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Stratigraphy and reservoir potential of the Mesozoic Khorat

Group, NE Thailand - Part 2: Diagenesis and reservoir quality

Article in Journal of Petroleum Geology · December 2007

DOI: 10.1111/j.1747-5457.1996.tb00437.x

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 Journal of Petroleum Geology, vol. 19(3), July 1996, pp. 321-338 32 1

STRATIGRAPHY AND RESERVOIR POTENTIAL OF

THE MESOZOIC KHORAT GROUP, NE THAILAND
Part 2: Diagenesis and Reservoir Quality
A.C. Canham", M.A. Love*, A. Racey** and S. Polachan'

The Mesozoic Khorat Group in NE Thailand consists of a series of continental red-beds,

divided here intofive formations, which unconformably overlie the lithologically-similar
Nam Phong Formation. The reservoir quality of the Khorat Group decreases progressively
with increasing age, owing to burial compaction and diagenesis. Compactional fabrics
suggests a maximum burial depth of more than seven km, although the Sao Khua Formation
(in the middle of the Khorat Group) shows early calcite cements which stabilised the
sediment fabric at burial depths of about one km. Porosities vary from 11% in the
uppermostpart of the Khorat Group (Khok Kruat Formation) to 4.9% in the Nam Phong
Formation. The ratio of secondary grain-dissolution porosity toprimary porosity increases
with age (and depth). Authigenic minerals consist of quartz (1.3 - 9.3%), calcite (0 -
26.5%) and kaolinite (0- 4.0%). The occurrence of detrital clays (0.8 - 9.6%) in particular
causes downgrading of the porosity of many of the sandstone samples examined.

INTRODUCTION
In Part 1 of this paper (which appeared in the January, 1996 issue of this Journal (vol.
19 (l),pp. 5-40), hereafter referred to as Racey et al., 1996), the stratigraphy of the
formations which comprise the Khorat Group in NE Thailand were discussed. The
sedimentology, petrography, biostratigraphy, environment of deposition and provenance
of each formation was summarised. Part 2 now reports on the diagenesis, reservoir quality
and source potential of these formations.
The Khorat Group in NE Thailand is generally considered to consist of six formations,
which are, from oldest to youngest: the Nam Phong, Phu Kradung, Phra Wihan, Sao
Khua, Phu Phan and Khok Kruat Formations (see Fig. 2 in Raceyet al., 1996).
Conventionally, these formations have been dated as Late Triassic to Early Cretaceous.
However, palynological evidence now indicates that the Phu Kradung, Phra Wihan and
Sao Khua Formations, which were previously dated as Early, Middle and Late Jurassic,
respectively, are in fact of Early Cretaceous age. The Nam Phong Formation is of Late

* Geochem Group Limited, Chester Street, Chester, CH4 8RD.

** British Gas E & P, 100 Thames Valley Park Drive, Reading, Berks, RG6 IPT.
+ Dept of Mineral Resources, Rama IV Road, Bangkok, Thailand.
322 The Mesozoic Khorat Group, NE Thailand: Part 2

Triassic age; consequently, it cannot be considered to be part of the overlying Khorat

Group, from which it is separated by an unconfonnity in the study area. This unconformity
appears to span much of the Jurassic. However, for consistency with previous work, the
Nam Phong Formation is included in this study. The whole succession in Lao PDR and
northern Thailand was inverted during a mid-Cretaceous compressive phase (Lovatt-
Smith et al., 1996).
Data in this paper were mostly derived from thin-section analyses of samples collected
from 68 localities where the Khorat Group crops out. These localities were mainly
situated along the western margin of the Khorat Plateau (see Racey et al., 1996 for
details). Representative samples were also analysed by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and
scanning electron microscope (SEM). These results therefore represent a preliminary
reconnaissance study. The diagenetic history of the Khorat Group sediments has been
modelled from a study of textural relationships recorded in thin-section and SEM analyses.
This history awaits refinement by the incorporation of data from more advanced analytical
techniques applied on a formation scale rather than at group level.
It is also important to note that all of the samples examined were recovered from
surface outcrops, which have been exposed to weathering and leaching processes under
humid climatic conditions. The effect of these processes was minimised where possible
by the selection of unweathered samples; however, some enhancement of cement-dissolution
porosity is probably inevitable.

DIAGENESIS OF THE KHORAT GROUP

A single, complex diagenetic sequence, based on samples collected for this study, has
been recognised throughout the Khorat Group and the unconformably-underlying Nam
Phong Formation (Fig. 1). This sequence has been divided arbitrarily into “early” and
“burial” phases. Early diagenesisreflects reactions between the newly-deposited sediments
and surface-derived pore fluids associated with the environment of deposition. Burial
diagenesis commenced when pore-fluid recharge from the sediment surface ceased and
pore fluids were reducing and ranged from effectively inert, through acidic and dilute to
highly-concentrated brines.
Early Diagenesis
This phase commenced soon after deposition under typical “red-bed’ conditions(Walker,
1967),when the sandstones in the Khorat Group/Nam Phong Formation were still probably
highly porous and permeable. Beard and Weyl(l973) suggested that, for sandstones of
similar grain-size and sorting characteristics, porosity would have ranged from 30% to
40% in the relatively clean sands typical of channel-filldeposits. In the fluvial environments
where deposition occurred, meteoric fluids (sourced from fluvial channels and overbank
flows) percolated through these permeable sediments; these fluids carried suspended
particulate matter, mainly clay minerals, which were deposited on detrital grain surfaces
as grain-tangential clay coatings or cutans (cf. Matlack et al., 1989).
Under the arid or semi-arid climatic conditions in which deposition occurred, meteoric
pore fluids were initially oxidising and relatively dilute but of variable pH (from mildly
acidic to mildly alkaline). These pore fluids leached unstable framework grains such as
ferromagnesian minerals and volcanic grains (Fig 2. l), generating early grain-dissolution
porosity (cf. Walker et al., 1978). However, Fet,’,, liberated into solution is unstable
under oxidising conditions, and tends to precipitate as hydrated iron oxides (Fe3+),generally
in association with the detrital clay matrix or infiltrated clay cutans (Fig. 2.2). As burial
proceeded, these hydrated oxides dehydrated, forming haematite which imparted a red
colour to the sediments. Folk (1974) suggested that this process requires about one
million years to complete.
 DIAGENETIC Time since sediment deposition (no scale implied) 11111)
PHASES
AND
TRANSFORMATION: EARL Y DIAGENESIS BURIAL DIAGENESIS UPLIFT
Infiirallon d d m l clay cutan
Hydratediron ox& later dehy
dnled to haemalttB
Amofphous manganoan
Local& or nodular pynte clays
?Early grain disolutmn
Grain coating chlmle
-
Microouhedral syntarial quah
overgrowths
Non-brroan cakfleldolmtte
Ferroan cdcfle
Authlpenic slbffe
Gnin dissolution
Authlgena zedtte (laumanttte)
Analase
Kaolinile
Syntaual qua- overgrWhs
Illttisalion
Local pyrr(e

DISSOLUTION

COMPACTION

WATER
CHEMISTRY

ocal increase in porosity through grain dis-
EFFECTS
Jlution. Pore loss through blocky calcite
nd quartz cementation. Some loss of pore
POROSITY
mnectivity through chlorite precipitation.
'I Overail porosity increase due
to grain dissdution. Some
Pore loss due to albite and
II ferroan calcite precipitation.
Major pore loss through compaction and quartz cementation.
Kaolinite and illite iixrease pore tortuosity, the former particularly
in grain-dissolution pores.

Fig. 1. Generalised diagenetic sequence for the Khorat Group and Nam Phong Formation.
324 The Mesozoic Khorat Group, NE Thailand: Part 2

Where organic debris, particularly plant material, was present, reducing conditions
prevailed. Under these conditions, pore-water sulphate ions were reduced to sulphides,
which combined with free iron in solution to precipitate “early” pyrite. Where pore fluids
were more concentrated, possibly as a result of evaporation, conditions were more
alkaline with high concentrations of bicarbonate (HC03-)produced by the oxidation of
organic matter. This combined with Ca2+ions in solution resulting in calcite precipitation,
locally forming caliche-type micrite (Naylor et al., 1989). The “early diagenetic” nature
of this cement in samples studied is suggested by its occurrence in intraclasts. Later, non-
ferroan calcite appears to be more sparry in nature (Fig. 2.3); its non-ferroan character
indicates that it has probably originated from oxidising pore fluids lacking substantial
iron in solution. Where abundant, non-ferroan calcite inhibits most of the silicate-related
early-diagenetic processes. Subsequently, increasing concentrations of iron in solution
were incorporated into the calcite, resulting in ferroan calcite precipitation.
Where magnesium concentrations were locally raised, non-ferroan dolomite replaced
“early” non-ferroan calcite. The exact timing of this cement is uncertain, but it probably
pre-dates the burial-related ferroan calcite.
These chemical reactions consumed acidic ions and oxygen, leaving pore waters
neutral or weakly alkaline and mildly reducing. Under these conditions, iron concentrations
in solution rose; iron ions combined with dissolved silicates and precipitated chlorite as
grain-coating plates. These are particularly well-developed on detrital clay cutan substrates
(Fig. 2.4). Chloritisation of rock fragments and micas probably occurred during this
phase, possibly utilising a source of Mg2+from evaporitically-concentrated, hypersaline
brines. Excess silica in solution was probably taken up as microquartz euhedra on detrital
grain surfaces. These are commonly enclosed by later syntaxial quartz overgrowths but
are rarely preserved.
Burial Diagenesis
Progressive burial and increasing overburden resulted in mechanical compaction,
which was initially manifested by grain rotation and slippagetogether with brittle fracturing.
Further compaction led to minor pressure solution, and silica was precipitated as euhedral,
syntaxial overgrowths. Silica already in solution may also have contributed to quartz
overgrowths.
During ferroan calcite precipitation, pore-fluid recharge from the depositional surface
probably ceased, and generally inert, residual pore fluids maintained contact with the
diagenetically-modified sediment. Eventually,ferroan calcite precipitation ceased, probably
due to depletion of HCOI- ions. Na+ ions available in solution then combined with
dissolved silicate ions to precipitate albite as epitaxial overgrowths on locally leached
detrital plagioclase grains or to albitise detrital feldspars (Figs. 2.5, 2.6, 3.1 and 3.2).
Morad et al. (1990) suggested that the temperatures required for albitisation of plagioclase
grains range from 75°C to 100°C.
Fig. 2.(Scale bar in microns):
Fig. 2.1. Nam Phong Formation: Volcanics and dusty plagioclase grains. Typical volcanic lithic
grains are shown here (V), consisting of fine plagioclase feldspar phenocrysts set in a haematitic
cryptocrystallinegroundmass.Dusty, kaolinitisedplagioclasefeldspar (P) is also present. ppl.
Fig. 2.2. Nam Phong formation:Grain-coatinghaematiticclay (armwed) is here recordedenclosed
by syntaxial quartz overgrowths(9). ppl.
Fig. 2.3. Sao Khua Formation: Pervasive, framework-stabilisingnon-ferroancalcite (C) is shown
here. ppl.
Fig. 2.4. Nam Phong Formation:Degraded microcrystallinechloriteplates (urrowed) are shownhere
developed as a pore-filling phase and on detrital clay substrates. SEM.
Fig. 2.5. Nam Phong Formation:Epitaxial albiteovergrowths(A) are shownhere upon both detrital
plagioclase (P) and orthoclase (0)grains. ppl.
Fig. 2.6. Khok Kruat Formation:Epitaxialalbiteovergrowths(A) are shown here upon both detrital
plagioclase (P) and othoclase (0)grains. ppl.
 A . C. Canham etal. 32

_ .
2.1 2.2

_ .

2.3 2.4

2.5 2.6
Fig. 2. See caption on page 324.

Compaction of nearby shales resulted in the expulsion of pore fluids. These fluids were
probably reducing, dilute and relatively acidic, resulting in the dissolution of unstable
framework grains such as feldspars and volcanic fragments. Where volcanic fragments
are particularly abundant, this led to the precipitation of authigenic zeolites, laumontite
in particular (Fig. 3.6),indicating palaeotemperatures in excess of 100°C (Hoffman and
Hower, 1979). Dissolution of titaniferous framework grains resulted in local precipitation
of anatase, particularly within secondary pores.
326 The Mesozoic Khorat Group, NE Thailand: Part 2

Under acidic conditions, aluminosilicates were precipitated from solution in the form
of booklets and aggregates of kaolinite, which partially infill secondary grain-dissolution
pores, reflecting low aluminium mobility (Curtis, 1983). Depletion of aluminium
subsequently allowed widespread precipitation of syntaxial quartz overgrowths (Figs.
3.3 and 3.4), which were possibly enhanced by silica derived from continuing pressure
solution (Fig. 3.5). A down-section decrease in authigenic quartz suggests net transport
of silica from hotter, deeper sediments, perhaps in response to pore-fluid convection (cf.
Haszeldine et al., 1984), although this has yet to be verified.
As burial progressed, pore fluids became highly reducing, and K’ ions substituted into
detrital clays, authigenic chlorite and kaolinite, resulting in illitisation. Locally, “late”
pyrite precipitation ultimately occurred.
Unpublished burial and thermal-history modelling carried out by the Authors (using
AFTA, vitrinite-reflectanceand spore-colourationdata) suggests that, during the Palaeocene,
the basal part of the Khorat Group reached maximum burial depths and palaeotemperatures
of c.8,OOOm and 15O-17O0C,respectively; the upper parts of the Khorat Group did not
experience burial conditions exceeding 3,500m and 80- 100°C. These temperatures are
within the illite stability field (Freed and Peacor, 1989; Small, 1993) and the “silica
mobility window” of 60-100°C (McBride, 1989).
Using the compaction curve of Baldwin and Butler (1985), “mean minus-cement”
porosity values (defined as primary intergranularporosity and cementphases in intergranular
pores), which range from 6.6% (Nam Phong Formation) to 35.5% (Sao Khua Formation),
suggest burial depths for framework stabilisation of between 1Skm and >7.0km. The Sao
Khua Formation shows anomalously low compaction, due to stabilisation by framework-
supporting carbonate cements during early diagenesis at burial depths of t l .Okm.
Uplift-related diagenesis
Mid-Cretaceous uplift has been modelled for the northern part of the study area
(Lovatt-Smithetal., 1996);however, this does not appear to have resulted in any appreciable
diagenetic modification of the samples analysed. Although samples were selected in
order to minimise the degree of weathering exhibited, it was inevitable that some effects
would be observed. Such effects are dominated by replacement of labile grains and clays
by a manganoan, iron-rich amorphous clay. Unfortunately, it is not possible to fully
separate burial from uplift-related diagenetic effects, and interpretations thus rely on the
sampling of material which is as unaltered as possible.
SANDBODY GEOMETRY
The Khorat Group consists of stacked sequences of sandstones (of variable reservoir
quality) and non-reservoir mudstones and siltstones. The latter may act as permeability
barriers and baffles, and will markedly increase the tortuosity of potential migration
pathways for hydrocarbons,and could seriously impair fluid flow on a productiontimescale.
Reservoir modelling will depend greatly on the known or estimated net-to-gross ratios,
and sandbody geometry and connectivity. These parameters in turn will depend upon the
nature of the fluvial facies comprising the reservoir, and the distribution of intra-reservoir
permeability breaks formed by floodplain and lacustrine lithologies.
Fig. 3. (Scale bar in microns):
Fig. 3.1. Wok Kruat Formation:In this view, albite (urrowed)is seen to enclosehaematiticplagioclase
grains (P). ppl.
Fig. 3.2. Phra Wihan Formation: A secondary grain-dissolutionvoid, probably after plagioclase
feldspar,is here partiallyinfilled by authigenicalbite (A), which is partiallycorrodedand overgrown
by fibrous illite (urrowed).SEM.
Fig. 3.3. Phra Wihan Formation: Platy kaolinite(K) is here seen W i n g an intergranularpore. Note
that euhedral syntaxial quartz overgrowths (9) locally enclose kaolinitic plates (urrowed).SEM.
 A. C. Canlzam etal. 327

Fig. 3 (cont.)

Fig. 3.4. Phra Wihan Formation: platy kaolinite (K) here infills an intergranular pore. Note that
euhedral syntaxial quartz overgrowths (9) locally enclose kaolinitic plates (urrowed). SEM.
Fig. 3.5.Phra Wihan Formation: This view shows a strongly compacted and detrital clay-rich fabric.
Note the stylolitised grain contacts, which are well developed (urrowed). ppl.
Fig. 3.6, Phra Wihan Formation: Here, a large ?volcanicdetrital grain has been leached and infilled
by pore-lining quartz and pore-filling laumontite (L). Crossed-nicols.
328 The Mesozoic Khorat Group, NE Thailand: Part 2

ROODPLAN P E R M A M I T Y
VARABLY NTERcophEcTm BARFERS AN) BAFFLES
FLJWAL
\
k t

B.
ASPECT
0--
Jog. NAM pm)Ho FM) ~C€SSwl.r*arlmaocrS

Fig. 4. Schematic diagram of sandbody connectivity,contrastingbraided and meandering fluvial

systems. The lateral extent shown is of the order of one to ten km,while the vertical extent represents
a few tensof metres.

A schematic diagram of possible sandbody geometries is presented in Fig. 4, which

depicts both meandering and braided fluvial reservoir-body geometries. The level of
lateral and vertical sandbody connectivity is of paramount importance in modelling this
type of fluvial reservoir. Reserves in-place calculations and producibility will depend on
the type of fluvial system which deposited these sequences. Heggemann (1994) has
suggested that the Khorat Group fluvial systems evolved from being proximal in the east
to distal in the west of the Khorat area.
In addition to the subsurface configuration of potential reservoir bodies, the variable
petrophysical characteristics of the sandstones will also be important in determining
reservoir quality, and these are discussed below. It is suggested, therefore, that reservoir
modelling of Khorat Group strata will require substantial inter-well correlations and, in
the absence of sufficientcore material, detailed wireline log interpretationsand correlations.
MICROTEXTURAL CONTROLS ON RESERVOIR QUALITY
Table 1 summarises key petrographic data for the Khorat Group/Nam Phong Formation
sandstones, together with mean occurrences of the major pore types and cements. The
variation of cement types throughout the Khorat Group and underlying Nam Phong
Formation is illustrated in greaterdetail in Figs 5 to 7. Fig. 5 shows the variation in detrital
clays; Fig. 6 shows the variation of calcite and ferroan calcite; while variations of
authigenic silica and kaolinite are shown in Fig. 7. Given the variability in the distribution
of porosity and authigenic cements, each formation is considered separately below.
Nam Phong Formation
The modal porosity (derived from 200 point-count analyses of each thin section) of
sediments in this formation averages 4.9% (ranging from zero to 16.5%). Mean grain
sizes of very fine to medium sand were recorded, and sorting is predominantly good.
However, the often extensive detrital clay matrix (0 - 31.5%) occludes most of the
primary pore space.
Primary Porosity
Primary interparticle porosity (0 - 4.5%; average 1.5%) comprises generally small
pores that are often isolated by the detrital clay matrix. The pore size is also reduced by
 A . C. Canham e t n l . 329

Table 1.Summary of averaged petrographic data influencing reservoir potential, for the Khorat
Group and Nam Phong Formation.
-
Nam Phu Khok
I
Formation
rriong I u
I nl---- riradung [ Phra (Sao KhualPhu Phanl Kruat
Wihan
Number of
18 19 14 12 14 12
samples
Porosity 4.9% 6.4% 5.9% 11.5% 10.8% 11.0%
primary 1.5% 2.2% 2.8% 1.5% 6.8% 7.3%
secondary 3.2% 3.0% 2.5% 8.0% 3.3% 2.5%
microporosity 0.2% 1.1% 0.6% 2.0% 0.8% 1.3%
Silica 1.4% 6.0% 6.7% 1.5% 9.3% 1.3%
Calcite (ferroan
3.4% 3.5% 1.3% 26.5% Absent Absent
and non-ferroan)
Kaolinite 0.3% 2.1% 4.1% 2.0% 1.a% Absent
Detrital clay 9.6% 0.2% 4.8% 3.5% 1.9% 0.8%

Fig. 6
l6 T Fig. 5 25 T &

11 -

\
I
I
I
’
5 -
I
I
,
’ , _---_
l I
I
.1 ’

Fig. 5.Averaged detrital clay matrix percentages

by formation, indicating an overall upward
cleaning throughout the Khorat Group/ Nam
Phong Formation.

Fig. 6. Averaged calcite and ferroan calcite

percentages by formation, emphasising the
importance of early-diagenetic non-ferroan
calcite cements in the Sao Khua Formation.

Fig. 7.Averaged silica and kaolinite percentages

by formation. Note the depletionof silica cement
in the calcite cemented Sao Khua Formation,
and a general decrease in silica cement with
increasingstratigraphic age.
330 The Mesozoic Khorat Group, N E Thailand: Part 2

mechanical compaction, which is commonly moderate or high in intensity. Compactional

effects have reduced the overall pore volume and narrowed pore throats, with grain
contacts that are frequently concavo-convex or sutured.
A Houseknecht diagram for the Nam Phong Formation (Fig. 8) shows that both
cementation and compaction influence reservoir potential. Non-ferroan carbonates (both
calcite and dolomite) are also important locally in occluding primary porosity. Non-
ferroan calcite (0 - 19.0%; average 3.4%) occludes primary porosity, and partially offsets
the effects of mechanical compaction, where extensive, by stabilising the detrital grain
framework. This leads to the preservation of low levels of compaction locally.
Secondary Porosity
Secondary (grain-dissolution) porosity (0 - 1 1.5%; average 3.2%) comprises pores that
are generally isolated, and are only connected via relict, primary-pore networks. Locally,
however, grain-dissolution pores are frequent and show limited connectivity. Secondary
pores range from open grain-shaped voids, through leached grains, to microporosity
within partially-dissolved detrital grains. Rarely, authigenic kaolinite booklets (0 - 2.5%;
average 0.3%) are recorded infilling secondary pores.
Microporosity (0 - 1.0%;average 0.2%) is probably present in all samples, but could
not be quantified by optical microscopy, as it comprises pores el .Opm in size. Micropores
are mainly associated with compacted or cemented pore throats and detrital clay matrix.
Phu Kradung Formation
The modal porosity (1.5 - 21 .O%; average 6.4%) comprises pore fabrics that include
open, well-connected primary pore networks to effectively isolated, secondary pores.
Pore dimensions are largest in coarser-grained sandstones, although compaction and
cementation both modify this depositional control. The grain size ranges from very fine
to medium sand, with fine sand predominant, and sorting ranges from poor to generally
good. This results in the development of relatively small but uniformly-distributed primary
pores.
Primary Porosity
Primary interparticle porosity (0 - 15.0%; average 2.2%) consists of pores that are
relatively small and often occluded by a variety of mineral phases. Detrital clays are
locally abundant (2.0 - 18.0%), and occlude the primary pore space. Where detrital clays
are less abundant, they occur as grain-coating fringes; these increase the tortuosity at pore
throats, and locally act as a substrate for the later growth of authigenic chlorite or illite,
which further contribute to increased pore tortuosity. Syntaxial quartz overgrowths (0.5
- 20.5%; average 6.0%) are also important in pore occlusion. Where abundant, quartz
overgrowths interlock, bridging and occluding pores. Where they are less abundant,
overgrowths restrict pore throats and reduce connectivity. However, overgrowths impart
an angular, geometric shape to pores, smooth the pore walls, and reduce the roughening
effects of clay minerals.
Calcite is locally important (0 - 24.0%; average 3.5%); where abundant, it forms an
interlocking, pore-filling cement, leaving residual intercrystalline microporosity. The
non-ferroan calcite predates compaction and thus partially offsets compactional pore-
volume loss. The effects of mechanical compaction are shown in Fig. 9, which demonstrates
that this is the main cause of intergranular volume loss in the Phu Kradung Formation.
Secondary Porosity
Secondary grain-dissolution porosity (0.5 - 9.5%; average 3.0%) comprises pores that
include rare open, grain-shaped voids, partially-dissolved detrital grains, and intragranular
micropores. Locally, the secondary pores are locally well connected with the primary
 A. C. Canham etal. 33 1

INTERGRANULAR VOLUME (%)

Fig. 8. Houseknecht diagram for the Nam Phong Formation, suggesting the importance of both
compaction and cementation in reducing the reservoir potential of this unit. (n=9).

pore network, but in general they appear to be more isolated, often by relict grain-coating
clays.
Kaolinite (0 - 7.5%; average 2.1%) is the main secondary pore-occluding mineral, and
occurs as aggregates of booklets, which contain microporosity. Locally, rare ferroan
calcite is also recorded, and partially infills the secondary pores.
Microporosity (0- 2.0%; average 1.1%) is mainly associated with detrital clay minerals,
authigenic kaolinite and compacted or cemented pore throats.
Phra Wihan Formation
The modal porosity of 0 - 15.5% (average 5.9%) and pore size are largely controlled
by grain size, which is predominantly of fine- or medium-sand grade. Sorting is
predominantlymoderate. Therefore, intergranularpores range from very small to moderate
in size, (although relatively small pores are most common). However, grain-size and -
sorting controls on porosity are overprintedby the detrital clay content and other diagenetic
factors.
Primary Porosity
Primary interparticle porosity (0 - 9.5%; average 2.8%) is sporadically occluded by a
detrital clay matrix (0 - 22.0%; average 4.8%), which is generally of limited extent in this
formation. However, detrital clays may form grain-tangential coatings. These greatly
increase pore-wall roughness and pore-throat tortuosity, and also provide a substrate for
the growth of authigenic chlorite and illite plates and fibres. Syntaxial quartz overgrowths
are also well developed (0 - 14.5%; average 6.7%), and these narrow pore throats and
partially block pores. Overgrowthsalso smooth pore walls, and impart an angular geometry
to the primary pore network.
332 The Mesozoic Khorat Group, NE Thailand: Part 2

Early-diagenetic, framework-stabilising, non-ferroan calcite cement is rare (0 - 10.0%;

average 1.3%). Samples studied rarely contained a pervasive calcite cement; where
present, however, it offset the effects of compaction, and pore spaces were occluded by
blocky calcite while open porosity was confined to intercrystalline microporosity.
Mechanical compaction is the principal control on reservoir potential, as indicated by the
Houseknecht diagram (Fig. 9).
Secondary Porosity
Secondary grain-dissolution porosity (0 - 6.5%; average 2.5%) consists of sporadically-
distributed, rare, grain-shaped voids, and more common partially-dissolved grains
(particularly feldspars). Secondary pores are frequently occluded by kaolinite booklets
(0 - 16.0%; average 4.1%).
Microporosity (0 - 2.0%; average 0.6%) is present in compacted or cemented pore
throats, and in association with detrital clay matrix and authigenic clays, particularly
kaolinite. Micropores are also present in partially-dissolved feldspar grains, and
intercrystalline spaces in areas of pervasive calcite cementation.
Sao Khua Formation
Modal porosity (4.0 to 19.0%; average 11.5%) and pore size are largely controlled by
grain size (which was mostly very fine or fine sand-grade), while sorting ranges from
poor to good. This results in generally small (but variable) primary pore dimensions.
However, a variety of diagenetic effects overprint this porosity system, as does the
distribution of detrital clays.
Primary Porosity
Primary interparticle porosity ranges from 0.5 to 10.5% (average 1.5%). Low-to-
moderate compaction has marginally reduced the overall pore volume and narrowed the
pore throats. Detrital clays (2.5 - 4.5%; average 3.5%) block pores and coat grains,
thereby increasing pore-throat tortuosity, but will have little overall effect on reservoir
quality owing to their low abundance.
Quartz overgrowths are present locally (0 - 6.0%; average 1.5%), and may narrow the
pore throats. However, their low abundance and sporadic occurrence suggest that their
overall effect will not be significant. Non-ferroan calcite is locally pervasive (0 - 49.5%;
average 26.5%). This is interpreted as being derived from caliche horizons, and is not
therefore likely to be laterally extensive. Where it is encountered, however, calcite is the
main control on reservoir quality, and offsets compactional pore-volume loss.
Secondary Porosity
Secondarygrain-dissolutionporosity ( 1.O - 17.0%;average 8.0%)includes intergranular,
open grain-shaped voids, and intragranular pores within partially-leached feldspar grains.
Locally, grain-dissolutionmicroporosityis also recorded within leached, micritic carbonate
grains.
Secondary pores may be occluded by kaolinite booklets (0 - 4.0%; average 2.0%),
which reduce open macroporosity to ineffective microporosity. Ferroan calcite in minor
proportions (up to 1 .O%) infills secondary pores.
Microporosity (1.5 - 2.5%; average 2.0%) occurs in a variety of phases: detrital clay
matrix; compacted or cemented pore throats; authigenic kaolinite booklets; and
intercrystalline spaces within pervasive mosaics of calcite cement.
Phu Phan Formation
The modal porosity ranges from 7.5 to 14.0%(average; 10.8%).The mean grain size
ranges from very fine to medium sand grade, while sorting is moderate to good. This
 A. C. Canham etal. 333

FORMATW CODES
1= Kh& Kfual Formelion
a = Phu Phan Formatan
X = Saa Khua Formallon
+ = mra Wihan bmtm
Y = Phu KfadungFormation

50.0

15.0

.0.0

35.0

30.0

-
E
25.0

20.0
€4

W
6 15.0

ID.0

5.0

0.0

INTERGRANULAR VOLUME (%)

Fig. 9. Houseknecht diagram for the Khorat Group (Phu Kradung to Khok Kruat Formations),
indicatingthe dominance of compactionover cementation particularly for the Phra Wihan and Phu
Kradung Formations. NB.Seven Sao Khua Formation samplesplot off-scale(>so% intergranular
volume and cement), and these were omitted to conform both to Houseknecht (1987)and to highlight
variations within the bulk of the Khorat Group. (n=30).
results in a pore network of relatively uniform size. However, mechanical compaction
and the distribution of the detrital clay matrix, together with a variety of diagenetic
processes, has significantly modified this primary pore fabric. Mechanical compaction
ranges from low to high, resulting in overall pore-volume loss and the narrowing of pore
throats at points of grain contact. Detrital clays (0.5 - 3.0%; average 1.9%) are generally
not pervasive, but their grain-coatinghabit has increased pore-throat tortuosity. In addition,
they provide a substrate for the later growth of authigenic illite and/or chlorite. Fig. 9
indicates that mechanical compaction and cementation have been of equal importance in
influencing reservoir properties.
Primary Porosity
The primary interparticle porosity (1.5 - 10.0%;average 6.8%) has been reduced by
mechanical compaction and the distribution of detrital clays. However, cementation due
to quartz overgrowths is locally severe (3.0 - 14.0%;average 9.3%); these overgrowths
block otherwiseopen pores and narrow pore throats, and often coalesceto form interlocking,
pore-bridging structures. The overgrowths contribute to pore-wall smoothing, and impart
an angular shape to the primary pore geometries.
334 The Mesozoic Khorat Group, NE Thailand: Part 2

Secondary Porosity
Secondary grain-dissolution porosity (1.5 - 9.0%;average 3.3%) consists of pores that
range from open, grain-shaped voids to partially-dissolved or “honeycombed’ feldspar
grains. Secondary pores are not generally interconnected, and connectivity therefore
relies on the relict primary pore system. Grain-dissolution pores are locally occluded
by microporous kaolinite booklets (0 - 6.0%; average 1.8%).
Microporosity (0.5 - 1.0%; average 0.8%) is mainly associated with compacted or
quartz-cemented pore throats. Locally, micropores are associated with authigenic clays,
particularly kaolinite, and detrital clay matrix.
Khok Kruat Formation
The modal porosity ranges from 7.5 to 14.5% (average 11.0%). The mean grain size
ranges from very fine to fine sand grade, and sorting is good, resulting in primary pores
of uniform but relatively small size. The pore size has been reduced, however, by both
mechanical compaction and the precipitation of diagenetic minerals, in addition to the
detrital clay matrix.
Primary Porosity
Primary interparticle porosity varies from 2.5 to 12.0% (average 7.3%). Pore sizes
have been reduced by moderate levels of mechanical compaction, and pore throats are
narrowed at points of grain contact. However, Fig. 9 indicates that cementational processes
have been more important than compaction in influencing the reservoir potential.
Detrital clays are sparse (0.5 - 1.0%; average 0.8%) and generally occur as grain
coatings,thereby marginally increasing pore-throat tortuosity. Syntaxialquartz overgrowths
are also rare (0.5 - 2.0%; average 1.3%),but may narrow or block pore throats and occlude
the primary pores. Locally, they impart an angular shape to primary-pore geometries, and
smooth pore walls roughened by detrital clays.
Secondary Porosity
Secondary grain-dissolution pores are relatively sparse (2.5%),and consist of isolated,
open, grain-shaped voids, and leached feldspar grains. Pore connectivity therefore relies
on the primary pore network. Kaolinite was not recorded as a secondary pore-filling
phase in the Khok Kruat Formation.
Microporosity (trace to 2.5%; average 1.3%) is associated with the detrital clay matrix,
skeletal feldspar grains and compacted pore throats.

In summary: Mean, modal primary porosity decreases from about 11% in the Khok
Kruat Formation, to <4.9% in the Nam Phong Fm. (Fig. lo), while the ratio of secondary
grain-dissolution porosity to primary porosity increases. The Sao Khua Formation is
anomalous in showing low primary porosity and high grain-dissolution porosity, possibly
related to a local abundance of labile detrital grains (especially carbonate and caliche
clasts).

SOURCE POTENTIAL

The principal source rocks in NE Thailand are located in the pre-Khorat Group section.
Thick carbonates of Permian age, together with the lacustrine shales of the Triassic Huai
Hin Lat Formation (Dat Fa Shale Member) are particularly important. However, organic
matter within claystones, shales and lignites/coals from the Khorat Group was analysed
for source potential (by TOC analysis, Rock-Eval pyrolysis) and maturity (by vitrinite
reflectance and spore colouration). The results are summarised below.
 A. C. Canham et al. 335

l2 I

\
\

,
Khok Kruat Phu Phan Sao Khua Phra Wihan Phu Kradung Narn Phong

Formation

I- -
- Primary interparticle
porosity
0 0 0 oo 0 Secondary grain dissolution
porosity
- Microporosity
Mite crystallinity (Weaver) 1
Fig. 10. Average modal porosity values by formation plotted cumulatively, indicating a decrease in
open porosity with increasing geological age. This is seen to be due to a general decrease in the
preservationof primary interparticleporosity,mainly due to compaction.The ratio of secondary to
primary pores increases with increasing age. Illite crystallinity is not significantlyhigh, probably
reflectingan inheriteddetrital-clay dominatedassemblage.

It should be noted that sample selection was primarily based on obtaining organic-rich
samples suitable for palynological analysis (see Racey et al., 1996). Therefore, the
sample base does not allow a rigorous, systematic evaluation of the source potential of
the Khorat Group sediments. In fact, the results presented here probably overstate the
source potential, because they represent atypically organic-rich lithologies.
The Khorat Group is composed principally of red beds, and these sediments are often
highly weathered resulting in the formation of oxidised organic assemblages and
anomalously high vitrinite reflectance values. Spore colouration indices (TAI) can more
accurately be interpreted in terms of thermal maturity, and were measured wherever
possible. Most of the samples analysed had very low pyrolysate yields, partly due to
reworking and facies changes in this fluvial-dominated sequence.
Nam Phong Formation: Claystone, siltstone and sandstone samples from this unit all
had poor source potential, with total organic carbon (TOC) values of 0.03 - 0.11% and
pyrolysate yields of 0.02 - O.lOmg/g. Poor quality maturity data provides a vitrinite
reflectance of 0.9 1% Ro, and a thermal alteration index (TAI) of at least 2, indicating that
the samples were probably in the upper “oil window” phase of maturation.
Phu Kradung Formation: In general, the analysed sandstones, claystones, siltstones
and limestones had poor source potential, with TOC values of 0.05 - 0.22% and a minimal
potential (up to 0.13mg/g pyrolysate) for gas. Vitrinite reflectance values of 1.03% Ro
were recorded, and a TAI of 2-3 for the more southerly samples, indicating that the
336 The Mesozoic Khorat Group, NE Thailand: Part 2

samples were in the middle of the “oil window”. Samples to the west of Phitsanulok have
achieved 0.63% Ro and a TAI of 2, indicating top “oil window” conditions, and have
TOCs of 3.00% and good potential (3.35mg/g pyrolysate) for gas and condensate. Samples
from the extreme NW were eometamorphosed.
Phra Wihan Formation:In general, shales and siltstones from this formation have TOC
values of up to 0.35% and pyrolysate yields of 0.01 - 0.7mg/g. The organic material is
mostly wood. Thin coals (2-15cm thick) from near the base of the formation have TOC
values of up to 72.60% and yields of 35.63mg/g pyrolysate. In general, TAI ranged from
2 - 3 and vitrinite reflectance from 0.98 - 1.OO% Ro, indicating upper or mid ”oil window”
maturation.
Sao Khua Formation: Claystones and sandstones were extremely lean in terms of
organic content (0.04-0.1 1% TOC), and had negligible hydrocarbon potential (0.01-0.55
mg/g pyrolysate) for gas. Maturity data could not be obtained for these samples.
Phu Phan Formation: Samples were generally barren of organic materials, except for
rare coaly partings which have around 4% TOC (dominantly woody material), which
would be rated as a poor source (1.61 mg/g pyrolysate) for gas and condensate. Maturity
data indicates a TAI of about 2, and 0.83% Ro, indicating that the samples are effectively
significantly mature due to the woody nature of the organic material (equivalent to “oil
window” maturation).
Khok Kruat Formation:No samples from this formation were available for geochemical
evaluation.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The petrographic investigations reported here show that the mean primary interparticle
porosity decreases with increasing geological age (and inferred burial depth) from
approximately 7.3% in the Khok b a t Formation (the uppermost unit in the Khorat
Group) to <1.5% in the Nam Phong Formation (at the base of the group), while the
ratio of secondary to primary pores increases with age correspondingly. This reflects
a variety of factors, including increasing contents of detrital clays and increasing
compactional pore-volume loss.
2. The Sao Khua Formation in the middle of the Khorat Group is anomalous, in that very
low primary interparticleporosities and very high secondary grain-dissolutionporosities
result from extensive caliche cementation and associated dissolution of labile grains.
3. All the formations studied have undergone early diagenesis typical of aridhemi-arid
continental clastics. Quartz overgrowths decrease with increasing age and maximum
burial depths, while kaolinite shows no consistent variation, due to its occurrence as
a product of deep-burial grain dissolution, which has affected all the formations.
Calcite predominates in the Sao Khua Formation, owing to the development of caliche
horizons.
4. Burial depths predicted from published compaction curves suggest >7.0 km of burial
for the Nam Phong Formation. The Khorat Group formations show similar maximum
burial depths, although the Sao KhuaFormation exhibits framework grain stabilisation
at burial depths of <1 .Okm; the early-diagenetic caliche cements prevented further
compactional pore-volume loss in this formation.
5. Limited sampling indicated that shales and mudstones from the Phu Kradung, Phra
Wihan, Sao Khua and Phu Phan Formations have TOCs of 0.05-4.14%; in some
samples, organic matter was at peak maturity. However, organic-rich intervals are too
areally restricted and too thin to be of significance in the study area, where source
rocks are principally located in the older Permian and Triassic sections.
 A. C. Canham et al. 337

Note added in pro08

On page 7 of Racey et al., 1996, we stated that the total thickness of the Khorat Group
is approximately 5,000 m; this should be 4,200 m. The greater thickness we quoted
includes the overlying Maha Sarakham Salt and Phu Tok Formation.
On p. 10 of that paper, we mentioned that evidence for incision due to base level
changes had not been identified within the Khorat Group. However, Drumm et al. (1993)
and Heggemann (1994) demonstrated on the basis of detailed sedimentological and
petrographic studies (especially in the Phrae area to the N W )that such changes may be
indicatedby the presence of coarse sandstonesin the Phra Wihan and Phu Phan Formations.
On p. 23, we suggested that there were two sources of sediment for the Phra Wihan
Formation: extra- and intrabasinal. An alternative model was suggested by Heggemann
(1994), and involves a fluvial system whose characteristics change from proximal in the
east of the Khorat area to distal in the west.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

A.R. and M.A.L. thankMr. PongsakPongprayoon (ChulalongkomUniversity,Bangkok)

for his assistance and guidance in the field, and Peter Walko (Geochem Group) for the
organic-geochemical analyses. The Geochem Group and British Gas E & P are gratefully
acknowledged for permission to publish and for the provision of technical assistance in
the preparation of this manuscript. Journal review was by an anonymous oil-company
expert in SE Asia, and Dr R. B. Stokes (Kingston University, UK).

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