken from [21] and is out-
lined later in Figure 8. Before describing the mechanics of the method, some aspects con-
cerning the control criteria of the active power dispatched by the wind turbine are ad-
dressed.
In Figure 6, the characteristic P-ω curve of a three-bladed wind turbine is shown,
particularized for the commercial model adopted in this study. The maximum power
point tracking (MPPT) characteristic has been superimposed on the curves of the mechan-
ical power
Figure developed
6. Maximum power bypoint
the turbine.
tracking curve for the wind turbine model MADE AE-59.
Figure 6. Maximum power point tracking curve for the wind turbine model MADE AE-59.

In order
In order to
tomodel
modelthe
thedynamics
dynamics of of
thethe
MPPTMPPTcurve, the optimal
curve, power
the optimal in each
power in oper-
each
ating zonezone
operating is characterized, as shown
is characterized, in the
as shown infollowing set ofset
the following equations:
of equations:
Kopt ω3
0
Zone AB: Popt =K(ω ω 3 (ωg − ωmin )
opt−ω (6)
Zone AB : Popt = o 0min ) ( ω − ω
min ) (6)
(ωo − ωmin ) g

Zone BC : Popt = Kopt ω03 (7)

( P max +Kopt ω13




Zone CD : Popt = ω g − ωmax + Pmax (8)
(ωmax − ω1 )
From D : Popt = Pmax (9)
where
Figure 6. Maximum power point tracking curve for the wind turbine model MADE AE-59.
• Popt = Optimum power delivered by the wind turbine.
In order to model the dynamics of the MPPT3 curve, the optimal power in each oper-
Kλ
in =
ating zone is characterized, as shownKopt theKfollowing
p C p,max
set of equations: (10)
λopt 3
Kopt ω3
0
Zone AB: Popt = (ω (ωg − ωmin ) (6)
C p,max = C p (oλ min, )βmin )
−ωopt (11)
 λ
Kopt = Kp Cp,max (10)
λopt 3
Cp,max = Cp (λopt ,βmin ) (11)
0.5
Energies 2021, 14, 698 Kp = ρπR2 8 of(12)
18
Pbase
ωopt
λopt = Kλ (13)
v
0.5 2
K p = ρπR
Kλ = ωt,Pbase[rad/s] R[m] (12)
(14)
base
ωopt
 ρ = Air density (kg/m3). λopt = K λ (13)
 R = Turbine blade radius (m). v
 Cp,max = Maximum power coefficient. Kλ = ω t, base[rad/s] R[m] (14)
 λopt = Optimal specific or relative turbine speed.
• ρ = Air density (kg/m3 ).
 v = wind speed.
• R = Turbine blade radius (m).
• CAccording to the criterion
p,max = Maximum proposed in [21], the changes in the value of the setpoint
power coefficient.
•active
λopt = Optimal specific or relativeturbine
power injected by the wind turbineinto the grid are carried out by shifting the
speed.
•MPPT v =curve
wind above
speed.or below its original position, as illustrated in Figure 7. This is achieved
by manipulating
According to the the optimization constant,
criterion proposed Kopt, the
in [21], in Equations
changes in (6)–(9), by multiplying
the value by a
of the setpoint
factor, kVIC, which presents sensitivity to changes in the frequency of the system, Δf, and
active power injected by the wind turbine into the grid are carried out by shifting the MPPT
its derivative,
curve above or df/dt.
below its original position, as illustrated in Figure 7. This is achieved by
manipulating theon
Depending the deviation
optimization of the frequency
constant, from its rated
Kopt , in Equations value,
(6)–(9), the multiplication
by multiplying by a
factor,kVIC
factor, kVIC,,which
will generate
presentsasensitivity
series of maximum
to changes power follow-up of
in the frequency curves, which∆f,
the system, will
andbe
called VIC curves
its derivative, df/dt. (Virtual Inertia Control curves).

Figure7.7.Maximum
Figure Maximumpower
powerpoint
pointtracking
tracking(MPPT)-curve
(MPPT)-curveshifting
shiftingprocess.
process.

Next, the mechanics

Depending of the method
on the deviation are explained,
of the frequency using
from its Figure
rated 7. the
value, Assuming that the
multiplication
wind turbine
factor, kVIC , willis generate
subjectedato a constant
series wind speed
of maximum power(vfollow-up
= 8 m/s), according
curves, whichto thewill
MPPT
be
algorithm,
called its operating
VIC curves (Virtualpoint onControl
Inertia the P-ωcurves).
characteristic of the machine will be located at
point A. If,
Next, theatmechanics
a certain moment, the network
of the method experiences
are explained, usingan increase
Figure in the demanded
7. Assuming that the
wind turbine is subjected to a constant wind speed (v = 8 m/s), according to the MPPT
algorithm, its operating point on the P-ω characteristic of the machine will be located at
point A. If, at a certain moment, the network experiences an increase in the demanded
power (or a loss of generated power), the frequency will begin to decline. To make the
wind turbine support the grid frequency, it must respond with an increase in the active
power it injects.
This method of virtual inertia forces the MPPT curve to shift upwards to drive the
wind turbine operation to point O immediately. In this new operating condition, the rotor
decelerates, and the kinetic energy stored in its rotating masses is released to support the
restoration of the grid frequency. During the deceleration process, the operating point
moves from O to B along the modified MPPT characteristic.
Once the frequency support is no longer needed, the wind turbine must return to its
optimal operating point, A, therefore, the method will return the MPPT curve to its original
 wind turbine support the grid frequency, it must respond with an increase in the active
power it injects.
This method of virtual inertia forces the MPPT curve to shift upwards to drive the
wind turbine operation to point O immediately. In this new operating condition, the rotor
decelerates, and the kinetic energy stored in its rotating masses is released to support the
Energies 2021, 14, 698 9 of 18
restoration of the grid frequency. During the deceleration process, the operating point
moves from O to B along the modified MPPT characteristic.
Once the frequency support is no longer needed, the wind turbine must return to its
optimal
position.operating point,
The control A, therefore,
action provided by thethe
methodvirtualwill return
inertia the MPPT
method curvehere,
described to itswhose
origi-
nal position.
deductive The control
process action
is detailed provided
in [21], by the
is defined virtual
in the inertiaequation:
following method described here,
whose deductive process is detailed in [21], is defined in the following equation:
ωr0[rad/s] 3 3 ∆PWT [ pu]
kV IC = ωr0[rad/s] 3
− ∆PWT[pu] 3 WV IR (15)
(ω=r0[rad/s] +2πkvir ∆ f [ Hz] /p)3 − Kopt ω g[ pu
kVIC W
3 ] VIR (15)
(ωr0[rad/s] + 2πkvir Δf /p) K ω
opt g[pu]
[Hz]
where
where
• ωr0[rad/s] = initial angular velocity of the rotor.
ω r0[rad/s] = initial angular velocity of the rotor.
• k vir ==virtual
kvir virtualinertia
inertiacoefficient.
coefficient.
• ∆PWT [ pu] ==power
∆P powerdelivered
deliveredby bythe
the wind
wind turbine
turbine due due to to thethe change
change in
in rotor
rotor speed,
speed,
WT[pu]
which can be defined as:
which can be defined as:
ωr0[ pu] d f s[ pu]
∆PWT [ pu] = 2( ωr0[pu] kvir Heq[s] ) f s[ pudf] s[pu] (16)
∆PWT[pu] = 2( ωs[ pu] kvir Heq[s] )fs[pu] dt (16)
ωs[pu] dt
• WVIR = weighting factor, defined as the ratio of the kinetic energy developed by the
 WVIR = weighting factor, defined as the ratio of the kinetic energy developed by the
wind turbine to the maximum kinetic energy that it can store, as follows:
wind turbine to the maximum kinetic energy that it can store, as follows:
ω2g 2 − ωmin
2
2
WV IR = 𝜔𝑔 −2 𝜔𝑚𝑖𝑛 2 (17)
𝑊𝑉𝐼𝑅 = ωmax − ωmin (17)
𝜔𝑚𝑎𝑥 2 − 𝜔𝑚𝑖𝑛 2

Figure 88 shows
Figure showsaageneral
generalschematic
schematic representation of the
representation virtual
of the inertia
virtual algorithm
inertia that
algorithm
must be implemented in the wind turbine speed controller to enable its participation
that must be implemented in the wind turbine speed controller to enable its participation in
frequency
in control
frequency controltasks. The
tasks. details
The of of
details thethe
implementation
implementation of of
thethe
scheme
scheme and thethe
and values of
values
its parameters are described in detail in [21].
of its parameters are described in detail in [21].

f nom[pu]
Dead-band kVICmax
 Variable
f s[pu]  f[pu] Wash-out f '[pu] MPPT-curve
Σ filter  kVIC P
Pg*[pu]
Equation
(15) Σ Kopt


r 0[pu]  g [pu]
 g [pu] Pre-disturbance
rotor-speed kVIC min
calculation  g [pu]

Frequency deviation loop

d Low-pass Equation ΔPWT[pu] Equation
filter
Π (16) (17)
dt Time-derivative of
frequency loop

Figure
Figure 8.
8. Scheme
Scheme of
of the
the virtual
virtual inertia
inertia algorithm
algorithm implemented
implemented in
in the
the variable speed wind
variable speed wind turbine.
turbine.

2.2.3. Battery Energy Storage System

2.2.3. Battery Energy Storage System
Among the potential benefits of incorporating battery energy storage systems (BESS)
Among the
into electrical potential
power benefits
systems are: of incorporating
improvement of battery energy storage
the transmission systemsenergy,
of electrical (BESS)
into electrical power systems are: improvement of the transmission of electrical energy,
damping of power oscillations, dynamic voltage stability, short-term power reserve, level-
ing of the demand profile, reduction of power supply interruptions due to low-frequency
load shedding processes, sub synchronous resonance damping, and improvement of
power quality [32,33].
A complementary application of interest is frequency regulation, the object of this work,
in which the BESS is loaded or unloaded in response to the active power compensation needs
in the system in the event of an increase or decrease of frequency, respectively [34].
 work,
eling ofin which the BESS
the demand is loaded
profile, or unloaded
reduction of powerin response to the active power
supply interruptions due tocompen-
low-fre-
sation
quencyneeds in the system
load shedding in thesub
processes, event of an increase
synchronous or decrease
resonance of frequency,
damping, respec-
and improvement
tively
of power[34].quality [32,33].
In
A general terms, a application
complementary BESS consists of threeismain
of interest components:
frequency the the
regulation, battery module,
object of this
Energies 2021, 14, 698 which
work, stores
in which electrical
the BESS energy through
is loaded an electrochemical
or unloaded in responseprocess; the electronic
to the active 10 of 18
power
power compen-
converter,
sation needs normally
in the referred
system in to the
as an inverter,
event of anwhich converts
increase direct current
or decrease into alternat-
of frequency, respec-
ing current
tively [34]. to be injected or absorbed from the system as appropriate; and the power con-
trol systems,
Ingeneral
generalwhose function
terms, is to establish activemain
and reactive powerthe setpoints
batterybased on
In terms, aaBESS
BESS consists
consists ofofthree
three components:
main components: the battery module,
module,
the role
which adopted
stores by the
electrical BESS
energy within
through the anelectrical power
electrochemical system.
process;
which stores electrical energy through an electrochemical process; the electronic power A typical
the general
electronic dia-
power
gram of a normally
converter,
converter, BESS is illustrated
normally referred
referred toinasFigure
to as
anan 9.
inverter,
inverter, which
which converts
converts direct
direct current
current intointo alternat-
alternating
ing current to be injected or absorbed from the system as appropriate;
current to be injected or absorbed from the system as appropriate; and the power control and the power con-
trol systems,
systems, whose function is to establish active and reactive power setpoints based on
Activewhose
powerfunction is to establish active and reactive power setpoints based on the
the adopted
role role adoptedby theby the within
BESS BESS within the electrical
the electrical power power
system.system.
A typical A general
typical general
diagramdia- of
controller
gram of a BESS is illustrated
a BESS is illustrated in Figure 9. in Figure 9.
*
PBESS
PBESS
Active
DC power
Grid
controller
AC conection
*
point
PBESS
PBESS
Battery Grid
DC
AC conection
point
Figure 9. Basic components of the battery energy storage system (BESS).
Battery
In order to incorporate the model that represents the dynamics of the energy storage
unit within the scheme considered for the representation of the electrical power system,
in the 9.
Figure
Figure time horizon
9.Basic
Basic covered
components
components bybattery
ofofthe
the the frequency
battery control
energystorage
energy storage actions,
system
system the model proposed by [35]
(BESS).
(BESS).
is adopted, as illustrated in Figure 10. In this, the virtual inertia control is implemented by
addingInInorder
two totoincorporate
ordercontrol loops: one
incorporate the
themodel
modelthat
dependent thatrepresents
on the
thedynamics
the frequency
represents ofofthe
variation,
dynamics ∆f,energy
the like a storage
energy power-
storage
unit
unitwithin
frequency
within the
thescheme
droop control,
scheme considered
and the other,
considered for
forthe representation
dependent
the on the of
representation ofthe
theelectrical
frequency power
variation
electrical power system,
rate, in the
system,
inin the time horizon covered by the frequency control actions, the model proposed by[35]
the
time time
domain, horizon
df/dt, covered
or RoCoF. by the
Thus,frequency
when thecontrol
system actions,
frequency the model
varies, proposed
this schemeby will
[35]
is adopted,
respond
is adopted, as
with illustrated
asaillustrated
change inin intheFigure 10.
active10.
Figure In
power this, the
setpoint
In this, virtual
ΔPBESS
the virtual inertia
in order
inertia control is
to emulate
control implemented
an inertial
is implemented by
by adding
response.
adding twocontrol
two controlloops:
loops:one onedependent
dependenton onthethe frequency variation, ∆f,
frequency variation, ∆f, like
like aapower-
power-
frequency
A common
frequency droop control,
drooppractice
control,in and
and the
thisthe other,
type dependent
of study
other, onthe
thefrequency
is to represent
dependent on frequency
the dynamics variation
variationof the rate,in in
battery
rate, the
the
by
timetime
means domain,
domain,of a df/dt,df/dt,
first-order or RoCoF.
transfer
or RoCoF. Thus,
function,
Thus, when when with
the the asystem
systemTBESS frequency
time
frequency constant varies,
varies, thisthis
depending scheme
scheme onwill
its
will respond
technology. with
The
respond with a change in a
valueschange
of thein the active
parameters power
of the setpoint
scheme ∆P
of Figure in10order
are
active power setpoint ΔPBESS in order to emulate an inertial
BESS to emulate
summarized anin
inertial
Appendix response.
response. D.
A common practice in this type of study is to represent the dynamics of the battery
by means of a first-order transfer function, with a TBESS time constant depending on its
Δf
technology. KThe1 values of the parameters of the scheme of Figure 10 are summarized in
Appendix D. +
1 1 PBESS
Σ 
+
R TBESS s  1
Δf
df/dt K
K21
+ 1
1 inertia controller implemented in the BESS. PBESS
Figure 10.
Figure 10. Simplified
Simplified model
model of
Σ  inertia
of virtual
virtual controller implemented in the BESS.
+
R TBESS s  1
It shouldKbepractice
noted that thistype
linear
ofmodel, common in frequency stability
of studies, has
df/dtA common 2
in this study is to represent the dynamics the battery
certain
by means limitations since ittransfer
of a first-order obviatesfunction,
non-linearities.
with a TFor example,
BESS time the response
constant dependingcapacity
on of
its
technology. The values of the parameters of the scheme of Figure
Figure 10. Simplified model of virtual inertia controller implemented in the BESS.10 are summarized
in Appendix D.
ItItshould
shouldbe benoted
notedthat
thatthis
thislinear
linearmodel,
model,common
commonininfrequency
frequencystability
stabilitystudies,
studies,has
has
certain
certainlimitations
limitationssince
sinceititobviates
obviatesnon-linearities.
non-linearities.For
Forexample,
example,thetheresponse
responsecapacity
capacityofof
the storage system to frequency variations has a certain dependence on the state of charge
of the battery. With very low state of charge, the power injection capacity can be limited to
values below the nominal power of the electronic converter in order to protect the battery.
Similarly, with very high state of charge, the power absorption capacity of the battery
may be diminished. However, it must be taken into account that the inertial emulation, on
the one hand, takes place during very short periods of time, which implies really reduced
energy exchanges between the battery and the electrical energy system, and, on the other
hand, as the sign of the frequency deviation is constantly changing, the energy exchange is
also changing, so the average energy balance is practically zero.
Energies 2021, 14, 698 11 of 18

Finally, to particularize the model for the case study, given that there is currently no
storage unit installed on San Cristóbal Island, the one existing on a neighboring island
(Isabela), in which a 660 kW system is already installed, will be taken as a reference. Thus,
the participation factor of this technology within the primary frequency control scheme
proposed in this study (Figure 2) is quantified as:

w3 = 0.66/2.439 = 0.2706 p.u. (18)

3. Results and Discussion

In this section, the performance of the control strategies designed to improve the effec-
tiveness of the system frequency recovery actions in contingency situations are evaluated.
The analysis has been divided into the following case studies:
• Base case: Frequency control performed only by operating diesel synchronous generation.
•
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW Case 1: Frequency control performed by the diesel generation in cooperation with12the
of 18
virtual inertia control implemented in the wind turbines.
• Case 2: Frequency control carried out by the diesel generation together with the BESS
using the emulated inertia control.
• Case 3: Frequency control carried out by the diesel generation together with the com-
bined action of the wind turbines and the BESS in the provision of inertial response.
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW Next, the results obtained, with time domain simulations, for some variables that 12 are
of 18
of interest in this study, are illustrated: ∆f and RoCoF are illustrated in Figures 11 and 12
and are summarized in Tables 2 and 3.

Figure 11. Grid-frequency response to a sub-frequency event.

Figure 12 shows a significant reduction of the RoCoF peak with respect to the value
reached in the base case: 23%, 27%, and 48% for cases 1, 2, and 3, respectively. From these
results it can be inferred that the participation, whether of wind generation or BESS, in the
frequency control is beneficial for the system, the advantages being more evident when
these two
Figure11.
Figure
agents carry out
11.Grid-frequency
their work
Grid-frequencyresponse
in combination.
responsetotoaasub-frequency
sub-frequencyevent.
event.

Figure 12 shows a significant reduction of the RoCoF peak with respect to the value
reached in the base case: 23%, 27%, and 48% for cases 1, 2, and 3, respectively. From these
results it can be inferred that the participation, whether of wind generation or BESS, in the
frequency control is beneficial for the system, the advantages being more evident when
these two agents carry out their work in combination.

Figure12.
Figure 12.Rate
Rateofofchange
changeofoffrequency
frequencyduring
duringa asub-frequency
sub-frequency event.
event.

Table 2.Figure 13 illustrates

Reduction (%) of the the activedeviation
frequency power response
comparedoftothe
thegroup of wind turbines in each
base case.
of the scenarios. Note that the wind turbines respond with an increase in active power in
the firstCase
moments of the contingency1 (in cases 1 and 23), which contributes to 3 reduce the
maximum frequency deviation
Overfrequency and the maximum value
39.88 39.29 of RoCoF (Figures55.3611 and 12). In
thisSubfrequency
figure, the curves that 44.89
represent the base case 40.91
and case 2 are 57.39 since in
overlapping,
Figure 12. Rate of change of frequency during a sub-frequency event.
these cases the participation of the wind turbines in the frequency control tasks is not
considered.
Figure 13 illustrates the active power response of the group of wind turbines in each
of theFigure 14 shows
scenarios. the the
Note that active
windpower response
turbines of the
respond withBESS for the in
an increase scenarios studied.
active power in
Given that in the base case and in case 1 the action of this agent in the frequency
the first moments of the contingency (in cases 1 and 3), which contributes to reduce the support
is not expected,
maximum the resulting
frequency deviationcurves
and the aremaximum
overlapped at aofzero
value level.
RoCoF However,
(Figures in cases
11 and 12). In2
and 3, the active power contribution of the BESS contributes to the frequency
this figure, the curves that represent the base case and case 2 are overlapping, since in recovery
efforts. The power injection value is lower when this unit acts in coordination with the
 results it can be inferred that the participation, whether of wind generation or BESS, in the
frequency control is beneficial for the system, the advantages being more evident when
these two agents carry out their work in combination.

Energies 2021, 14, 698 12 of 18

Table 3. Reduction (%) of the maximum rate of change of frequency (RoCoF) compared to the base
case.

Case 1 2 3
Overfrequency 22.92 27.08 47.92
Subfrequency 22.92 27.08 47.92

Figure 12. Rate of change of frequency during a sub-frequency event.

Figure 11 shows that, by promoting the participation of wind turbines and BESS in
frequency control tasks by adding virtual inertia control schemes, a significant reduction in
Figure 13 illustrates the active power response of the group of wind turbines in each
the peak of frequency variation following the disturbance is obtained, with values around
of the scenarios. Note that the wind turbines respond with an increase in active power in
45% in case 1, 41% in case 2, and 57% in case 3.
the first moments of the contingency (in cases 1 and 3), which contributes to reduce the
Figure 12 shows a significant reduction of the RoCoF peak with respect to the value
maximum frequency deviation and the maximum value of RoCoF (Figures 11 and 12). In
reached in the base case: 23%, 27%, and 48% for cases 1, 2, and 3, respectively. From these
this figure, the curves that represent the base case and case 2 are overlapping, since in
results it can be inferred that the participation, whether of wind generation or BESS, in the
these cases the participation of the wind turbines in the frequency control tasks is not
frequency control is beneficial for the system, the advantages being more evident when
considered.
these two agents carry out their work in combination.
Figure 14 shows the active power response of the BESS for the scenarios studied.
Figure 13 illustrates the active power response of the group of wind turbines in each
Given that in the base case and in case 1 the action of this agent in the frequency support
of the scenarios. Note that the wind turbines respond with an increase in active power in
is not
the firstexpected,
momentsthe of resulting curves are
the contingency overlapped
(in cases at awhich
1 and 3), zero level. However,
contributes in cases
to reduce the2
and 3, the active power contribution of the BESS contributes to
maximum frequency deviation and the maximum value of RoCoF (Figures 11 and 12). In the frequency recovery
efforts.
this figure,The power
the curvesinjection value the
that represent is lower when
base case this
and unit
case acts
2 are in coordination
overlapping, since with the
in these
wind generation (case 3) than when it does it alone (case 2).
cases the participation of the wind turbines in the frequency control tasks is not considered.

Figure 13. Active power delivered by the three wind turbines when a sub-frequency event occurs.

Figure 14 shows the active power response of the BESS for the scenarios studied.
Given that in the base case and in case 1 the action of this agent in the frequency support
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 18
is not expected, the resulting curves are overlapped at a zero level. However, in cases 2
and 3, the active power contribution of the BESS contributes to the frequency recovery
efforts. The power injection value is lower when this unit acts in coordination with the
Figuregeneration
wind 13. Active power delivered
(case 3) by the
than when three wind
it does turbines
it alone (case when
2). a sub-frequency event occurs.

Figure14.
Figure 14.Active
Activepower
powerdeviation
deviationexperienced
experiencedby
bythe
theBESS
BESSin
inaasub-frequency
sub-frequencyevent.
event.

In Figure 15, the temporal response of the synchronous generation (diesel groups) is
presented, in terms of power, for the four simulated cases. In the base case, the frequency
control actions are governed by synchronous generation through the actuation of their
speed controllers in response to frequency deviations, Δf. With the participation of wind
generation, BESS or both in frequency control tasks, the frequency stabilization and re-
Energies 2021, 14, 698 13 of 18
Figure 14. Active power deviation experienced by the BESS in a sub-frequency event.

In Figure 15, the temporal response of the synchronous generation (diesel groups) is
In Figure 15, the temporal response of the synchronous generation (diesel groups) is
presented, in terms of power, for the four simulated cases. In the base case, the frequency
presented, in terms of power, for the four simulated cases. In the base case, the frequency
control actions are governed by synchronous generation through the actuation of their
control actions are governed by synchronous generation through the actuation of their
speedcontrollers
speed controllersininresponse
responseto tofrequency
frequencydeviations,
deviations,∆f. Δf.With
Withthe
theparticipation
participationof ofwind
wind
generation, BESS or both in frequency control tasks, the frequency stabilization
generation, BESS or both in frequency control tasks, the frequency stabilization and recovery and re-
covery process improves compared to the base case due to the extra contribution
process improves compared to the base case due to the extra contribution of active power of active
power provided
provided by the by the agents
other other agents (Figure
(Figure 11). 11). It means
It means slower
slower performance
performance ofofthe
thespeed
speed
controllers of the synchronous generation, since, by decreasing Δf, which
controllers of the synchronous generation, since, by decreasing ∆f, which is the control is the control
variable,their
variable, theirpart
partofofactive
activepower
power increase
increase is is
nownow a shared
a shared task
task with
with thethe other
other participat-
participating
agents. This situation is reflected, of course, in a process of restoring the frequency in in
ing agents. This situation is reflected, of course, in a process of restoring the frequency a
a slightly
slightly longer
longer time
time compared
compared to to
thethe base
base case.
case.

15.Power
Figure15.
Figure Powergenerated
generatedby
bythe
thethermal
thermalpower
powerplant.
plant.

Next,
Next, the benefits offered
the benefits offered bybythe
thefrequency
frequencycontrol
control strategies
strategies implemented
implemented in the
in the dif-
different generation agents that make up the electrical test system (base case,
ferent generation agents that make up the electrical test system (base case, cases 1, 2, and cases 1, 2,
and 3) when it is subjected to more realistic operating conditions, characterized
3) when it is subjected to more realistic operating conditions, characterized by a high var- by a high
variability
iability of of
thethe wind
wind resource,are
resource, areevaluated.
evaluated.To Tododothis,
this,aa wind
wind profile
profile like
like the
the one
oneshown
shown
in
inFigure
Figure 1616has
hasbeen
beenapplied
appliedto the
to three
the wind
three turbines.
wind This
turbines. time
This series
time of
serieswind
of speed
wind has
speed
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 18
been obtained
has been from real
obtained fromrecords taken intaken
real records the San
in Cristóbal island wind
the San Cristóbal farm wind
island in a windy
farm day.
in a
As in the
windy previous
day. study,
As in the the contingency
previous study, the takes place 10takes
contingency s after the 10
place start of the
s after thesimulation.
start of the
simulation.

Figure16.
Figure 16. Real
Realwind
windspeed
speedprofile
profileused
usedin
inthe
thesimulation.
simulation.

The
Theresults
resultspresented
presentedin
inFigures
Figures17
17and
and1818show
showthat,
that,under
underaa variable
variable wind
wind scenario,
scenario,
the
the injected
injected wind
windpower
powerintroduces
introducescontinuous
continuous power
powerimbalances
imbalances in
inthe
thesystem,
system,which
which
translates
translates into high frequency fluctuations under normal operating conditions (base case).
into high frequency fluctuations under normal operating conditions (base case).
AAsimilar
similarthing
thinghappens
happenswith
withthe
thedynamics
dynamicsof
ofthe
theRoCoF.
RoCoF.
 Figure 16. Real wind speed profile used in the simulation.
Figure 16. Real wind speed profile used in the simulation.
The results presented in Figures 17 and 18 show that, under a variable wind scenario,
The results
the injected presented
wind in Figures 17
power introduces and 18 show
continuous that,imbalances
power under a variable
in the wind scenario,
system, which
the injectedinto
translates wind power
high introduces
frequency continuous
fluctuations underpower
normalimbalances in the system,
operating conditions (basewhich
case).
Energies 2021, 14, 698 14 of 18
translates
A similar into high
thing frequency
happens with fluctuations
the dynamicsunder normal
of the RoCoF.operating conditions (base case).
A similar thing happens with the dynamics of the RoCoF.

Figure 17. Frequency behavior during a sub-frequency contingence under actual wind speed con-
Figure
Figure 17. Frequency
17.
ditions. Frequencybehavior
behaviorduring
duringa sub-frequency contingence
a sub-frequency under
contingence actual
under windwind
actual speedspeed
conditions.
con-
ditions.

Figure
Figure18.18.Dynamics
Dynamicsofof
RoCoF during
RoCoF a sub-frequency
during contingence
a sub-frequency under
contingence actualactual
under wind wind
speed speed
conditions.
con-
Figure
ditions.
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18. Dynamics of RoCoF during a sub-frequency contingence under actual wind speed con-
15 of 18
In these figures, the effect of the participation of the different generation agents in the
ditions.
frequency control
In these (casesthe
figures, 1, 2,effect
and 3) ofcan
thebe appreciated,ofwhich
participation producesgeneration
the different a notable reduction
agents in
inthe
thefrequency
Invariability
these figures,of the system
the effect frequency
of the and the
participation RoCoFof following
the different
control (cases 1, 2, and 3) can be appreciated, which produces a notable the contingency.
generation This is
agents in
of the
because
the wind
the
frequency farm
control instrategies
control the frequency
(cases 1, 2, andcontrol
implemented 3) can is the
in notappreciated,
be contemplated.
wind turbines, A similar
the
which BESS,
produces factthe
and aoccurs
speed
notablein
reduction in the variability of the system frequency and the RoCoF following the contin-
Figure
controller
reduction 20 regarding
of
inthethe the
synchronous
variability power injected
ofgeneration
the system by
itselfthe BESS for
are permanently
frequency and thethe base case
acting and
due case 1.
to thetheexistence
gency. This is because the control strategies implemented inRoCoF
the windfollowing
turbines, contin-
the BESS,
of a
gency. Note
constant in Figure
deviation 17 that
of thewhen
system the contingency
frequency, notoccurs,
only the
in drop in
contingency frequency
conditions.is success-
and theThis speedis because
controller theofcontrol strategies implemented
the synchronous generation itself in thearewind turbines,acting
permanently the BESS,
due
fullythemitigated
This situation in all thebecases studied. However, reducing both the frequency deviation
and
to the speed
existence of acan
controller of
constant verified
thedeviationin Figures
synchronous of the 19 and
generation
system 20, which
itself
frequency, are show the in
permanently
not only active power
acting due
contingency
and
to thethe
injected maximum
into
existence of avalue
the system byof
constant theRoCoF
wind farm
deviation is more
ofandtheeffective
by infrequency,
the BESS,
system case studynot3, only
respectively. which considers
Theinpower the
curves
contingency
conditions.
combined
shown participation
in Figure 19 for of wind generation and BESS in the provision of this ancillary ser-
conditions.
This situation canthe be base
verifiedcaseinand case 219are
Figures andoverlapped
20, which becauseshow thethe participation
active power in-
vice.
of the Similar
wind
This conclusion
farm
situation in the
can by is reached
frequency
be the
verified in the
controlstudyis under
not constant
contemplated. wind
A conditions
similar fact (Figures
occurs 11
in
jected into the system windin Figures
farm and by 19 and 20, which
the BESS, show theThe
respectively. active
powerpower in-
curves
and 12).
Figure 20inregarding
jected
showninto the system
Figure 19theforby power
thebase
the injected
wind farm
case by
andand the
case byBESSarefor
2the BESS, therespectively.
overlapped base case andThe
because case 1. curves
thepower
participation
shown in Figure 19 for the base case and case 2 are overlapped because the participation

19. Active
Figure19.
Figure Activepower
powerdelivered
deliveredby
bythe
thethree
threewind
windturbines
turbinesunder
undervariable
variablewind
windspeed conditions.
speed condi-
tions.
Note in Figure 17 that when the contingency occurs, the drop in frequency is success-
fully mitigated in all the cases studied. However, reducing both the frequency deviation
and the maximum value of RoCoF is more effective in case study 3, which considers
the combined participation of wind generation and BESS in the provision of this ancil-
lary service. Similar conclusion is reached in the study under constant wind conditions
(Figures 11 and 12).
Energies 2021, 14, 698 15 of 18
Figure19.
Figure 19.Active
Activepower
powerdelivered
deliveredby
bythe
thethree
threewind
windturbines
turbinesunder
undervariable
variablewind
windspeed
speedcondi-
condi-
tions.
tions.

Figure20.
Figure
Figure 20.Active
20. Activepower
Active powerinjected
power injectedby
injected bythe
by theBESS
the BESSin
BESS ininthe
thevariable
the variablewind
variable windspeed
wind speedscenario.
speed scenario.
scenario.

Finally,
Finally,Figure
Finally, Figure
Figure 2121shows
21 shows
shows the dynamics
the
the dynamics
dynamics ofof
the power
ofthe
the provided
power
power by by
provided
provided synchronous
bysynchronous genera-
synchronous gen-
gen-
tors, where
erators, it
whereis possible
it is to see
possible how
to seethe demand
how the for
demandtheir participation
for their in frequency
participation
erators, where it is possible to see how the demand for their participation in frequency in control
frequency
tasks is reduced
control
control tasks when
tasksisisreduced
reduced thewhen
otherthe
when generation
the agents (wind,
othergeneration
other generation agents
agents BESS or BESS
(wind,
(wind, both) do
BESSor too.
orboth)
both)do
dotoo.
too.

Figure
Figure 21.Power
Figure21.
21. Powergenerated
Power generatedby
generated bythe
by thethermal
the thermalpower
thermal powerplant
power plantunder
plant undervariable
under variablewind
variable windspeed
wind speedconditions.
speed conditions.
conditions.
4. Conclusions
4.4.Conclusions
Conclusions
This work presents a study of the effect of two control strategies based on the concept
Thiswork
This workpresents
presentsaastudy
studyofofthe
theeffect
effectof
oftwo
twocontrol
controlstrategies
strategiesbased
basedononthe
theconcept
concept
of virtual inertia (through batteries and the incorporation of a virtual inertia algorithm in
ofvirtual
of virtualinertia
inertia(through
(throughbatteries
batteriesand
andthe
theincorporation
incorporationof ofaavirtual
virtualinertia
inertiaalgorithm
algorithmin
in
wind generation units) on the frequency regulation in an electric power system, within
windgeneration
wind generationunits)
units)on
onthe
thefrequency
frequencyregulation
regulationin inan
anelectric
electricpower
powersystem,
system,within
within
the time frame of primary frequency control under a scenario of high penetration of wind
generation. By introducing each of the control strategies, significant improvements in
the system’s frequency response can be evidenced in a disturbing event, mainly on the
variables: frequency and RoCoF. The simulation results also reveal that such improvement
is much more noticeable when the two strategies are applied in combination. This fact
allows to corroborate the fulfillment of the research hypothesis.
The proposed model is outlined as an analysis and diagnostic tool that allows study-
ing the dynamics of certain variables of interest of an electrical power system of these
characteristics, offering the network operator a tool to study different scenarios that pose a
risk to the network frequency stability and being able to take the necessary measures that
lead to its prevention or correction.
It is important to note that this is only a first step of the analysis that aims at seeing the
big picture of the interaction among different elements of a power system. The advantage
of this load frequency control approach is that it allows the analysis of sensitivity issues and
the drawing of general conclusions, allowing to define the general behavior of the system
and to tune the controllers accordingly. However, this approach has some limitations
related to the necessary simplifications, e.g., a unique frequency is considered, parts of the
models are described as small-signal ones, and simplified controllers are used. This can lead
to inaccuracies for some variables that can have an impact on the detailed description of the
system behavior when subject to some particular disturbances. A second or complementary
step of the analysis, out of the scope of this work because of its specificity, is based on
the approach of detailed computational simulations, even including hardware-in-the-loop
Energies 2021, 14, 698 16 of 18

or real-time simulations. Although it is difficult to obtain general conclusions with this

second approach, it allows a more accurate modeling and is adequate for studying specific
situations of interest in a given case, thus complementing the load frequency control
approach described in the paper.

Author Contributions: I.P.: Software, Validation, Formal Analysis, Investigation, Data Curation,
Writing—Original Draft, Writing—Review & Editing, Visualization, Funding Acquisition. S.M.:
Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation, Resources, Writing—Review & Editing, Supervision,
Project Administration, Funding Acquisition. D.O.: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software,
Validation, Investigation, Resources, Data Curation, Writing—Original Draft, Writing—Review &
Editing, Visualization, Funding Acquisition. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported by the Secretaría de Educación Superior, Ciencia, Tecnología e
Innovación (SENESCYT), Government of the Republic of Ecuador [grant numbers CZ02-000683-2018
and 2015-AR6C5141] and by the Spanish National Research Agency Agencia Estatal de Investigación
[grant number PID2019-108966RB-I00/AEI/10.13039/501100011033].
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Appendix A

Table A1. Technical data of the diesel generator [26].

Characteristic Value and Unit

Rated active power 650 kW
Rated apparent power 813 kVA
Frequency 60 Hz
Number of poles 6
Synchronous speed 1200 rpm
Motor-generator inertia constant
0.4208 s
(3 × 813 kVA base)

Appendix B
Parameters of the diesel generator governor [31]: T1 = 0.024 s, T2 = 0.1 s, T3 = 0.01 s,
Tmax = 1.1 p.u., Tmin = 0 p.u., KP = 2.294, KI = 1.458.

Appendix C

Table A2. Parameters of the MADE A-59 wind turbine model [26].

Parameter Symbol Value and Units

Rated power (base power) PAG,base 800 kW
Maximum/minimum generator power Pg,max /Pg,min 1 pu/0.04 p.u.
Maximum/minimum
Tem.max /Tem.min 0.91 pu/0.08 p.u.
electromagnetic torque
Wind speed at Pg = 0.8712 p.u. v 10 m/s
Air density ρ 1.225 kg/m3
Turbine effective radius R 29.5 m
Maximum pitch angle rate (dβ/dt) max 10◦ /s
Turbine-generator inertia constant HAG 4.18 s
Generator and converter time constant: τC 20 ms
Blade pitch servo time constant τP 0.3 s
Pitch controller gains KPpc /KIpc 150/25
Speed controller gains KPsc /KIsc 3/80
Energies 2021, 14, 698 17 of 18

Appendix D
Parameters of the inertia emulation scheme and the BESS model [35]: P = 660 kW,
K1 = 0.01, K2 = 0.04, R = 5%, TBESS = 0.1 s.

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