Review

Modern diaper performance: construction, materials, and

safety review
Swatee Dey, PhD, Dianna Kenneally, BSCHE, MBA, Mauricio Odio, PhD, and
Ioannis Hatzopoulos, PhD

The Procter & Gamble Company, Abstract

Cincinnati, OH, USA A review of the literature on diapers and diaper rash reveals that many clinicians are
unfamiliar with modern diaper construction and materials as well as diaper safety testing
Correspondence
methods. Typical modern diapers do not contain ingredients of concern such as latex and
Swatee Dey, PhD
6280 Center Hill Ave disperse dyes, but use ingredients such as spandex and pigments with a favorable safety
Cincinnati, OH 45224 profile. Today’s disposable diaper is a high performance product whose carefully designed
E-mail: dey.s.3@pg.com layers and liners provide optimal urine and feces absorption and an ever more clothing-like
and comfortable fit. This is possible due to a variety of specialized polymer materials that
Funding sources: The authors disclose
receipt of financial support for the research,
provide optimal absorption of urine and feces, thereby minimizing skin exposure.
authorship, and/or publication of this article
from The Procter & Gamble Company.

Conflicts of interest: SD, DK, and IH are

employees of The Procter & Gamble
Company. MO is a former employee of The
Procter & Gamble Company.

ment is made, the product and chemicals move to confir-

Introduction
Estimates suggest that an infant using disposable diapers
may have more than 3,800 diaper changes before being
toilet trained, so it is critical that the materials and safety
of these diapers are well understood.
Diaper safety is thoroughly evaluated
Today’s modern diapers are primarily made of polymers,
including cellulose, polypropylene, polyester, and poly-
ethylene (Fig. 1). These materials are biologically inert
and apart from cellulose, not bioavailable. They are com-
monly used in fabrics and other materials that are in con-
tact with skin, and in foods and cosmetics.
Each material in a diaper is carefully evaluated for safety
based on the principles of the US National Academy of
Science and the World Health Organization. The ingredi-
ent composition is first evaluated for potential hazard and
dose–response assessment, and then the product is evalu-
ated for the potential exposure to the ingredient. This
quantitative safety assessment establishes the safe range
for use of the ingredient in the diaper. Additional factors
are used to compensate for the uncertainty associated with
18 extrapolating toxicity data. Once a positive safety assess-
matory clinical testing. No chemical or constituent is
exposed to humans until the safety of the constituent is
confirmed via traditional toxicological assessment. Confir-
matory clinical testing includes patch testing for skin irrita-
tion and sensitization, as well as consumer in use clinical
studies. Once the product is in market, it is continually
monitored for quality and consumer feedback to address
any product concerns including safety-related comments,
which are investigated and addressed appropriately.1–3
Modern design focuses on absorbency
The primary focus of an efficient diaper is to transport
the fluid away from the baby’s skin very quickly to
ensure that the skin remains dry and prevent leaks. The
topsheet of the diaper is designed to attract water and
transport the fluid away from the baby’s skin, passing it
on to the next layer. Once the liquid is absorbed by the
next layer, the topsheet feels dry against the baby’s skin.
Topsheets are typically made from a porous nonwoven
fabric, and apertured topsheets help to remove liquid
from liquid stool.
Topsheets in premium diapers today are treated with a
lotion comprised of pharmaceutical grade petrolatum and

International Journal of Dermatology 2016, 55 (Suppl. 1): 18–20 ª 2016 The International Society of Dermatology
Dey et al. Modern diaper performance Review 19

Fastener tape Inner cuff

Topsheet Elastic

Fastening hook
Frontears
Lotion
Umbilical notch
Backears

Tape fastening zone

Topsheet
Wetness indicator Superabsorbent
storage layer
Backsheet SAP
Backsheet

Figure 1 Composition of a leading disposable diaper. SAP, superabsorbent polymer

Table 1 Differences between pigments and disperse dyes

Disperse dyes
Attributes Pigments (Not used in diapers)

Solubility Organic or inorganic Highly soluble in water, oil,

material and common solvents
Practically insoluble in May absorb through skin
water, oil, and other
common solvents
Very low ability for skin
penetration
Figure 2 Liquid handling of modern diaper design cores Size Larger particles with Comparatively small
molecular weights > 500- molecules with most
700 Da. molecular weights
< 100 Da
stearyl alcohol (Fig. 2). This lotion acts as both a barrier These larger particles have These smaller particles have
to moisture and a skin-conditioning agent, which helps to much lower potential for greater skin penetration
reduce skin irritation and improve skin condition. Clinical skin penetration potential
studies have confirmed that lotion technology in diapers Safety Sensitization testing shows Some disperse dyes are
there are very few potential sensitizers
effectively helps to improve skin condition by reducing
pigments that induce
skin roughness.4 sensitization
The inner core of the diaper is made of a superabsor- For example, some disperse
bent polymer (SAP), also known as Absorbent Gel Mate- dyes used in textiles are
rial. The superabsorbent polymer can absorb more than known sensitizers
Usage in Colorants used in diapers Disperse dyes are not used
30 times its own weight in fluid.5 In the inner core, fluid
diapers are pigment based as diaper colorants
is bound into the SAP and locked away. More than 450
safety studies have been done to confirm its safety, includ-
ing assessments of systemic and local safety endpoints
such as skin irritation or sensitization.3,5–11 barrier. The pores are too small for water drops to leak
The backsheet of the diaper is typically made of a through, yet they release water vapor. The result means it
waterproof polyethylene film that serves as a microporous is drier outside and has lower relative humidity.

ª 2016 The International Society of Dermatology International Journal of Dermatology 2016, 55 (Suppl. 1): 18–20
20 Review Modern diaper performance
Color features also evaluated for safety
In the past there have been concerns about the use of
color in disposable diapers, suggesting usage of disperse
dyes.12 However, most leading disposable diaper manu-
facturers actually use pigments that are considered safe
for this purpose, not disperse dyes. Pigments are very
large molecules, practically insoluble, and do not induce
skin sensitization. They are commonly used in cosmetics,
food packaging, and medical applications. Traditional
toxicological assessments of pigments ensure systemic
safety of these pigments. In addition, local skin effects for
irritation and/or sensitization of colorants used in dispos-
able diapers have been tested via self-assessed sensitive
adult skin patch testing (number of subjects in various
studies ranged from 19 to 122) and show no skin irrita-
tion or sensitization concerns. Overall, the colorants are
deemed safe for use in diapers13 (Table 1).
Even though these pigment colors are safe, steps are
taken to limit their exposure and potential transfer to the
baby’s skin. Interior colors are incorporated in to the
polymer resin so they are bound to the polymer and can-
not leach out or transfer. Exterior colors adhere to the
backsheet and are covered by a soft layer of nonwoven
polypropylene fibers to help minimize skin contact. Fur-
thermore, todays premium diapers have eliminated the
use of natural rubber and latex components and use syn-
thetic polymer Lycra, which is commonly used in cloth-
ing.
Thorough evaluations ensure safety and
performance of modern disposable diapers
Today’s disposable diaper is a high performance and
well-tested product whose carefully designed layers and
liners provide optimal absorption and have a more cloth-
ing-like, comfortable fit. This is possible due to a variety
of specialized polymer materials that provide optimal
absorption of urine and feces, thereby minimizing skin
exposure. They are designed to keep skin dry and healthy,
are made from common materials that have an estab-
International Journal of Dermatology 2016, 55 (Suppl. 1): 18–20
Dey et al.
lished safety pedigree, and do not contain sensitizing dis-
perse dyes or latex.
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ª 2016 The International Society of Dermatology