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:FAM 2. !AKI??GD? D JDFD??>MD? >BAA>OBC
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5GO?>FCDDG: a.: 2.1.1.
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8OCG@CFO: 1.1.1.; 3.1.1.; 3.2.1.

)?K@ IFAMC. :?C9DA>G: \bRYdbS` VO QOQ`bS
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5GO?>FCDDG: a.: 2.1.1.
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5GO?>FCDDG: a.: 2.1.1.
M?>IF>C: , , ()2, ()2, ()2, ()3,
3, 2, 3, YbPWSQ d CS]OYC`bYSd], OTb, V\OKd\Pd, Q`b-
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+A@ IFAMC
9YU QORTb]dd FAODBCDDD Sd`SYT TSWO]Q`\d\SS` QYSTSGFdN OVQ`. U
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Ç a 29
:FAM 5. HD>KAOC – DJ >A>OCB, MKC>>D1DMCDDG, GC-
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5GO?>FCDDG: a.: 2.1.1.
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]bdWS]Ob]dS.
ç ü
1) > #' =+*%% &"(" %"$+$'-#0 #-" %" 7#-* "$"+"$
ü
"', %""/"=" /0 &''& &'--"&, # %" -#7# #-#
"*# -'&' #-"+"$ "'?
2) #" !0 &'($* """0 #-" # 7#-'& 7'#'&
p
+!$ #-""=" "?
a
Ç
30
3) ##&# (&# %""/&# %"-*7 #-"?
4) #! %"-'$"'-0"0 $"-( /0 "/-$' %+# "-
-'## =+4#7'#3 4"+&*- #-"+"$"$'+(#3 #-"?
Xd`SYT VO\SbS` QSWS PYbQQS, dRSd `SWS 5 dR SSK]dPb, O`S`d`T
]b QDSV\dSTS]]QS OV\OQQ (13-15 Wd].). ]OQYS BÒO O\b]dRSG`QU
WbYQS \SVVQ (4-5 SYOSP) d dW VO\SbS`QU QVOY]S]dS QYSTSGFdM Rb-
Tb]dN:
I >FIEEC. b) U QOO`S`Q`dd Q ]dESV\dSTS]]ON QMSWON ]bVdDd`S
S\b]S]dU TSM \SbPHdN:
QOYT + 2 4 i ]ObU QOYT + ]ObU PdQYO`b
K) 6bVdDd`S `\d KSQPdQYO\OT]QS PdQYO`Q d SPbEd`S dM ]bdWS]Ob-
]dS. XPbEd`S O`TSYT]OQ`d dM PdQYO`]QS OQ`b`Pd.
II >FIEEC. b) U QOO`S`Q`dd Q ]dESV\dSTS]]ON QMSWON ]bVdDd`S
S\b]S]dS \SbPHdd:
PdQYO`]QN OPQdT + 2 i PdQYO`b
K) XPbEd`S ]bRb]dS VOYSS]]ON PdQYO`Q d QOQ`bT`S SS \bCdSQPSG
CO\WSYS.
III >FIEEC. b) 6bVdDd`S CO\WSYQ TSM KSQPdQYO\OT]QM d TSM PdQ-
YO\OTQOTS\EbFdM PdQYO` d SPbEd`S dM ]bRb]dU.
K) ]OYSd`S PdQYO`S 34 dRSQ`]QWd bW TSWU QVOQOKbWd. WOQ-
`bT`S S\b]S]dU \SbPHdN.
IV >FIEEC. b) WOQ`bT`S \bCdSQPSG CO\WSYS PdQYO`Q 34 d ]b-
l
VdDd`S SS PdQYO`]QN OQ`bÒP.
K) 6bVdDd`S OPQdTQ BYSWS]Ò QOO`S`Q`dd Q dM bYS]`-

]OQ`TG; PbPdS PdQYO`Q VOYSb`QU \SRSYT`b`S dM RbdWOTSNQ`dU Q
y i
OTON? 6bVdDd`S S\b]S]dU \SbPHdN.
d e
6b QVOY]S]dS RbTb]dN OÒTd`QU 8-10 Wd]S`. ]O dQ`SS]dd SPbRb]-
]OO \SWS]d O`S`Q OKQSETbG`QU, SÒ]UG`QU. 9SU`SYT]OQ`T \SVV AD?-
GDBC?O>G VO ]dESV\dSTS]]QW P\d`S\dUW: OK4SW d VOY]O`b O`S`b,
ü n
S\]OQ`T d Ò]OQ`T O`SÒ, O`S`Q ]b TOVOY]d`SYT]QS OV\OQQ, QO-
`\ST]dSQÒ \SVVS, S\OS]T V\SRS]`bHdd.
ü ç
a p
Ç 31
:FAM 6. D;D??>MD? D JDFD??>MD?
>BAA>OBC MD>KAO
8OCG@CFO: 2.2.1.; 2.2.2.; 3.1.1.

)?K@ IFAMC. :?C9DA>G: \bRYdbS` PdQYO`Q VO
dM CdRdSQPdW QONQ`bW O` T\SdM QYOE]QM S-
FSQ`; RbVdQQbS` S\b]S]dU \SbPHdN, O`]OQUFdM-
QU P bE]QW MdWdSQPdW QONQ`bW PdQYO` (Rb-
dWOTSNQ`dS Q WS`bYYbWd, OQ]O]QWd d bWCO`S\-
]QWd OPQdTbWd, OQ]Ob]dUWd d ]SPOÒ\QWd QOYU-
Wd, \bRYOES]dS ]SPOÒ\QM PdQYO` V\d ]b\Sb]dd
d OKQ]QM SQYOdUM); V\OOTd` OVQ`Q, O`]OQUFdSQU P ]SPOÒ\QW
MdWdSQPdW QONQ`bW PdQYO`.
5GO?>FCDDG: a.: 2.1.1.
M?>IF>C: WS`bYYQ , , , \bRKbYS]]QS \bQÒ\Q PdQYO` ,
2 4, 3 d 34, \bQÒ\Q QOYSN 3, 2, 2, OPQdTQ
, , \bQÒ\Q 2, , V\OKd\Pd, MdWdSQPdS Q`bPb]Q, \bQ-
Ò\Q YbPWSQb d CS]OYC`bYSd]b, QVd\ÒPb dYd bRObU YbWVb, SSK]dP.
l
+A@ IFAMC
9YU QORTb]dU FAODBCDDD Sd`SYT RbTbS` QYSTSGFdS OV\OQQ. Xb-
y i
FdSQU TSYU`QU ]b 5 \SVV. =bETON \SVVS TbS`QU VO OT]OWS Q`bPb]S, OT-
]OWS D`b`dS, ]SKOYTDdS V\OKd\Pd, OTb. 9bYSS \SVVbW \bRTbG`QU
d e
\bRYd]QS \bRKbYS]]QS PdQYO`Q (, 2 4, 3, 34). XbFdW-
QU VO\SbS`QU O`WS`d`T b\Sb`]OS QOQÒU]dS, HS`, RbVbM PdQYO`. U]dWb-
]dS SbFdMQU OK\bFbS`QU ]b Ò, Ò dR QSM S`Q\SM PdQYO` YdDT O\Ò-
n
COQCO\]bU PdQYO`b (34) ]bMOTd`QU `S\TOW QOQÒU]dd, d V\d ORWOE-
]OQ`d ]bYUT]O TSWO]Q`\d\SS`QU. YbTbS`QU OV\OQ: «=bPdW PSQOW OKYbTbG`
ç ü
PdQYO`Q?», `SW QbWQW QUQ]US`QU BÒ QONQÒ PdQYO`. (XbFdSQU WOS`
VOV\OKOb`T ]b PSQ QdYT]O \bRKbYS]]SG QOYU]SG PdQYO`S .)
5>>K?@ABCO?K@>MDA BAEFA>: ##&# (&# 3#&#7'#&# ",-
ü
&# "/-$ #-"?
9YU O`S`b ]b dQQYSTOb`SYTQPdN OV\OQ QSW \SVVbW VO\SbS`QU
p
]dWb`SYT]O V\Od`b`T SSK]dP d VOTOÒd`T O`S`Q ]b ]dESV\dSTS]-
a
]QS OV\OQQ (15-16 Wd].):
Ç
32
=bPdS V\OTSP`Q \SbPHdd VOYSb`QU V\d bRbdWOTSNQ`dd \bRKbYS]-
]QM PdQYO` Q WS`bYYbWd? ]\d RU`dd PbPON PdQYO`Q TYU \SbPHdd bR 2
]S QTSYUS`QU? W PbPdWd WS`bYYbWd PdQYO`Q (P\OWS PO]HS]`\d\Ob]]ON
QS\]ON PdQYO`Q 2 4, \bRKbYS]]ON d PO]HS]`\d\Ob]]ON bRO`]ON PdQ-
YO`Q 3) ]S Q`SVbG` \SbPHdG?
WOQ`bT`S S\b]S]dS \SbPHdN TSM \bRYd]QM WS`bYYO Q TSWU \bR-
Yd]QWd PdQYO`bWd.
6b OQ]OS ]dESV\dSTS]]QM OKFdM QMSW ]bVdDd`S S\b]S]dU 1-2 \S-
bPHdN:
b) PdQYO`b + OQ]O]QN OPQdT
K) PdQYO`b + bWCO`S\]QN OPQdT
) PdQYO`b + FSYOT
) PdQYO`b + ]S\bQÒ\dWOS OTS OQ]Ob]dS
T) PdQYO`b + QOYT (V\d V\dSTS]dd V\dWS\O VO QMSWS KS\d`S Rb
OQ]OS \UT Q`SQ]S]dU PdQYO`bWd dR QOYSN T\SdM PdQYO`.)
S) ]S\bQÒ\dWOS OTS OQ]Ob]dS
E) PdQYO`b + bWWdbP (3)
`d QMSWQ ]bbYS TOYE]Q KQ`T RbVdQb]Q ]b KOYTDOW CO\Wb`S KS-
Wbd dYd POWVTG`S\S. 6SPOÒ\QS QONQ`b QOYSN TSWO]Q`\d\SG`QU V\d
VOWOFd Sd`SYU V\OSTS]dSW OVQ`b.
]O dQ`SS]dd \SWS]d dR PbETON \SVVQ OTd] dYd Tb V\STQ`bd`SYU
V\dYbDbG`QU P TOQPS, V\OOTd`QU OKQSETS]dS O`SÒ ]b QOTS\EbFdSQU
QMSWbM OV\OQQ, O`S`Q SÒ]UG`QU d OKOKFbG`QU. ]OQYS OKQSETS]dU
i
V\SRS]`bHdd OHS]dbG`QU ]b OQ]OS P\d`S\dS, Q SSÒW dM S\O]U d Q`S-
VS]d SbQ`dU YS]O \SVVQ OKQSETS]dd.
y l
e
U PbSQ`S MFDO?FD?B AD?GDBCGDG WOE]O dQVOYTROb`T QYSTSGFdS:
– S\OS]T d]CO\WbHdd O`]OQd`SYT]O OKOKFS]dU CdRdSQPdM QONQ`
PdQYO`;
d
– S\OS]T R]b]dN O bE]SNDdM MdWdSQPdM QONQ`bM PdQYO`;
n
– V\dSTS]dS V\dWS\O VO MdWdSQPdW QONQ`bW, QOQ`bYS]dS S\b-
ü
]S]dN \SbPHdN;
– O`S`Q ]b TOVOY]d`SYT]QS OV\OQQ;
ü ç
– S\OS]T QO`\ST]dSQ`b \SVVS.
ZHS]db]dS WOES` OQSFSQ`YU`TQU VO KbYYOON QdQ`SWS. ]\d O`QS`-
Q`dd \SWS]d PYbQQS, V\STYbbS`QU O`S`d`T ]b OV\OQQ d QVOY]d`T
p
RbTb]dU, QOTS\EbFdSQU PO]HS Vb\b\bCb, TOWb. ^QYd ES \SWS]d TO-
Q`bÒ]O PYbQQS, Ò V\d VOWOFd B`dM OV\OQO d RbTb]dN SbFdSQU Rb-
Ç a
P\SVYUG` V\dOK\S`S]]QS ]b S\OPS R]b]dU d QVOQOK]OQ`d.
33
:FAM 7. 8AKD – >A>OCB, MKC>>D1DMCDDG,
GCDF?GABCGD? D F?OA@C EAKI??GDG
8OCG@CFO: 1.1.1.; 2.2.1.; 3.1.1.

)?K@ IFAMC. :?C9DA>G: \SVVd\SS` QOYd VO
dM QOQ`bS; TbS` OV\STSYS]dS PbETON \SVVS QOYSN
]b OQ]OS dM QOQ`bb; SPbRQbS` ]bdWS]Ob]dS QOYSN,
O`]OQUFdMQU P O`TSYT]QW \SVVbW, VO WSETS]b\OT-
]ON ]OWS]PYb`S\S; SPbRQbS` bE]QS QVOQOKQ VOYS-
S]dU QOYSN d VOUQ]US` SQYOdU dM VOYSS]dU.
5GO?>FCDDG: a.: 2.1.1.
M?>IF>C: QMSWb PYbQQdCdPbHdd QOYSN, `bKYdHQ ]b-
dWS]Ob]dU \SVV QOYSN, \bRKbYS]]QS \bQÒ\Q 2 4, , , 3,
2, , d \bQÒ\Q 4, 2 4 , V\OKd\Pd, Q`bPb]Q, OTb, SSK]dP.
+A@ IFAMC
X\OP ]bd]bS`QU Q OV\OQO (FAODBCDDD):
=bPdS SFSQ`b ]bRQbG` QOYUWd? =bP \bRYdbG`QU QOYd VO QOSWS
QOQ`bS. 6b PbPdS \SVVQ VOT\bRTSYUG`QU QOYd VO QOSWS QOQ`bS?
XbFdWQU VO\SbS`QU O`S`d`T ]b B`d OV\OQQ, OK\bFbU ]dWb]dS
]b \SRSYT`b`Q:
1) =bPOS SFSQÒ dWSS` QOY]QN V\dPSQ?
2) gÒ \bd QOS`SG` V\d]dWb`T KOYT]QW, Q`\bTbGFdW VOQDS]-
y i l
e
]ON PdQYO`]OQ`TG? aO\WSYb BÒO SFSQ`b – 3.
3) =bP WQ ]bRQbYd Ò\OS SFSQÒ, VOYSS]]OS \SRSYT`b`S \SbP-
n d
Hdd RbdWOTSNQ`dU WS`bYYb Hd]Pb Q QOYU]ON PdQYOÒN Q VOYSS-
]dSW OTO\OTb?
4) =bP RbVdQQbS`QU CO\WSYb SFSQ`b, VOYSS]]OO \SRSYT`b`S BP-
RO`S\WdSQPON \SbPHdd QOWSQ`]OO ]b\Sb]dU ESYSR]OO VO\ODPb Q
QS\]QW VO\ODPOW?
ç ü
5) gÒ ]bRQbG` \SbPHdSN ]SN`\bYdRbHdd? =bPdS V\OTSP`Q QSTb VO-
YSbG`QU \SRSYT`b`S BÒN \SbPHdd?
ü
6) =bPOS SFSQÒ WOES` VOYSd`TQU V\d TOKbYS]dd 1 WOYT QS\]ON
PdQYO`Q 2 4 P QWSQd dR 1 WOYT d 1 WOYT ?
p
7) =bPOS QOSTd]S]dS WOES` VOYSd`TQU, SQYd TOKbd`T P 1 WOYT
a
()2 1 WOYT QOYU]ON PdQYO`Q ?
Ç
34
YbVdQb S\b]S]dU \SbPHdN VO 6-OWS d 7-OWS OV\OQbW, VOQ`b\bN`SQT
O`S`d`T ]b ]dM.
]OQYS ÒO PbP V\d VOWOFd Sd`SYU KSTS` VOYSS]Q O`S`Q ]b OV-
\OQQ, RbVdQQbG`QU CO\WSYQ QOYSN Q QUQ]S]dSW dM ]bRb]dN: ,
3, 2, , 4, ().
Xd`SYT OK4UQ]US`, Ò QS B`d SFSQ`b dWSG` OKFSS ]bRb]dS QOYSN.
U QOYUM ]b VS\OW WSQ`S QSTb dTS` bÒWQ WS`bYYO, QYSTSGFdS Rb ]dWd
bÒWQ dYd bÒW]QS \SVVQ QOSTd]UG`QU Q WS`bYYOW QOO`S`Q`dd Q SO
bYS]`]OQ`TG. U QOYUM WOS` KQ`T Tb \bR]QM PdQYO`]QM OQ`b`Pb. 6bV\d-
WS\, V\d Q`SVYS]dd \SbPHdG 1 WOYT ()2 Q 1 WOYT d 1 WOYT
3 WOES` OK\bROb`TQU `bPbU QOYT:
()2 + + 3 3 + 22
WOYd, dWSGFdS QOQ`bS Tb \bRYd]QM WS`bYYdSQPdM Pb`dO]b, ]b-
RQbG`QU TON]QWd QOYUWd, b QOYd, QOQ`bS POÒ\QM dWSG`QU Tb \bR-
Yd]QM PdQYO`]QM OQ`b`Pb, ]bRQbG`QU QWSDb]]QWd QOYUWd. Xd`SYT
`bPES O`WSbS`, Ò QOYd, QOQ`bS POÒ\QM dWSG`QU ÒYTPO bÒWQ WS-
`bYYb d PdQYO`]QN OQ`bÒP, ]bRQbG`QU ]O\WbYT]QWd, QOYd, QOQ`bS
POÒ\QM WSQ`S Q PdQYO`]QW OQ`b`POW `bPES dWSS`QU bÒW OTO\OTb, Rb-
WSFbSWQN WS`bYYOW, – PdQYQWd, b `S, QOQ`bS POÒ\QM dWSG`QU d
\SVVb (), d PdQYO`]QN OQ`bÒP, – OQ]O]QWd QOYUWd.
9bYSS SbFdSQU, VOTSYS]]QS ]b \SVVQ VO 4-5 SYOSP, OÒU` O`-
S`Q ]b ]dESV\dSTS]]QS RbTb]dU (OÒTd`QU 6-8 Wd]. \SWS]d, TYU ]b-
dWS]Ob]dU dQVOYTRSG`QU V\dSTS]]QS SSK]dPS OK\bRHQ ]bdWS]Ob]dU):
>FIEEC. YbVdDd`S CO\WSYQ QOYSN, OK\bROb]]QM V\d RbdWOTSN-
Q`dd WS`bYYb , d Q bRO`]ON PdQYOÒN, d ]bROd`S dM .
>FIEEC. YbVdDd`S CO\WSYQ ]O\WbYT]QM d PdQYQM QOYSN, OK\bRO-
b]]QM \SRSYT`b`S RbdWOTSNQ`dU WS`bYYO , d Q QS\]ON PdQ-
y i l
YOÒN 2 4 , d ]bROd`S dM.
d e
>FIEEC. YbVdDd`S CO\WSYQ ]O\WbYT]QM d PdQYQM QOYSN, OK\bRO-
b]]QM V\d RbdWOTSNQ`dd WS`bYYO , d Q O\ÒCOQCO\]ON PdQ-
YOÒN 34 , d ]bROd`S dM.
ü n
>FIEEC. W\SVVd\SN`S ]dESV\dSTS]]QS QOYd d ]bROd`S PbETSG
dR ]dM: 2, (), 2 4, 23, 3, 2, (),
ç
4, A( 4)2, ()2.
5>>K?@ABCO?K@>MDA BAEFA>:
p ü
#" 4"+&*- "-', 3-"+#$ ('-'(), *-04 ('-'(),
=#$+""3-"+#$ -&##!, $#=#$+""-#+ -&##!?
]OQYS OKQSETS]dU O`SÒ (8-10 Wd].) RbTbS`QU BOAFAA D>>K?@ABCO?K@>MDA BAE-
FA>: ##&# (&# &'"$&# %"-*7 "-#? #&# +'5#!&# %"-*7'#'&
Ç a
"+&-0", "-# & ""&#-#0 %+# #*7'## "#$", ""#, # #-"?
35
]\STQ`bYUS`QU QMSWb bE]QM WSÒTO VOYSS]dU ]O\WbYT]QM QOYSN:
1) OQ]O]QN OPQdT + PdQYO`]QN OPQdT
2) OQ]O]QN OPQdT + PdQYO`b
3) PdQYO`]QN OPQdT + FSYOT
4) bWCO`S\]QN OPQdT + PdQYO`b
5) bWCO`S\]QN OPQdT + FSYOT
6) PdQYO`b + FSYOT
7) PdQYO`b + ]S\bQÒ\dWOS OTS OQ]Ob]dS
8) PdQYO`b + QOYT
9) FSYOT + QOYT
-SÒTQ VOYSS]dU OQ]O]QM, PdQYQM, TON]QM d QWSDb]]QM QOYSN:
10) 1 WOYT TSMPdQYO`]OO OQ]Ob]dU + 1 WOYT OT]OOQ]O]ON PdQYO`Q
OQ]O]bU QOYT
11) 1 WOYT OT]OPdQYO`]OO OQ]Ob]dU + 1 WOYT TSM- dYd `\SMOQ]O]ON PdQ-
YO`Q PdQYbU QOYT
12) ]O 1 WOYT TSM \bRYd]QM OT]OPdQYO`]QM OQ]Ob]dN + TSM- dYd
`\SMOQ]O]bU PdQYO`b TON]bU QOYT
13) 9SM- dYd `\SMPdQYO`]OS OQ]Ob]dS + 1 WOYT TSM \bRYd]QM OT-
]OOQ]O]QM PdQYO` QWSDb]]bU QOYT
6b OQ]OS B`dM QMSW \SVVbW TbS`QU RbTb]dS: VOYSd`S QOYT VO RbTb]]QW
bW QMSWbW d ]bROd`S SS, QOQ`bT`S S\b]S]dU \SbPHdN (8-10 Wd].).
\SVVb – 1) d 8)
\SVVb – 2) d 9)
\SVVb – 3) d 10)
\SVVb – 4) d 11)
\SVVb – 5) d 12)
\SVVb – 6) d 13)
y i l
\SVVb – 7) d 12)
d e
ZKQSETbG`QU V\SRS]`bHdd V\STQ`bd`SYSN \SVV. 9bYSS ]b OQ]OS
]dESV\dSTS]]QM P\d`S\dS OHS]dbG`QU HSYOW dÒd VS\OO d Ò-
\OO OKQSETS]dN: ]bdWS]Ob]dS QOYSN; QOQ`bYS]dS CO\WSY QOYSN; VO-
n
YSS]dS QOYSN; S\OS]T V\SRS]`bHdN; QO`\ST]dSQÒ \SVVS.
!FDF??CGD?: SQYd dWSG`QU YbKO\bÒ\]QS SQYOdU, Ò VOQYS Ò\OO
ü
dQQYSTOb`SYTQPOO OV\OQb TSWO]Q`\d\SG`QU ]dESV\dSTS]]QS \SbP-
Hdd VOYSS]dU QOYSN:
+ 3
2 4 + 2
2 4 + 2
ü ç
a p
+ 4
+
Ç
36
:FAM 8. &CQG?A.D? >BAA>OBC >AK?A
8OCG@CFO: 2.2.1.; 2.2.2.; 3.1.1.

)?K@ IFAMC. :?C9DA>G: TSWO]Q`\d\SS` QOG
d]CO\Wd\Ob]]OQ`T O`]OQd`SYT]O bE]SNDdM Cd-
RdSQPdM QONQ` QOYSN; QOQ`bYUS` S\b]S]dU \S-
bPHdN O`]OQd`SYT]O bE]SNDdM MdWdSQPdM QONQ`
]O\WbYT]QM QOYSN d V\OOTd` OVQ`Q; VOUQ]US` \S-
bPHdd V\S\bFS]dU ]O\WbYT]SG QOYT V\d Rbd-
WOTSNQ`dd PdQYQM QOYSN Q FSYObWd, OQ]O]QM
QOYSN Q PdQYO`bWd; QOQ`bYUS` \bCdSQPSG CO\WSYS QOYSN.
5GO?>FCDDG: a.: 2.1.1.
M?>IF>C: `bKYdHb (7) O`]OQd`SYT]O CdRdSQPdM QONQ` QOYSN,
P\dQ`bYYQ, , 3, , 4, 2 4, 24, 227,
4 · 52, 2, 3 (WSY), 2, 4, , 23,
3, 3(4)2, (24)2, 3, ESYSR]QN ORTT (TYd]ON
10 QW), V\OKd\Pd, Q`bPb]Q, OTb, QVd\ÒPb dYd bRObU YbWVb
+A@ IFAMC
=YbQQS RbTbS`QU ]dESV\dSTS]]QN OV\OQ, ]b OQ]OS POÒ\OO
Q`\Od`QU FAODBCDDG: gÒ Q WOES`S QPbRb`T OK b\Sb`]OW QOQÒU]dd d
y i
HS`S dRSQ`]QM bW QOYSN – VOb\S]]ON QOYd, QOTQ, bN]ON QOTQ d WSYb?l
e
]OQYS VOYSS]dU O`S`b Sd`SYT O`WSbS`, Ò QS QOYd KQbG`
`S\TOW QOQÒU]dd d KOYTDd]QÒ dR ]dM KSYOO HS`b. ZT]bPO QSFS-
n d
Q`SG` QOYd d T\SOO HS`b, ]bV\dWS\, V\dWS]USWQN QSYTQPOW MORUN-
Q`S V\O`d \STd`SYSN WST]QN PSVO\OQ – QOYT Qd]SO HS`b, QOYd,
OK\bRSSWQS WS`bYYOW M\OWb – \OROOO HS`b, QOYd Wb\b]Hb – `SW]O-
CdOYSÒOO HS`b. _bQÒ\dWOQ`T QOYSN ÒES \bRYd]b; OR]bPOWT`SQT Q
Td`QU 3-5 Wd]. \SWS]d).
ç ü
`bKYdHSN 7 d Q QOTS\EbFSNQU VOT ]SN d]CO\WbHdSN dR SSK]dPb (OÒ-
ü
1) ' "-# ", #-" +"+!! "$'?
2) ' "-# #3 &'--" +"+#& "$'?
a p
3) %##' 4"+&*- '+"+#&3 "$' +'3 '+"#-3,
+'3 +/"3 # $*3 3-"+#3 "-',.
Ç 37
]OQYS VOYSS]dU O`SÒ O` SbFdMQU Sd`SYT OK\bFbS`QU P PYbQQS:
" `SVS\T TbbN`S OR]bPOWdWQU Q MdWdSQPdWd QONQ`bWd QOYSN. 6SPO-
Ò\QS dM QONQ`b WQ WOESW V\OS\d`T ]b OVQ`S. 9SWO]Q`\d\SG`QU QYS-
TSGFdS OVQ`Q:
1) 4 + 52 4 52
KSYbU Qd]UU
2) + 4 4 +
P\bQ]O-O\b]ESbU
3) + 3 + 3

KSYbU
4) 23 22 + 2
XbFdSQU QOQ`bYUG` S\b]S]dU \SbPHdN. YbTbS`QU OV\OQ: =bPdS Md-
WdSQPdS QONQ`b QOYSN WQ ]bKYGTbYd MOTS OVQ`b? ]OQYS VOYSS]dU
O`SÒ RbTbS`QU ]OQN OV\OQ: =bPdS SFS MdWdSQPdS QONQ`b WOS`
KQ`T S QOYSN? 9YU O`S`b ]b OV\OQ QVOW]d`S MdWdSQPdS QONQ`b OP-
QdTO, OQ]Ob]dN d PdQYO` d ]dWb`SYT]O V\Od`bN`S dR SSK]dPb `SPQ`
O`]OQd`SYT]O MdWdSQPdM QONQ` QOYSN (10-12 Wd].). 9bYSS O\b]dRSG`QU
\SVVQ, dW TbG`QU RbTb]dU, SP\SVYUGFdS R]b]dU d QVOQOK]OQ`d SbFdMQU
(TYU QVOY]S]dU RbTb]dU P\OWS `SPQ`b dR SSK]dPb \SPOWS]TSS`QU VOYT-
ROb`TQU «[bKYdHSN \bQÒ\dWOQ`d QOYSN, OQ]Ob]dN d PdQYO`»).
ZKFSS QOTS\Eb]dS RbTb]dN TYU \SVV: OVdDd`S CdRdSQPdS QONQ`b
QOYSN VO RbTb]]QW bW dM CO\WSYbW, RbVdDd`S S\b]S]dU \SbPHdN O`-
i
]OQd`SYT]O MdWdSQPdM QONQ` QOYSN, QOQ`bT`S dM \bCdSQPdS CO\-
WSYQ (\SWU – 10 Wd].):
y l
e
1) , 3
2) 3, 4
3) 3,
4) (), 4
5) 2 4, 3
n d
]O dQ`SS]dd \SWS]d V\OOTU`QU V\SRS]`bHdd d OKQSETS]dU. _SRSYT-
ç ü
`b`Q AD?GDBC0O>G VO QYSTSGFdW P\d`S\dUW: OVdQb]dS CdRdSQPdM
QONQ`; OK4SW O`S`b O`]OQd`SYT]O MdWdSQPdM QONQ` QOYSN; Ò]OQ`T
ü
\bCdSQPdM CO\WSY; QO`\ST]dSQÒ; S\OS]T V\SRS]`bHdd.
NAFC.G?? ;C@CGD?: ]OÒ\d`S V\ONTS]]QN SSK]QN Wb`S\dbY.
a p
Ç
38
:FAM 9. !FCMOD??>MA? ;CGGOD?.
M?.?GD? #M>E?FDF?GOCK@GCJ ;C@C?
EA O?F? « ?G?OD??>MCG >BG;@ F?Q@I BCQG?A.DFD
MKC>>CFD G?AF>CGD??>MDJ >A?@DG?GDA»
8OCG@CFO: 2.2.1.; 2.2.2.; 3.1.1.

)?K@ IFAMC. :?C9DA>G: TOPbRQbS` V\bP`dS-
QPdW VS`SW (V\d VOWOFd OVQÒ) ]bYddS RbdW-
]ON, S]S`dSQPON QURd WSETS OPQdTbWd, OQ]Ob-
]dUWd, PdQYO`bWd d QOYUWd, OKOKFbS` QOd R]b]dU
O`]OQd`SYT]O dM MdWdSQPdM QONQ` d V\S\bFS-
]dU T\S T\Sb.
5GO?>FCDDG: .: 3.2.1.
+A@ IFAMC
X\OP V\OOTd`QU CO\WS V\bP`dSQPOO Rb]U`dU bP`d]QW d d]`S\-
bP`d]QW WSÒTbWd. =YbQQ TSYd`QU ]b 4-5 \SVV. =bETON \SVVS TbS`QU
O`TSYT]OS V\bP`dSQPOS RbTb]dS d dW VO\SbS`QU OKOKFd`T \SRSYT`b`Q
OVQÒ, Q\bRd dM dTS QMSWQ. 9YU V\bdYT]OO V\OSTS]dU OVQÒ
\SVVbW \bRTbG`QU QOO`S`Q`SGFdS SFSQ`b d WSQ`S Q VOQSTON VdQT-
l
WS]]bU d]Q`\SPHdU. USFSQ`b, Wb`S\dbYQ d VOQSTb, POÒ\QS \bRTbG`QU
\SVVbW (F?>IF>C):
I >FIEEC – WS`bYY \bRWS\OW Q O\ODSP, \bQÒ\ YbPWSQb dYd CS-
y
]OYC`bYSd]b, OTb, O\ÒCOQCO\]bU PdQYO`b 34; Q`bPb] dYd POYKb, ]S-i
KOYTDdS V\OKd\Pd, ]OE, ESYSR]QN RbEdW.
d e
II >FIEEC – WS`bYY \bRWS\OW Q VOYO\ODd]Q, OTb, \bQÒ\ YbP-
WSQb dYd CS]OYC`bYSd]b, \bRKbYS]]bU QOYU]bU PdQYO`b, \bQÒ\ 3;
n
Q`bPb] dYd POYKb, ]SKOYTDdS V\OKd\Pd, ]OE, ESYSR]QN RbEdW.
III >FIEEC – PSQOP YS]`Q , OTb, \bRKbYS]]bU 2 4, \bQÒ\
RbEdW.
ç ü
2; Q`bPb] dYd POYKb, ]SKOYTDdS V\OKd\Pd, QVd\ÒPb, ESYSR]QN
IV >FIEEC – VOY-YOEPd P\bQ]OO COQCO\b, OTb, \bQÒ\ YbPWSQb, \bQ-
ü
Ò\ ()2; Q`bPb] dYd POYKb, ]SKOYTDdS V\OKd\Pd, QVd\ÒPb.
V >FIEEC – VOY-YOEPd QS\]OO VO\ODPb, OTb, \bQÒ\Q YbPWSQb d
p
()2; RbPSVO\S]]bU POYKb Q V\OSTS]]ON dR]S`\d RbEdb`SYT]ON
a
YOEPON, ]SKOYTDdS V\OKd\Pd.
Ç 39
VI >FIEEC – PSQOP T\SSQ]OO SYU, OTb, \bQÒ\Q YbPWSQb, ()2
d ; RbPSVO\S]]bU POYKb Q V\OSTS]]ON dR]S`\d RbEdb`SYT]ON YOE-
PON, ]SKOYTDdS V\OKd\Pd.
^QYd ]b T]O POYK, POÒ\QM RbEdbG`QU V\OQ`QS SFSQ`b (WS`bYYQ
d ]SWS`bYYQ), Yd`T OTS Q TOKbYS]dSW ]SS ]SW]OO YbPWSQb (5-10 WY),
b OQ`bDSGQU bQ`T ]bVOY]d`T PdQYO\OT]QW bROW, Ò V\OHSQQ V\O`SPb-
]dU OVQ`b KSTS` ]bKYGTb`TQU Q KOYSS U\PON ]bYUT]OQ`TG.
5G>OFIMDDD EA EFAB?@?GD0 OVQÒ TYU PbETON \SVVQ WOS` QOQ-
`bd`T QbWd Sd`SYU. 9YU ÒO, ÒKQ QO\dS]`d\Ob`T dM, V\STQ`bYUSW
OK\bRHQ d]Q`\SPHdN TYU V\OSTS]dU OVQÒ d \SVVbWd:
5G>OFIMDDG @KG >FIEEC: U POYKS Q Dd\OPdW O\YQDPOW Q ]b-
YdÒN ]b T]O O\USN OTON MdWdSQPON YOEPS dYd ESYSR]OW RbEdWS
RbEdbS`QU ]SKOYTDbU YS]`b Wb]dU, MO\ODS]TPO \bRWSDdbS`QU d TO-
KbYUG`QU 1-2 PbVYd YbPWSQOOO \bQÒ\b, VOQYS SO ]bKYGTbS`QU
dRWS]S]dS HS`b (OPQdT Wb]dU, S`T-S`T \bQÒ\UUQT O\USN OTS,
OK\bRSS` dT\OPQdT Wb]dU QO QYbKQW FSYO]QW QONQÒW). URU ]S-
W]OO VOYSS]]ON QWSQd (2-3 WY), V\OKd\PS ]SS TOKbYUS`QU 2-3 WY
QS\]ON PdQYO`Q (\bQÒ\ KYST]O-Qd]SO HS`b V\dOK\S`bS` CdOYSÒ-
QN HS`). UYd VOYSS]]QN \bQÒ\ T\SSG V\OKd\PS, TOKbYUG`
`STb 1-2 PbVYd \bQÒ\b 2, V\d BÒW ]bKYGTbS`QU VOYSS]dS KSYOO
P\dQ`bYYdSQPOO OQbTPb. WMSWb V\S\bFS]dN:
5G>OFIMDDG @KG >FIEEC: ]SKOYTDON PSQOSP SYU, \bQPbYS]-

]QN ESYSR]OW MdWdSQPOW PODdPS dYd ESYSR]OW RbEdWS, RbEdb-
y i l
d e
S`QU ]bVOY]S]]ON PdQYO\OTOW POYKS. ]OÒW POYKS YdbS`QU 5-10
WY \bRKbYS]]OO \bQÒ\b ()2 Q TOKbYS]]QW ]SO YbPWSQOW
dYd CS]OYC`bYSd]OW d RKbY`QbS`QU, HS` dQSRbS` d VOUYUS`QU
n
KSYbU WS`T. 9OKbd P WS`d 3-4 WY QOYU]ON PdQYO`Q, ]bKYGTbSW Q-
TSYS]dS bRb d \bQÒ\S]dS OQbTPb. WMSWb V\S\bFS]dN:
ç ü
ü
9YU OKOKFS]dU \SRSYT`bÒ OVQÒ d Q\bES]dU dM dTS QMSWQ
Sd`SYT WOES` VOPbRb`T ]b TOQPS dYd BP\b]S QYSTSGFSG QMSWS OKOK-
p
FbGFdM V\S\bFS]dN:
Ç
40
a
?OCKK K?F?OCKK
>GABGCA AM>D@ HD>KAOGCA AM>D@
>GABCGD? HD>KAOC
8AK@
Yb MOTOW OVQÒ ]bKYGTbG` Sd`SYT d YbKO\b]`, V\d ]SOKMOTdWOQ`d

O]d TOYE]Q VOWOb`T SbFdWQU. = V\OSTS]dG OVQ`b QYSTSS` Rb\b]SS
VOTOÒd`TQU, ÒKQ \bKO`b RbS\DdYbQT Rb 20-25 Wd]S`. ]OQYS V\bP`d-
SQPON \bKO`Q 2-3 V\STQ`bd`SYU O` PbETON \SVVQ O`d`QbG`QU S
TOQPd O \SRSYT`b`bM QOSN \bKO`Q, RbVdQQbU ]b TOQPS S\b]S]dU \SbPHdN
VO V\OSTS]]QW OVQ`bW. 9bYSS TSU`SYT]OQ`T \SVV OHS]dbS`QU VO QYS-
TSGFdW P\d`S\dUW: V\OSTS]dS OVQÒ, QOQ`bYS]dS V\S\bFS]dN, V\b-
dYT]OS RbVdQQb]dS S\b]S]dN \SbPHdN, QO`\ST]dSQÒ, S\OS]T
V\SRS]`bHdd.
ZKOKFbU S\OP, Sd`SYT O`WSbS`:
1) RbdWOQURT WSETS ]SO\b]dSQPdWd SFSQ`bWd QdTS`SYTQ`SS`
OK dM OK\bROb]dd T\S O` T\Sb d \Sbd\Ob]dd T\S Q T\SOW; 2) QURd
QSFSQ`SG` PbP WSETS SFSQ`bWd, V\d]bTYSEbFdWd P OT]OWS PYbQQS,
`bP d WSETS V\STQ`bd`SYUWd \bRYd]QM PYbQQO; 3) RbdWOQURd WSETS
SFSQ`bWd d dM V\S\bFS]dUWd V\OdQMOTU` \bWPbM MdWdSQPdM RbPO-
y i l
e
]O. Y]bU O QURUM WSETS SFSQ`bWd, YGTd WOS` SV\bYU`T \SbPHdUWd
V\S\bFS]dU B`dM SFSQ` T\S T\Sb d dM VOYSS]dU d V\dWS]U`T B`d
QVOQOK]OQ`d ]b\OT]OW MORUNQ`S.
d
NAFC.G?? ;C@CGD?: 6bVdQb`T O`S` O V\OSTS]]ON V\bP`dSQPON
n
\bKO`S d VS`SW VOÒ\S]dU dRSS]]OO VOTOÒd`TQU P V\STQÒUFSN
ü
VdQTWS]]ON PO]`\OYT]ON \bKO`S ]b OS\ST]OW S\OPS.
ç
p ü
Ç a 41
:FAM 10. HAGOFAK@GCG ED>@F?GGCG FC(AOC
(O?>OABCF F?OA@AF) (8)
)?K@ IFAMC. `RSd`T S\OS]T R]b]dN d QVOQOK]OQ`SN SbFdMQU VO

bE]SNDdW PYbQQbW ]SO\b]dSQPdM QOSTd]S]dN TYU Sd`Qb]dU ]b
VOQYSTSGFdM B`bVbM OKSS]dU .
=O]`\OYT]bU VdQTWS]]bU \bKO`b WOES` V\OOTd`TQU PbP OKQ]OW
VO\UTPS, `bP d `SQÒQW WSÒTOW. U OKOdM QYSbUM POWVYSP` OV\OQO
OÒd`QU QbWOS WS]TDSS TSM b\db]`bM. UOV\OQQ TOYE]Q OQ]O-
]OW OMb`Qb`T `SWS. ]\STQ`bYUSW POWVYSP` OV\OQO PbSQ`S OK-
\bRHb.
UOV\OQQ d RbTb]dU TYU PO]`\OYT]ON VdQTWS]]ON \bKO`Q, V\OOTdWON
OKQ]QW WSÒTOW:
I BCFDCGO
1. CED.DO? EA AO@?K@GCF >FIEECF AM>D@C, A>GABCGDG, MD>KAOC
D >AKD D; >A?@DG?GDA EF?@>OCBK?GGCJ 1AFFIK D GC;ABDO? DJ:
, 2, ()2, , 2, , 3, 2, 3,
()3, 2, (), , 2 3, 3, 34, ()3
i
2. CED.DO? GC A>GAB? >J?FC EF?BFC9?GDA IFCBG?GDG F?CMDDA:
y l
Q?EFDB?@?GGCJ B?9?>OB:
) ()2 d ;
d e
3. CED.DO? IFCBG?GDG F?CMDDA, EFAO?MC09DJ F?Q@I ECFCFD GD-
n
) ()2 d ;
) 3 d ;
) d ;
) ()3 d ;
) 25 d .
ç ü
p ü
4. !FAB?@?GD?F MCMDJ F?CMDDA FAQGA EAKI?DO@ ()2, ?>KD
A@GDF D; D>JA@GCJ B?9?>OB GBKG?O>G ? CED.DO? IFCBG?GDG
F?CMDDA.
Ç
42
a
5. 8MAK@MA >FCFFAB D >MAK@MA FAK@ >AKD 2 4 EAKI?DO>G D;
20 > EIO?F F?CMDDD G?AOFCKD;CDDD?
BCFDCGO
1. CED.DO? EA AO@?K@GCF >FIEECF AM>D@C, A>GABCGDG, MD>KAOC
D >AKD D; >A?@DG?GDA EF?@>OCBK?GGCJ 1AFFIK D GC;ABDO? DJ:
3 4, 3, ()2, , 2, , 4, 2, 2 3,
()3, 25, (), , 2 4, ()2.
2. CED.DO? GC A>GAB? >J?FC EF?BFC9?GDA IFCBG?GDG F?CMDDA:
3. CED.DO? IFCBG?GDG F?CMDDA, EFAO?MC09DJ F?Q@I ECFCFD GD-

Q?EFDB?@?GGCJ B?9?>OB:
) ()3 d 3 ;
) ()2 d ;
) d ;
) d ;
) ()3 d ;
) 2 d .
4. !FAB?@?GD?F MCMDJ F?CMDDA FAQGA EAKI?DO@ ()2 , ?>KD
A@GDF D; D>JA@GCJ B?9?>OB GBKG?O>G ? CED.DO? IFCBG?GDG F?-
CMDDA.
5. CED.DO? IFCBG?GD? F?CMDDD EAKI??GDG D; >AKD >IK@1COC
y i l
d e
F?@D() JKAFD@C F?@D(). 8MAK@MA >FCFFAB D >MAK@MA FAK@ >IK@1C-
OC F?@D() >K?@I?O B;GO@ @KG EAKI??GDG 13,5 > JKAFD@C F?@D()?
ü n
ü ç
a p
Ç 43
&AEFA>C D ;C@C?D @KG MAGOFAK@GAA ED>@F?GGAA
FC(AOC, EFABA@DFAA O?>OABCF F?OA@AF
BCFDCGO
1. :MCQDO? A>GABGC? AM>D@C:

. 2; . ; . ; . 3; . 23; . .
) , ) , ) , , ) , ,
2. HCMCG D; #ODJ >J?F GBKG?O>G >J?FAA F?CMDDD EAKI??GDG ?
) + +
) 2 + 2 2
) ()2 + 2 4 4 + 2
) ()2 + 2 2 + 2
3. :FCBG?GD? MCMAA F?CMDDD G?B?FGA??

) + 3 + 3
) 234 + 3(3)2 3(4)2 + 43
) 2 4 + 3 t 4 + 3
) 2 4 + 2 2 + 2 4
4. :MCQDO? F?OCKKC, G? B>OIEC09D? B F?CMDD0 > >AKGGAA MD>-

KAOAA.
) , ) , ) , ) ,
5. 8MAK@MA >FCFFAB >A>OCBKG?O 2 FAK@ >D@FAM>D@C MCK@DDG?

y i l
( )=40; ()=17
d e
6. HCMCG D; #ODJ F?CMDDA GBKG?O>G F?CMDD?A G?AOFCKD;CDDD?
) + 2 3
) + + 2
ü n
) 2 + 4 ()2 + 2 4
ü ç
) 2 4 + 2 4 + 2
7. & MCMAF >KI?C? @CGC OAK@MA MD>KC? >AKD?
p
) 34, 3
) 3, ( 4)2
Ç
44
a
) 3, ()
) 4, 3
8. :FCBG?GD? MCMAA F?CMDDD B?FGA??
) 3 + 3
) 23 + 6 2 3 + 32
) ()2 + 3 3 + 2
) 3 +
9. 8MAK@MA EFAD?GOAB EFDF?FGA >A>OCBDO FC>>ABCG @AKG Q?K?;C

B ;CMD>D Q?K?;C (34)? ()=56; ()=16
10. 8MAK@MA FAK@ >IK@1COC GCOFDG FAQGA EAKI?DO@ D; 24 >

EIO?F F?CMDDD G?AOFCKD;CDDD?
) 0,50 ) 0,45 ) 0,05 ) 0,30
11. HCMDFD >BADFD >BAA>OBCFD CF1AO?FGC? AM>D@C AOKD?C0O>G AO

@FI>DJ AM>D@AB?
) Q`SVYS]dSW \SbPHdG ÒYTPO Q FSYObWd
) Q`SVYS]dSW \SbPHdG ÒYTPO Q PdQYO`bWd
) Q`SVYS]dSW \SbPHdG PbP Q PdQYO`bWd, `bP d Q PdQYQWd QOYUWd
) ]S Q`SVYS]dSW \SbPHdG ]d Q PdQYO`bWd, ]d Q FSYObWd
12.
y i l
EF?@?KDO? B?9?>OBA .
) 2 ) 2 ) 2 ) 2
d e
ü n
ü ç
a p
Ç 45
II BCFDCGO
1. !AMCQDO? MD>KAOGC? AM>D@C.
. 2 ; . ; . ; . 3 ; . 23 ; . .
) , ) , ; ) , , ) ,
2. HCMCG D; #ODJ >J?F GBKG?O>G >J?FAA F?CMDDD EAKI??GDG >AKG-
GAA MD>KAOC?
)
)
)
)
3. HCMA? IFCBG?GD? F?CMDDD G?B?FGA??
) 34 + 3 34 + 3
) 2 4 + (3)2 4 + 23
) ()3 + 3 3 + 32
) 34 + 3 3 34 + 33
4. :MCQDO? F?OCKKC, G? B>OIEC09D? B F?CMDD0 > FC;(CBK?GGAA
>?FGAA MD>KAOAA.
) , ) , ) , ) ,
5. 8MAK@MA KDOFAB B GAFFCK@GCJ I>KABDGJ >A>OCBDO 1,5 FAK@ I>-
K?MD>KA>A >C;C?
y i l
e
) 11,2 ) 22,4 ) 33,6 ) 44,8
d
6. HCMCG D; #ODJ F?CMDDA GBKG?O>G F?CMDD?A A(F?GC?
) + 3 4
) + 2 2 + 2
n
) ()2 + 2 4 4 + 22
) ()2 + 2
ü
) 34, 3
ü
) 3, ( 4)2
ç
7. :MCQDO? A>GABGC? >AKD.
a p
) () 4, ()
) 3, 23
Ç
46
8. HCMD? IFCBG?GDG F?CMDDA G?B?FGC??
1) 2 + 3
2) 23 + 6 2 2 + 32
3) ()2 + 3 3 + 2
4) 3 +
9. 8MAK@MA EFAD?GOAB EFDF?FGA >A>OCBDO FC>>ABCG @AKG B >AKD
>IK@1COC-CK0FDGDG? ()=27; ( 4)=96
10. 8MAK@MA FAK@ JKAFD@C-MCK@DDG FAQGA EAKI?DO@ D; 37 > >D@-

FAM>D@C-MCK@DDG EIO?F F?CMDDD G?AOFCKD;CDDD?
11. !A MCMDF >BADF >BAA>OBCF G?>AK?A(FC;I09D? AM>D@C AOKD-

?C0O>G AO >AK?A(FC;I09DJ AM>D@AB?
) Q`SVYS]dSW \SbPHdG Q PdQYO`bWd
) Q`SVYS]dSW \SbPHdG Q FSYObWd
) Q`SVYS]dSW \SbPHdG PbP Q PdQYO`bWd, `bP d Q FSYObWd
) ]S Q`SVYS]dSW \SbPHdG ]d Q PdQYO`bWd, ]d Q FSYObWd
12. HCMDF B?9?>OBAF GBKG?O>G B EF?BFC9?GDD

?
l
) 2 ) 34 ) 24 ) 2
9YU BPO]OWdd \SWS]d OV\OQQ ]b KOYTDOW CO\Wb`S KSWbd Rb\b-
]SS QSDdbG`QU ]b TOQPS dYd ES V\d VOWOFd V\OSPÒ\b TbG`QU ]b
y i
e
BP\b]S. 9YU OKSQVSS]dU OK4SP`d]OQ`d SbFdMQU VO ORWOE]OQ`d
\bQQbEdbG` ]b Vb\`bM VO OT]OWS dYd ES VdQTWS]]bU \bKO`b TbS`QU
S`Q\SM b\db]`bM.
d
_SRSYT`b`Q VdQTWS]]ON PO]`\OYT]ON \bKO`Q OKQSETbG`QU ]b OS\ST-
n
]OW S\OPS `SS]dS 15-20 Wd]S`, OHS]Pd RbVdQQbG`QU ES\]bYS.
ç ü
p ü
Ç a 47
!"#$ . HKC>>D1DMCDDG
JDFD??>MDJ F?CMDDA.
8MAFA>O@ JDFD??>MDJ F?CMDDA.
+DFD??>MA? FCBGAB?>D?
`RSS]dS SSK]QM `SW, QOTS\EbFdMQU STd]dHS OKSS]dU, TbS` OR-

WOE]OQ`T TYU \bQDd\S]dU, CO\Wd\Ob]dU d OKOKFS]dU R]b]dN SbFdMQU
O`]OQd`SYT]O VO]U`dU MdWdSQPON \SbPHdd. XQOS]dSW VO]U`dN QPO\OQ-
`d OWOS]]QM d S`S\OS]]QM \SbPHdN, OK\b`dWQM d ]SOK\b`dWQM \SbP-
HdN, QOQÒU]dU MdWdSQPOO \b]OSQdU OK\b`dWQM \SbPHdUM O]d WOS`
]bV\bd`T MdWdSQPdS \SbPHdd QÒ\O]S VOYSbSWOO V\OTSP`b, SSYd-
d`T QMOT V\OTSP`b d, HSYOW, SV\bYU`T MOTOW \SbPHdN.
ZVQ` \bKO`Q Sd`SYSN, V\SVOTbbDdM MdWdG VIII PYbQQb V\OD-
YQS OTQ, VOPbRQbS`, Ò VOQYS dRSS]dU «UbE]SNDdM PYbQQO ]S-
O\b]dSQPdM QOSTd]S]dN» SbFdWdQU SQ`SQ`S]]O OQV\d]dWbS`QU
\bQDd\S]dS VO]U`dU MdWdSQPON \SbPHdd, OKOKFS]dS, QdQ`SWb`dRbHdU
R]b]dN O \SbPHdUM, d STS]dS SSK]OO V\OHSQQb `bPON VOQYSTOb-
`SYT]OQ`d ]S QORTbS` `\ST]OQ`SN. ]\STOQ`bYS]dS SbFdWQU V\O-
HSQQS OKSS]dU KOYSS Dd\OPON QbWOQÒU`SYT]OQ`d, dQVOYTROb]dS dWd
SES dWSGFdMQU R]b]dN QVOQOKQ`SS` TOQ`dES]dG KOYSS YSDdM \S-
RSYT`bÒ dRSS]dd `SWQ.
y i l
d e
ü n
ü ç
a p
Ç
48
:FAM 1. HKC>>D1DMCDDG JDFD??>MDJ F?CMDDA
8OCG@CFO: 2.1.1.; 2.2.1.

)?K@ IFAMC. :?C9DA>G: TbS` OV\STSYS]dS PbE-
TOWS `dVS dRSS]]QM TO QdM VO\ MdWdSQPdM \SbP-
HdN d V\dOTd` V\dWS\Q; O`YdbS` T\S O` T\Sb
`dVQ ]OQM dRSS]]QM OWOS]]QM d S`S\OS]-
]QM, OK\b`dWQM d ]SOK\b`dWQM \SbPHdN, V\dOTd`
2-3 V\dWS\b VO PbETOWS dR ]dM (RbVdQQbS` S\b-
]S]dU \SbPHdN); QOQ`bYUS` QMSWS OKFSN PYbQQdCd-
PbHdd MdWdSQPdM \SbPHdN.
5GO?>FCDDG: .: 1.1.2.; ".: 3.2.4.
M?>IF>C: VYbPb`Q O`]OQd`SYT]O `dVO MdWdSQPdM \SbPHdN, QMSWb
OKFSN PYbQQdCdPbHdd MdWdSQPdM \SbPHdN, SSK]dP
+A@ IFAMC
\\SVVbW, O\b]dROb]]QW Q HSYTG bP`SbYdRbHdd, SÒ]S]dU d Rb-
P\SVYS]dU R]b]dN d QVOQOK]OQ`SN SbFdMQU O RbPO]OWS\]OQÙM `dVO,
\bR]OdT]OQ`SN d MOTb MdWdSQPdM \SbPHdN (TYU QORTb]dU FAODBCDDD)
TbG`QU QYSTSGFdS RbTb]dU (]b dM QVOY]S]dS OÒTd`QU 13-15 Wd].
y i l
d e
\SWS]d, SbFdSQU VOYTRSG`QU SSK]dPOW d TOVOY]d`SYT]ON Yd`S\b-
`S\ON).
I >FIEEC. =bPdS `dVQ \SbPHdN KQbG` RbdQdWOQ`d O` POYdS-
Q`b d QOQ`bb Q`SVbGFdM MdWdSQPSG \SbPHdG SDSQ` d VOYS-
ü n
S]]QM \SRSYT`b`S \SbPHdd PO]S]QM V\OTSPÒ? ]\dSTd`S V\d-
WS\Q \SbPHdN QOSTd]S]dU, \bRYOES]dU, RbWSFS]dU d OKWS]b.
ç
II >FIEEC. =bPdS dTQ MdWdSQPdM \SbPHdN Q R]bS`S VO R]bS]dG
`SVYOOO BCCSP`b?
ü
III >FIEEC. 6b PbPdS \SVVQ TSYU`QU MdWdSQPdS \SbPHdd RbdQd-
WOQ`d O` b\Sb`]OO QOQÒU]dU (CbROON Q\STQ) SbQ`SGFdM \SbPHdd
p
SFSQ`? ]\dSTd`S V\dWS\Q VO ]dW.
Ç a 49
IV >FIEEC. ]\dSTd`S V\dWS\Q OWOS]]QM \SbPHdN. ]\dSTd`S V\d-
WS\Q S`S\OS]]QM \SbPHdN.
]\dSTd`S `\d V\dWS\b VO PbETOWS dR BPRO`S\WdSQPdM d B]TO`S\-
WdSQPdM \SbPHdN O`TSYT]OQ`d.
V >FIEEC. gÒ ]bRQbG` OK\b`dWQWd d ]SOK\b`dWQWd \SbPHdUWd?
]\dSTd`S VO 2 V\dWS\b VO PbETOWS dR ]dM.
VI >FIEEC. ]OTOÒT`S QMSWS PYbQQdCdPbHdd MdWdSQPdM \SbPHdN
VO \bRYd]QW dM V\dR]bPbW.
]OQYS V\SRS]`bHdd Sd`SYT QSDdbS` ]b TOQPS QOG QMSWS, V\OO-
Td`QU Q\b]S]dS QMSW.
]OQYS OKQSETS]dU V\SRS]`bHdN TSU`SYT]OQ`T \SVV OHS]dbS`QU VO
QYSTSGFdW P\d`S\dUW: S\]OQ`T d VOY]O`b O`SÒ, O`S`Q ]b TOVOY]d-
`SYT]QS OV\OQQ, QO`\ST]dSQÒ, S\OS]T V\SRS]`bHdd.
NAFC.G?? ;C@CGD?: ]OÒ\S]dS `SWQ VO STd]dHS OKSS]dU, VOTO-
Òd`TQU P OS\ST]ON VdQTWS]]ON PO]`\OYT]ON \bKO`S.
y i l
d e
ü n
ü ç
a p
Ç
50
:FAM 2. 8MAFA>O@ JDFD??>MDJ F?CMDDA
8OCG@CFO: 2.1.1.; 4.1.1.

)?K@ IFAMC. :?C9DA>G: \bRYdbS` OWOS]-
]QS d S`S\OS]]QS \SbPHdd, RbVdQQbS` V\dWS\Q
VO ]dW; QOTd` CO\WSYS QPO\OQ`d OWOS]]QM d
S`S\OS]]QM \SbPHdN, \SDbS` RbTbd VO ]dW.
5GO?>FCDDG: ".: 2.1.5.; a.: 2.1.3.
M?>IF>C: VYbPb`Q O`]OQd`SYT]O PYbQQdCdPb-
Hdd MdWdSQPdM \SbPHdN, SSK]dP.
+A@ IFAMC
X\OP ]bd]bS`QU Q bP`SbYdRbHdd R]b]dN SbFdMQU VO dRSS]]QW TO QdM VO\
`dVbW MdWdSQPdM \SbPHdN (QORTbS`QU FAODBCDDG). W BÒN HSYTG PYbQQS Rb-
TbG`QU QOO`S`Q`SGFdS OV\OQQ, QOWSQ`]O QUQ]US`QU, ]b PbPdS `dVQ, dTQ
TSYU`QU \SbPHdd VO QOdW QONQ`bW, V\dR]bPbW. Yb`SW QOOKFbS`QU, Ò VO b\S-
b`]OWS QOQÒU]dG SbQ`SGFdM \SbPHdd SFSQ`, OT]O\OT]OQ`d d ]SOT]O-
\OT]OQ`d Q\STQ \SbPHdd (V\O`SPb]dG \SbPHdd OTd]bPOON dYd \bRYd]QM
CbRbM) MdWdSQPdS \SbPHdd `bPES TSYU`QU ]b TS \SVVQ: OWOS]]QS d S`S-
\OS]]QS \SbPHdd. XbFdWQU V\STYbbS`QU V\dSQ`d V\dWS\Q \SbPHdN, PO-
Ò\QM QS SbQ`SGFdS SFSQ`b ]bMOTU`QU bROOK\bR]OW dYd EdTPOW
QOQÒU]dd, d ]bVdQb`T dM S\b]S]dU. [bPES RbVdQQbG`QU V\dWS\Q VO S`S\O-
y i l
e
S]]QW \SbPHdUW d O`WSbS`QU, Ò SQYd OWOS]]ON Q\STS \SbPHdU V\O`SPbS`
O QSW OK4SWS SFSQ`, Ò S`S\OS]]ON Q\STS \SbPHdU V\O`SPbS` YdDT ]b
n d
VOS\M]OQ`d QOV\dPOQ]OS]dU \bR]O\OT]QM SFSQ` (QOV\dPOQ]OS]dU CbR).
]OQ`b\bN`SQT, ÒKQ V\dOTdWQS SbFdWdQU V\dWS\Q VO OWOS]-
]QW d S`S\OS]]QW \SbPHdUW OQ]O]OW O`]OQdYdQT P dRSS]]QW dWd
TO QdM VO\ \SbPHdUW.
ç ü
9YU ÒO, ÒKQ QRb`T S SbFdMQU d]`S\SQ P dRSS]dG VO]U`dU
QPO\OQ`d MdWdSQPdM \SbPHdN, Sd`SYT QOOKFbS` O SS V\bP`dSQPOW
R]bS]dd. XbFdWQU dRSQ`]O, PbPOS QdYT]OS ORTSNQ`dS ]b V\OdROTd-
ü
`SYT]OQ`T bVVb\bÒ, BPO]OWdSQPSG BCCSP`d]OQ`T V\STV\dU`dU dWSS`
V\O`SPb]dS QO QPO\OQ`TG MdWdSQPdM \SbPHdN V\OdROTQ`S.
p
Xd`SYT, OK\bFbUQT P PYbQQS, RbTbS` D>>K?@ABCO?K@>MDA BAEFA>:
a
,' %"$*&'&, &"(" 7#-#0 "+"0 3#&#7'#3 +'5#,?
Ç 51
UQVOW]d`S dR CdRdPd QdQYS]dS QPO\OQ`d WSMb]dSQPOO TdES]dU.
XbFdSQU RbVdQQbG` CO\WSYS j=S/t. XbFdSQU O`SbG`, Ò ]b OQ]OS BÒN
CO\WSYQ QdQYUS`QU R]bS]dS QPO\OQ`d YGKOO WOWS]`b (]bQÒUFbU
QPO\OQ`T) d Q\ST]SN QPO\OQ`d. [.S. QPO\OQ`T WSMb]dSQPOO TdES]dU QdQ-
YUS`QU VO V\ONTS]]OWS VS`d Rb STd]dHS \SWS]d d dRWS]S]]OWS \bQQÒU]dG.
Xd`SYT QOOKFbS`, Ò TYU QdQYS]dU QPO\OQ`d MdWdSQPON \SbPHdd
]bTO R]b`T PbP dRWS]US`QU Rb STd]dHS \SWS]d PO]HS]`\bHdU OT]OO dR
Q`SVbGFdM \SbPHdG SFSQ`. ^QYd Rb \SWU 1 PO]HS]`\bHdU OT]OO
dR Q`SVbGFdM \SbPHdG SFSQ` KSTS` 1, d VO V\ODSQ`dd OV\STS-
YS]]OO \SWS]d Rb \SWU 2 PO]HS]`\bHdU BÒO SFSQ`b, SWS]TDd-
DdQT, KSTS` \b]b 2, ÒTb Q\ST]UU QPO\OQ`T \SbPHdd KSTS`:
dYd . ^QYd QPO\OQ`T QdQYUS`QU VO VOYSS]]OWS
V\OTSP`S \SbPHdd, ÒTb CO\WSYb QPO\OQ`d KSTS` QYSTSGFSN:
U OWOS]]QM \SbPHdUM PO]HS]`\bHdG \SbS]`b (Q`SVbGFSO
\SbPHdG SFSQ`b) Q\bEbG` POYdSQÒW SFSQ`b STd]dHS OK4SWb:
dYd (POYdSQÒ SFSQ`b STd]dHS OK4SWb ]bRQbS`QU
WOYU\]ON PO]HS]`\bHdSN). ^QYd \SWU, VO`\bS]]OS ]b dRWS]S]dS PO]HS]`\bHdd
dRWS\d`T QSPS]TbM, Ò STd]dHb QPO\OQ`d \SbPHdd KSTS` Q\bES]b dTS .
WYSTOb`SYT]O, QPO\OQ`T OWOS]]ON \SbPHdd WOES` KQ`T Q\bES]b d
CO\WSYON . U S`S\OS]]QM \SbPHdUM QPO\OQ`T QdQYUS`QU VO
CO\WSYS .
9YU RbP\SVYS]dU VOYSS]]QM ]b S\OPS R]b]dN Sd`SYT VO\SbS` Sb-
FdWQU \SDd`T TOWb 1-2 RbTbd VO QdQYS]dG QPO\OQ`d OWOS]]ON \S-
y
bPHdd. [SPQ` RbTb Sd`SYT QOQ`bYUS` QbW dYd KS\S`QU dR Yd`S\b`S\Q.i l
9O ]bbYb \SbPHdd +2
e
U PbSQ`S V\dWS\b PYbQQS VOUQ]US`QU \SDS]dS OT]ON RbTbd.
d
2 PO]HS]`\bHdU bRb MYO\b QOQ-
`bYUYb 0,0187 &"-0/- . =bPOb Q\ST]UU QPO\OQ`T \SbPHdd, SQYd S\SR
n
12 Wd]S` WOYU\]bU PO]HS]`\bHdU MYO\b \b]b 0,0179? 1(2)= 0,0187 &"-0/- ;
2(2)= 0,0179 &"-0/-
ç ü
p ü
M?.?GD?: =2 – 1= 0,0179–0,0187= –0,0008 &"-0/- =0,000001 &"-0/- '
9YU RbP\SVYS]dU R]b]dN \SVVbW VO\SbS`QU \SDd`T RbTbd 1-4 dR SSK-
]dPb. _SRSYT`b`Q AD?GDBC0O>G VO QYSTSGFdW P\d`S\dUW: S\]OQ`T O`S-
Ò, O\dd]bYT]OQ`T \SDS]dU RbTbd, QO`\ST]dSQÒ, S\OS]T V\SRS]`bHdd.
Ç
52
a
:FAM 3. CMOAFC, BKDG09D? GC >MAFA>O@
JDFD??>MDJ F?CMDDA
8OCG@CFO: 2.2.1.; 2.2.2.; 3.1.1.

)?K@ IFAMC. :?C9DA>G: VOUQ]US` YdU]dS \bR-
Yd]QM CbPÒ\O (V\d\OTQ, PO]HS]`\bHdd d `SWVS-
\b`S\Q \SbS]Ò) ]b QPO\OQ`T OWOS]]QM \SbPHdN,
\SDbS` V\dWS\]QS RbTbd.
5GO?>FCDDG: a.: 2.2.1.
M?>IF>C: VYbPb`Q d QMSWQ O`]OQd`SYT]O QPO\O-
Q`d \SbPHdd.
+A@ IFAMC
`RSS]dS `SWQ S\OPb STS`QU VS`SW VOQ`b]OPd V\OKYSW]QM OV\O-
QO TYU QORTb]dU FAODBCDDD d VOQYSTOb`SYT]QW dM \bR\SDS]dSW.
U]bbYS STS`QU VOdQP O`SÒ ]b OV\OQQ: – ]OSWS MdWdSQPdS \SbP-
Hdd V\O`SPbG` Q \bRYd]ON QPO\OQ`TG? gSW WOE]O OK4UQ]d`T V\O`SPb-
]dS \SbPHdN Q \bRYd]ON QPO\OQ`TG OT]dM d `SM ES SQYOdUM (V\d
OTd]bPOQM PO]HS]`\bHdUM SFSQ`, `SWVS\b`S\bM d TbYS]dUM)? W BÒN
HSYTG V\OOTd`QU Q\b]S]dS \SbPHdd ]SN`\bYdRbHdd, V\O`SPbGFSN
POW]b`]QM SQYOdUM WSETS PdQYO`bWd d FSYObWd, \SbPHdd \EbYS]dU
ESYSR]QM V\STWSÒ Q \SbPHdUWd WS`bYYO d Q QOYU]ON PdQYOÒN
y i l
e
OTd]bPOON PO]HS]`\bHdd (VOQYST]dS \SbPHdd WOE]O V\OTSWO]Q`\d\O-
d
b`T). 9SYbS`QU QOT, Ò QPO\OQ`T \SbPHdN RbdQd`, V\SETS QSO, O`
MdWdSQPON V\d\OTQ \SbS]Ò (O` ÒO, PbPdS BÒ SFSQ`b).
9bYSS QUQ]US`QU, Ò QPO\OQ`T \SbPHdN RbdQd` O` PO]HS]`\bHdd
D>>K?@ABCO?K@>MD? BAEFA>C:
ü n
RbdWOTSNQ`SGFdM SFSQ` (\SbS]Ò). =YbQQS RbTbG`QU QYSTSGFdS
ç
#$'-# "% ="+'#! "$*3' # #-"+"$' -'#3 %+*-
#, *=-! # 4"4"+, #3 -*7!3 +'5## %+"' /"-0',
p ü
"+"0? # &"(" "/C!#0 /*+"' # /+"' ="+'#' ''
#-"+"$'?
XbFdSQU Q YSPOQ`TG O`SbG`, Ò ORTSMS QOTS\Ed`QU QSO
21% PdQYO\OTb, O` VOSWS O\S]dS V\O`SPbS` QYbKO. YTSQT dQVOYTRS-
Ç a 53
S`QU VO]U`dS WOYU\]ON PO]HS]`\bHdd POYdSQ`b PdQYO\OT]OO bRb STd-
]dHS OK4SWb d TSYbS`QU QOT: QYSTOb`SYT]O, V\d QQOPON PO]HS]`\bHdd
RbdWOTSNQ`SGFdM SFSQ` \SbPHdU V\O`SPbS` Q KOYTDSN QPO\OQ`TG.
9YU TSWO]Q`\bHdd RbdQdWOQ`d QPO\OQ`d \SbPHdd, V\O`SPbGFSN
WSETS \bQÒ\bWd, O` dM PO]HS]`\bHdd WOE]O V\OSQ`d V\OQÒN
OVQ`: OVSQ`d`T V\OKd\PS ]SKOYTDON P\dQ`bYY I d TOKbd P ]SWS
]bVOYOd]S V\OKd\Pd OTQ, RKOY`b`T, Rb`SW VS\SYd 1/3 EdTPOQ`d T\S-
SG V\OKd\PS, TOKbd`T ]SS OTS TO OK4SWb VS\ON V\OKd\PS.
[bPdW OK\bROW, PO]HS]`\bHdU I VS\ON V\OKd\PS Tb \bRb KOYTDS,
SW O Ò\ON V\OKd\PS. UYd OKS V\OKd\Pd 1-2 WY \bQÒ\b P\bMWbYb d
2-3 PbVYd QSESV\dOÒYS]]OO \bQÒ\b MYO\dTb ESYSRb (III), ETSW,
POTb EdTPOQ`T OP\bQd`QU `SW]O-Qd]dN HS`. XbFdSQU ]bKYGTbG`, Ò
O Ò\ON V\OKd\PS ]b VOUYS]dS Qd]SO HS`b \bRKbYS]]OW \bQÒ\S
SMOTd` V\dWS\]O Tb \bRb KOYTDS \SWS]d.
U RbPYGS]dS Sd`SYT O`WSbS`, Ò RbdQdWOQ`T QPO\OQ`d OWOS]]ON
\SbPHdd O` PO]HS]`\bHdd \SbS]Ò Q\bEbS`QU QYSTSGFSN CO\WSYON:
= [ ] [ ] dYd = CA CB
[ ], CA d [ ], CB – WOYU\]bU PO]HS]`\bHdU Q`SVdDdM \SbPHdG
SFSQ` d , b = – VOQÒU]]bU QPO\OQ`d. YTSQT WOE]O RbVdQb`T V\OQÒS
S\b]S]dS OWOS]]ON \SbPHdd: + . ^QYd S\b]S]dS \SbPHdd
RbVdQQbS`QU dTS + , Ò .
WOQ`T QPO\OQ`d OWOS]]ON \SbPHdd O` PO]HS`\bHdd \SbS]Ò, ]S V\d-

WS]US`QU HSV]QM \SbPHdUM. (aO\WSYb QSTS]b ]b OQ]OS \SbPHdd
y l
WYSTSS` O`WS`d`T, Ò CO\WSYb = CA CB , Q\bEbGFbU RbdQd-
i
e
2 + I2 2I.)
9YU RbP\SVYS]dU R]b]dN O RbdQdWOQ`d QPO\OQ`d \SbPHdd O` PO]HS]`-
n d
\bHdd \SbS]Ò SbFdWQU VO\SbS`QU \SDS]dS 1-2 RbTb.
`RSS]dS RbdQdWOQ`d QPO\OQ`d S`S\OS]]QM \SbPHdN O` SYdd]Q
VOS\M]OQ`d `S\TOO SFSQ`b (Q`SVS]d dRWSYTS]]OQ`d) V\OOTd`QU
Q TSWO]Q`\bHdSN \SbPHdN WSETS PSQOPOW d VO\ODPOW Hd]Pb (dYd ES-
ç ü
YSRb) d QOYU]ON (dYd QS\]ON) PdQYOÒN ÒN ES PO]HS]`\bHdd. UWSQÒ
WS`bYYb WOE]O RU`T PSQOSP WSYb d SO VO\ODOP. XbFdSQU OV\STS-
ü
YUG` QPO\OQ`T \SbPHdN VO QPO\OQ`d VOUYS]dU QTSYUSWQM VSRQ\TPO
bRb. Ò WOE]O VO]bKYGTb`T d ]b V\dWS\S \bRTSbSWOO Db\dPb, V\d-
URb]]OO P PO]dPS bROOÒT]ON `\SKOPd.
a p
W YdU]dSW `SWVS\b`S\Q (V\OPbYdb]dU) ]b QPO\OQ`T OWOS]]QM
d S`S\OS]]QM \SbPHdN SbFdSQU SES OR]bPOWdYdQT ]b V\SE]dM S\O-
Ç
54
PbM d W]OO Q`bYPdbYdQT EdR]d. UO` VOSWS O]d ]S Rb`\ST]UG`QU
V\dSTS]dd V\dWS\O O`]OQd`SYT]O MOTb \SbPHdN OKQ]QM SQYOdUM
d V\d ]b\Sb]dd. 9YU RbP\SVYS]dU dM R]b]dN BÒN OKYbQ`d \SVVbW
V\STYbbS`QU V\OSQ`d OVQ`Q d VO]bKYGTb`T Rb ORTSNQ`dSW ]b PSQOP
Hd]Pb (dYd ESYSRb) QOYU]ON (dYd QS\]ON) PdQYO`Q, ]b \bQÒ\ `dOQSYT-
Cb`b (2 23) – QS\]ON PdQYO`Q V\d POW]b`]ON `SWVS\b`S\S d V\d
]b\Sb]dd. U VS\ON \SbPHdd SSYdS]dS QPO\OQ`d OV\STSYUS`QU VO
KQQ`\OWS QTSYS]dG VSRQ\TPO bRb, b O Ò\ON \SbPHdd – VO PO\O`-
POWS \SWS]d, SDSTDSWS ]b VOWS`]S]dS VOYSS]]OO \bQÒ\b (QTS-
YUS`QU QOKOT]bU QS\b). ]\STQ`bd`SYd \SVV POWWS]`d\SG` \SRSYT-
`b`Q OVQÒ.
Xd`SYT QOOKFbS`, Ò MdWdSQPdM \SbPHdUM SSYdS]dSW `SWVS\b-
`S\Q ]b PbETQS 10°C QPO\OQ`T SSYddbS`QU 2-4 \bRb. Ò V\bdYO
(V\bdYO Ub]`-\OCCb) Wb`SWb`dSQPd Q\bEbS`QU CO\WSYON .
YTSQT – QPO\OQ`T V\d `SWVS\b`S\S d \SWS]d !2, – `SWVS\b`S\]QN
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_bQÒ\ \OTb]dT VS\SYdbS`QU KOYTDSG V\OKd\PS d P ]SWS TOKbYUG`QU
]SQPOYTPO PbVSYT \bQÒ\b MYO\dTb ESYSRb(III) d VOPbRQbS`QU OK\bROb]dS
`SW]O-P\bQ]OO HS`b (HS`b P\Od). 9bYSS ]bKYGTbS`QU, PbP V\d VOQ`SVS]-
]OW TOKbYS]dd P \bQÒ\S OTQ SO HS` dR `SW]O-P\bQ]OO VS\SMOTd`
KYST]O-P\bQ]QN HS`. ]\d TOKbYS]dd ]OT P \bQÒ\S ]SQPOYTPdM PbVSYT
3 `SW]O-P\bQ]QN HS` OQQ`b]bYdbS`QU. YbVdQQbS`QU MOT \SbPHdd:
3 + 3 ( )3 + 3

KSQHS`]QN KSQHS`]QN `SW]O-P\bQ]QN KSQHS`]QN
_SRSYT`b`Q b]bYdRd\SG`QU d SFS \bR ]b V\dWS\S S\b]S]dU \SbPHdd
QUQ]US`QU, PbP QWSFbS`QU \b]OSQdS SFSQ` MYO\dTb ESYSRb(III) d \O-
Tb]dTb ESYSRb (III).
UQOTd`QU dÒOOS RbPYGS]dS O YdU]dd PO]HS]`\bHdd SFSQ`, Sb-
Q`SGFdM \SbPHdd, ]b \b]OSQdS: V\d SSYdS]dd PO]HS]`\bHdd OT]OO
dR SFSQ`, SbQ`SGFdM MdWdSQPON \SbPHdd, \b]OSQdS QWSFbS`QU
QÒ\O]S SWS]TDS]dU BÒN PO]HS]`\bHdd d OK\b`]O (OK\b`]OS VOTQPbRQbG`
QbWd SbFdSQU).
]\d dRSS]dd YdU]dU `SWVS\b`S\Q ]b \b]OSQdS Sd`SYT O`WSbS`,
Ò V\d VOQDS]dd `SWVS\b`S\Q BPRO`S\WdSQPdM \SbPHdUM \b]OS-
QdS QWSFbS`QU YSO ( QÒ\O]S dQMOT]QM SFSQ`), b B]TO`S\WdSQPdM
y i l
\SbPHdUM – V\bO ( QÒ\O]S PO]S]OO V\OTSP`b \SbPHdd).
d e
UYdU]dS `SWVS\b`S\Q ]b \b]OSQdS WOE]O V\OTSWO]Q`\d\Ob`T ]b V\d-
WS\S V\S\bFS]dU TdOPQdTb bRO`b TdWS\d], \bRYOES]dU dOTOOTO\OTb, \S-
n
bPHdd P\bMWbYb Q \bQÒ\OW dOTb d T\SdM OVQÒ.
=\SYOTO]]bU POYKb ]bVOY]US`QU bROW 2 (WOE]O VOYSd`T dR WSTd d
ç ü
PO]HS]`\d\Ob]]ON bRO`]ON PdQYO`Q) d V\O]O RbPSVO\dbS`QU. U]S`\d
POYKQ UQ]O KSTS` dTS] bR KS\OO HS`b. 9bYSS P\SYbU bQ`T POYKQ
OMYbETbS`QU QWSQTG YTTb (dYd Q]Sb) d VOb\S]]ON QOYd. gS\SR 2-3 Wd-
p
HS` ]OT VOUYUS`QU: ü
]S`Q POYKb TSWO]Q`\d\SS`QU SbFdWQU: KS\QN HS` POYKS V\OVbTbS`. =OTb
POYKS, Q]S dR QWSQd, OKQSDdbG` d VOTO\SbG` ]b QYbKOW O]S, KS\QN
22 24 – #
a

Ç
62
]S`SW ORTSNQ`dU ]b P\dQ`bYYQ dOTdQÒO PbYdU dYd dOTdQÒO ]b`\dU
\bQÒ\b 2 4 Q\ST]SN PO]HS]`\bHdd KOYTDbU V\OKd\Pb dYd ]SKOYTDbU
P\SYOTO]]bU POYKb ]bVOY]US`QU dOTOOTO\OT]QW bROW d RbPSVO\dbS`QU
V\OKPON; SbFdWQU VOPbRQbS`QU, Ò ]S`\d QOQSTb bR KSQHS`]QN. ]\d
]b\Sb]dd POYKQ ]b QYbKOW O]S VOUYUG`QU Vb\Q I2 CdOYSÒOO HS`b, b
V\d OMYbETS]dd – ]OT ]bKYGTbS`QU KSQHS`]QN bR:
2 + 2 2 +#

= 3-4 WY \bQÒ\b P\bMWbYb ]SKOYTDON V\OKd\PS TOKbYUG`QU 1-2
PbVYd \bQÒ\b dOTb d RKbY`QbS`QU, SbFdWQU VOPbRQbS`QU OK\bROb-
]dS `SW]O-Qd]SO OQbTPb. Yb`SW VOYSS]]bU QWSQT VOTO\SbS`QU d V\O-
dQMOTd` OKSQHSS]dS. WOOKFbS`QU, Ò P\bMWbY d VOYSS]]OS SFSQÒ
UYUG`QU QYOE]QWd O\b]dSQPdWd QOSTd]S]dUWd.
UYdU]dS TbYS]dU ]b \b]OSQdS VOT`S\ETbS`QU ]b V\dWS\S \SbPHdd
\bRYOES]dU SOYT]ON PdQYO`Q. W BÒN HSYTG Sd`SYT PYbQQS O`PSVO\d-
bS` KS`QYPS Q bRd\Ob]]ON dYd Wd]S\bYT]ON OTON d VOPbRQbS` Q-
TSYS]dS VSRQ\TPO bRb. Xd`SYT RbTbS` OV\OQ: «W SW QURb]O Q-
TSYS]dS bRb?» XbFdSQU OK4UQ]UG` BÒ VO]dES]dSW TbYS]dU. WYSTO-
b`SYT]O, OK\b`dWON \SbPHdd
23 2 + 2

VO]dES]dS TbYS]dU QWSFbS` \b]OSQdS V\bO, QÒ\O]S VOYSS]dU
SYSPdQYOO bRb. " PbP V\OdQMOTd` V\d VOQDS]dd TbYS]dU? XbFdSQU
l
QOOKFbG`, Ò KSTS` dT`d OK\b`]bU \SbPHdU. ]OQYS VOY]OO QTSYS]dU
SYSPdQYOO bRb (VS`SW RKbY`Qb]dU d ]b\Sb]dU) VOUYS]dS ]bbYS
y
PdQYObÒO V\dPSQb OTQ, b Rb`SW KSRPSQ]OO OK4UQ]US`QU VOY]QW \bR-
YOES]dSW SOYT]ON PdQYO`Q. i
d e
XbFdSQU Rb\b]SS WOS` OV\STSYd`T, PbPSG QÒ\O]S KSTS` QWS-
FS]O \b]OSQdS VOT TSNQ`dSW TbYS]dU \SbPHdUM, POÒ\QM Sb-
Q`SG` bRQ. `R PS\Qb CdRdPd dW dRSQ`]O, Ò V\d VOQÒU]]ON `SWVS-
n
\b`S\S OK4SW d TbYS]dS ]bMOTU`QU OK\b`]ON V\OVO\HdO]bYT]OQ`d.
[.S. V\d VOQDS]dd TbYS]dU OK4SW SWS]TDbS`QU d ]bOKO\O`. U QYS-
ç ü
bUM ES, POTb Tb]Q S\b]S]dU \SbPHdN, dTSFdM Q SbQ`dSW bRO,
YdU]dS dRWS]S]dU TbYS]dU ]b OK4SW OV\STSYUS`QU ]b OQ]OS RbPO]b
"ObT\O (V\d OTd]bPOQM SQYOdUM OTd]bPOOS dQYO dYd WOYT]OS
p ü
POYdSQÒ bROQM WOYSPSY Rb]dWbS` OTd]bPOQN OK4SW) d SbFdSQU
WOS` SQ`b]Od`T, PbPSG QÒ\O]S KSTS` QWSFS]O \b]OSQdS. `b
QVOQOK]OQ`T SbFdMQU RbP\SVYUS`QU VS`SW POYYSP`d]OO \SDS]dU 1-
2 RbTb, b Rb`SW QVOY]S]dSW RbTb]dN \SVVbM.
Ç a 63
W BÒN HSYTG \SVVbW WOE]O VO\Sd`T QYSTSGFdS RbTb]dU:
1. U PbPSG QÒ\O]S KSTS` QWSFS]O \b]OSQdS \SbPHdd
2 2 + 2 2 3 + #

b) V\d VOQDS]dd TbYS]dU;
K) V\d VOQDS]dd `SWVS\b`S\Q?
2. U PbPdM SQYOdUM WOE]O ]bV\bd`T \b]OSQdS \SbPHdd
2 2+2 2 3+# QÒ\O]S VOYSS]dU 3?

3. U PbPSG QÒ\O]S KSTS` QWSFS]O \b]OSQdS ]dESV\dSTS]]QM \S-
bPHdN V\d VOQDS]dd `SWVS\b`S\Q?
) 2 + 2 2+#

) 2 2 + 2 – #

) 32 23 – #

4. _b]OSQdS PbPON \SbPHdd KSTS` QWSFS]O QÒ\O]S PO]S]OO V\O-
TSP`b (V\bO) b) V\d VO]dES]dd `SWVS\b`S\Q; K) V\d VOQDS]dd Tb-
YS]dU? (UQS SFSQ`b, SbQ`SGFdS \SbPHdd, ]bMOTU`QU bROOK\bR]OW
QOQÒU]dd.)
32 + 2 23 + #

24 22 – #

+ 2 2 + 2 + #

5. U PbPSG QÒ\O]S QWSQ`d`QU \b]OSQdS \SbPHdd
32 + 2 23 + #

b) V\d VOQDS]dd TbYS]dU;
K) V\d VOQDS]dd `SWVS\b`S\Q;
Q) V\d VOQDS]dd PO]HS]`\bHdd 2?
y i l
e
]O dQ`SS]dd \SWS]d, O`STS]]OO ]b QVOY]S]dS RbTb]dN (5-7
Wd].) OKQSETbG`QU d OHS]dbG`QU V\SRS]`bHdd.
n d
HFDO?FDD AD?GDBCGDG: S\]OQ`T O`SÒ, S\OS]T V\SRS]`bHdd, QO-
`\ST]dSQÒ \SVVS, O`S`Q ]b TOVOY]d`SYT]QS OV\OQQ.
U RbPYGS]dS Sd`SYT, VOTQÒEdbU S\OP, O`WSbS`, Ò YdU]dS PO]-
HS]`\bHdd, `SWVS\b`S\Q, TbYS]dU, HSYOW, YGKOO ]SD]SO ORTSNQ`dU
ç ü
]b \b]OSQdS C\b]HSRQPdN MdWdP rS-b`SYTS, OKOKDd, Q\bRdY OT]dW
V\d]HdVOW. Ò` V\d]HdV Q\bES] V\OQÒN CO\WS, PbP VOPbRb]O SSK-
ü
]dPS. 9YU RbP\SVYS]dU R]b]dN O YdU]dd ]b MdWdSQPOS \b]OSQdS \bRYd-
]QM CbPÒ\O bE]O TOWb dQQYSTOb`T \SDS]dU RbTb, QOTS\EbFdMQU
SSK]dPS.
a p
Ç
64
:FAM 7. 5;I??GD? BKDGGDG FC;KD?GCJ 1CMOAFAB
GC >MAFA>O@ JDFD??>MDJ F?CMDDA
(!FCMOD??>MA? ;CGGOD?)
8OCG@CFO: 2.2.1.; 2.2.2.; 3.1.1.

)?K@ IFAMC. :?C9DA>G: V\OS\US` ]b OVQ`S
YdU]dS ]b QPO\OQ`T \SbPHdd PO]HS]`\bHdd \SbS]-
Ò (SbQ`SGFdM \SbPHdd SFSQ`), MdWdSQPON
V\d\OTQ, SYdd]Q VOS\M]OQ`d QOV\dPOQ]OS]dU
d `SWVS\b`S\Q; RbP\SVYUS` V\dOK\S`S]]QS `SO\S-
`dSQPdS R]b]dU, QbWOQÒU`SYT]O \bKO`bS` QOQ-
`bS WbYQM \SVV YbKO\bÒ\dd.
M?>IF>C: 0,5 WOYT/Y \bQÒ\b `dOQSYTCb`b ]b`\dU, 0,5 WOYT/Y \bQ-
Ò\b H2SO4 , \bRKbYS]]QS (0,001 M) \bQÒ\Q KI d H2SO4 , 1%-]QN
\bQÒ\ P\bMWbYT]OO PYSNQ`S\b, \bRKbYS]]QN \bQÒ\ (1:10) VS\OPQdTb
OTO\OTb, \bRKbYS]]QN V\OVO\HdUM 1:5 d 1:10 \bQÒ\ QOYU]ON PdQ-
YO`Q, \bQÒ\ QS\]ON PdQYO`Q ÒN ES PO]HS]`\bHdd (1:10), \bRKbYS]]QN
\bQÒ\ KMnO4, ESYSRO dTS V\OOYOPd d VO\ODPb, P\dQ`bYYQ ]d`\b`b
Qd]Hb(II) d dOTdQÒO PbYdU, ]SKOYTDdS PSQOPd Hd]Pb (Zn) d OYOb (Sn),
V\OKd\Pd \bR]QM \bRWS\O, TdQ`dYYd\Ob]]bU OTb, QVd\ÒPb dYd b-
RObU YbWVb, MdWdSQPdS Q`bPb]Q, Q`SVb.
+A@ IFAMC
y i l
d e
U]bbYS `SS]dS 2-3 Wd]S` V\OOTd`QU C\O]`bYT]QN OV\OQ Q HSYTG
bP`SbYdRbHdd R]b]dN SbFdMQU O QPO\OQ`d MdWdSQPON \SbPHdd d YdUG-
FdM ]b ]SS CbPÒ\bM.
n
1. =bPdS \SbPHdd ]bRQbG`QU bWOS]]QWd d S`S\OS]]QWd \SbP-
HdUWd?
ç ü
2. =bP QYObWd Q\bEbS`QU QPO\OQ`T OWOS]]QM d S`S\OS]]QM \S-
bPHdN, PbP RbVdQQbS`QU dM Wb`SWb`dSQPOS Q\bES]dS?
3. =bPdS CbPÒ\Q YdUG` ]b QPO\OQ`T MdWdSQPdM \SbPHdN?
ü
]OQYS VOYSS]dU d SÒ]S]dU O`SÒ SbFdSQU TSYU`QU ]b \SVVQ
dR S`Q\SM SYOSP (SbFdSQU QOQST]dM Vb\` \bQQbEdbG`QU ]bV\O`d
p
T\S T\Sb). ]\d VOWOFd YbKO\b]`b ]b Vb\`bM \bQPYbTQbG`QU d]-
a
Q`\SPHdd d Wb`S\dbYQ TYU V\STQÒUFdM OVQÒ. 6b PbETON Vb\`S \bQ-
Ç 65
PYbTQbG`QU d]Q`\SPHdd d Wb`S\dbYQ (SFSQ`b, \bQÒ\Q, VOQSTb),
O`]OQUFdSQU YdDT P OVQ`bW, V\OOTdWQW Tb]]ON \SVVON. =bETbU
\SVVb dRSbS` Tb]]SG d]Q`\SPHdG d V\OOTd` V\STSQWO`\S]]QN
OVQ`, VOQYS SO TbS` QSWS PYbQQS \bR4UQ]S]dU VO ]dW. U \SVVbM S-
TS`QU \bQV\STSYS]dS \bKO` TYU V\SRS]`bHdd, `S, PÒ V\OOTd` OVQ`,
TbG` \bR4UQ]S]dU VO ]SWS. _bRYd]QS \SVVQ \bKO`bG` ]bT OVQ`bWd
O`]OQd`SYT]O YdU]dU \bRYd]QM CbPÒ\O ]b QPO\OQ`T \SbPHdd d TS-
WO]Q`\d\SG` dM. ]\d KOYTDOW POYdSQ`S \SVV OT]d d `S ES OVQ`Q
WOS` V\OOTd`T TS dYd `\d \SVVQ, \bQQbES]]QS O`TbYS]dd T\S
O` T\Sb. UO \SWU V\SRS]`bHdd V\STQ`bd`SYd O`TSYT]QM \SVV WOS`
TSWO]Q`\d\Ob`T OVQ`Q O`]OQd`SYT]O YdU]dU ]b QPO\OQ`T \SbPHdd OT-
]OO d ÒO ES CbPÒ\b. ZVQ`Q \SVVd\SG`QU VO S`Q\SW ORTSNQ`SG-
FdW CbPÒ\bW.
1. &KDGGD? GC >MAFA>O@ JDFD??>MAA F?CMDDD MAGD?GOFCDDD F?C>?GOAB
1-CA AECO: PbETSG dR TSM V\OKd\OP \bRWSFbG` VO 2 \b]SYQ PSQPb
Zn, OT]O\SWS]]O OT]S dR V\OKd\OP TOKbYUG` \bRKbYS]]SG HCl
QOO`]ODS]dd 1:5, b T\SSG – \bRKbYS]]SG HCl QOO`]ODS]dd 1:10 d
O`WSbS`QU QPO\OQ`T QTSYS]dU VSRQ\TPO bRb.
2-AA AECO: OT]S dR V\OKd\OP YdbG` 1-2 WY 0,5 - \bQÒ\b `dO-
QSYTCb`b d 4 WY TdQ`dYYd\Ob]]ON OTQ, b T\SSG V\OKd\PS – ÒYTPO
6 WY 0,5 - \bQÒ\b `dOQSYTCb`b. ]OÒW OT]O\SWS]]O PbETSG dR V\O-
Kd\OP TOKbYUG` VO 1 WY 0,5 \bQÒ\b H2SO4 . YbQSPbS`QU \SWU, POÒ-
l
\OS V\OMOTd` TO OK\bROb]dU VOWS`]S]dU, b Rb`SW KSYOO OQbTPb PbE-
Ò\S UYUS`QU QTSYS]dS QOKOT]ON QS\Q:
y i
TON V\OKd\PS. ]\dd]ON OK\bROb]dU VOWS`]S]dU d KSYOO OQbTPb \bQ-
d e
3-DA AECO: KOYTDSG V\OKd\PS dYd Q`bPb] YdbS`QU QdYT]O \bR-
n
KbYS]]QS \bQÒ\Q 5 WY KI d 2 WY H2SO4 , P ]dW TOKbYUG`QU 2 WY
QSESV\dOÒYS]]OO 1%-O \bQÒ\b P\bMWbYb d 10 WY TdQ`dYYd\O-
b]]ON OTQ.
ü
ç
U T\SOW Q`bPb]S \bRWSDdbG`QU OTd]bPOON PO]HS]`\bHdd \bQ-
ü
Ò\Q – 10 WY KI, 10 WY H2SO4 d 2 WY \bQÒ\b P\bMWbYb. ]OQYS TOQ`b-
Ò]OO \bRWSDdb]dU Q`SPYU]]ON VbYOPON \bQÒ\O OKOdM Q`bPb]bM,
P PbETOWS dR ]dM OT]O\SWS]]O TOKbYUG` VO 3 WY \bRKbYS]]OO QO-
p
O`]ODS]dd 1:10 \bQÒ\b VS\OPQdTb OTO\OTb (H2O2). 6bKYGTbS`QU,
a
Ç
66
PbPOW Q`bPb]S KQQ`\SS OK\bRSS`QU OQbTOP Qd]SO HS`b. X\b]S]dS Tb]-
]ON \SbPHdd:
9YU B`dM \SbPHdN `bPES WOE]O K\b`T V\OTbbSWQN bV`SPbM 3%-]QN

\bQÒ\ H2O2 .
2. &KDGGD? O?FE?FCOIFC
1-CA AECO: PbETSG dR TSM V\OKd\OP OVSQPbG`QU VO 2 PSQPb Hd]Pb
(Zn), TOKbd P ]SWS \bRKbYS]]QN (1:10) \bQÒ\ H2SO4. ZT]b dR V\O-
Kd\OP VOTO\SbS`QU d VO ÒWS, TS KOYTDS QTSYUS`QU VSRQ\TPO bRb,
Q\b]dbG`QU QPO\OQ`d \SbPHdN.
2-AA AECO: PbETSG dR TSM V\OKd\OP YdbG` VO 2 WY 0,5 - \bQ-
Ò\b `dOQSYTCb`b-]b`\dU d 4 WY TdQ`dYYd\Ob]]ON OTQ. ZT]S dR ]dM
VOWSFbG` Q`bPb] Q MOYOT]ON OTON, b T\SSG – Q`bPb] Q O\USN
OTON. ]OÒW OT]O\SWS]]O OKS V\OKd\Pd TOKbYUG` VO 0,5 - 1 WY
\bQÒ\b H2SO4. XbFdSQU O`WSbG`, PbPOW Q`bPb]S KQQ`\SS OK\bRS-
S`QU KSYQN OQbTOP (S).
3. CBD>DFA>O@ >MAFA>OD F?CMDDD AO

EFDFA@C F?C>?GOAB
l
1-CA AECO: OT]S dR TSM V\OKd\OP VOWSFbG` PSQOP Hd]Pb (Zn), b
T\SSG –b]bYOd]OO \bRWS\b PSQOP OYOb (Sn) d TOKbYUG` P ]dW VO
y i
2WY \bQÒ\b HCl (1:3). XbFdSQU ]bKYGTbG`, PbPON V\OKd\PS KQQ`\SS
QTSYUG`QU VSRQ\TPd bRb.
d e
2-AA AECO: PbETSG dR `\SM V\OKd\OP VOWSFbG` OTd]bPOOO \bR-
WS\b PSQPd Hd]Pb (Zn) d TOKbYUG` P ]dW OTd]bPOON PO]HS]`\bHdd \bR-
KbYS]]QS \bQÒ\Q H2SO4, HCl d SPQSQ]ON PdQYO`Q. 6bKYGTbS`QU,
n
PbPOW QYSbS \SbPHdU V\O`SPbS` KQQ`\SS d VOUQ]US`QU V\dd]b.
ç ü
4. &KDGGD? B?KD?DGC EAB?FJGA>OD >AEFDMA>GAB?GDG
F?C>?GOAB GC >MAFA>O@ F?CMDDD
p ü
1-CA AECO: VOTSYd PSQOP WSYb ]b TS \a]QS bQ`d, OT]S bQ`T
dRWSYTbG`, b Rb`SW PSQOP WSYb d SO VO\ODOP VOWSFbG` KOYTDdS
V\OKd\Pd. U OKS V\OKd\Pd OT]O\SWS]]O YdbS`QU 5-6 WY \bRKb-
YS]]OO \bQÒ\b HCl d STS`QU ]bKYGTS]dS. ]OQ`b\bN`SQT OK4UQ]d`T,
Ç a 67
VOSWS V\d TOKbYS]dd P VO\ODPS WSYb PdQYO`Q \SbPHdU V\O`SPbS`
Q KOYTDON QPO\OQ`TG. YbVdDd`S S\b]S]dS \SbPHdd.
2-AA AECO: ]b O]S QVd\ÒPd dYd bROON YbWVQ QdYT]O ]bPbYUG`
VSOP Ò]PdM ESYSR]QM V\OOYOP; SbFdSQU Q`b]OU`QU QdTS`SYUWd
ÒO, Ò ESYSR]QS V\OOYOPd ]S O\U`, b YdDT \bQPbYUG`QU. Yb`SW ]b
QdYT]OS VYbWU QS\MS ]bQQVbG` ESYSR]QN VO\ODOP. XbFdSQU \bRWQD-
YUG` ]bT V\dd]ON OK\bROb]dU dQP\, `.S. O\S]dU ESYSRb.
3-DA AECO: QWSDdbG`QU P\dQ`bYYQ Pb(NO3)2 d KI, SbFdSQU O`WS-
bG` O`QS`Q`dS PbPdM-YdKO dRWS]S]dN. Yb`SW Q`SVON dRWSYTbSW B`S
QWSQT. WWSQT V\dOK\S`bS` ESY`QN HS`. ZK OK\bROb]dd PbPOO ]OOO
SFSQ`b QdTS`SYTQ`SS` VOUYS]dS ESYÒO HS`b? YbVdDd`S S\b]S-
]dS \SbPHdd d QTSYbN`S QOT.
\\SVVQ `SS]dS 15-20 Wd]S` V\OOTU` OVQ`Q, VOÒW TSWO]Q`\d-
\SG` dM QSWS PYbQQS. ]OQYS V\SRS]`bHdN V\OOTd`QU OKOKFS]dS d
OHS]db]dS TSU`SYT]OQ`d \SVV. D?GDBCGD? WOES` V\OOTd`TQU ]b
OQ]OS QYSTSGFdM P\d`S\dS: V\bdYT]OS V\OSTS]dS OVQÒ, VOUQ]S-
]dS \SRSYT`bÒ OVQÒ, QOKYGTS]dS `SM]dPd KSROVbQ]OQ`d, S\OS]T
QO`\ST]dSQ`b, S\OS]T V\SRS]`bHdd.
NAFC.G?? ;C@CGD?: 6bVdDd`S P\b`PdN O`S` O MOTS V\OSTS]]QM

OVQÒ.
y i l
d e
ü n
ü ç
a p
Ç
68
:FAM 8. HAGOFAK@GCG ED>@F?GGCG FC(AOC
(O?>OABCF F?OA@AF) (8)
)?K@ IFAMC: OHS]db]dS OKFSO S\O]U R]b]dN

d QVOQOK]OQ`SN SbFdMQU VO OQ]O]QW OV\OQbW
STd]dHQ OKSS]dU.
M?>IF>C: `SQÒQS RbTb]dU 2-M b\db]`bM,
V\OSPÒ\.
+A@ IFAMC:
a\O]`bYT]QN OV\OQ O`]OQd`SYT]O VOÒ\S]dU OQ]O]QM OV\OQO VO
STd]dHS OKSS]dU (5-6 Wd].). SQSTb O`]OQd`SYT]O Wb`S\dbYO PO]`\OYT-
]ON VdQTWS]]ON \bKO`Q d dM \SDS]dU.
WOTS\Eb]dS `SQÒQM RbTb]dN:
l
BCFDCGO
1. EF?@?KDO? F?CMDD0 ;CF?9?GDG.
) 22 + 2 22 ) 22 22 + 2
y i
e
) + 2 2 + 2 ) + 2 4 4 + 2
") + 3 3 + 2
2. HCMCG D; GDJ GBKG?O>G F?CMDD?A G?AOFCKD;CDDD?

) 22 + 2 22;
) + 2 2 + 2
n d
) 22 22 + 2
) + 3 4
") ()2 +2 4 4 + 22
ç ü
ü
3. :MCQDO? O?FFAJDFD??>MA? IFCBG?GD?.
) 2 + 2 2 ) 3 + 2
) 3 + 2 – 180 ) 22 + 2 22
p
") 22 22 + 2
a
Ç 69
4. HCMA? D; GDJ GBKG?O>G IFCBG?GD?F >AFA>?GGAA F?CMDDD ?
) (`) + 2() 2()
) 2() + 2() 22()
) (`) + 2(E) 2(`) + 2()
) 2NaCl + H2 4 4(`) + 2(E)
(`) (E)
") C2 + H2O H2C3

() (E) (E)
5. :MCQDO? ?@DGDDI >MAFA>OD @KG >AFA>?GGCJ F?CMDDA.

) &"-0/- B) &"-0/(- ') C) =/&"-0 ) =/(&"-0 ') ") =/(- ')
6. HCM @AKQGC D;F?GDO@>G O?FE?FCOIFC D @CBK?GD? @KG OA>A,

?OA(C FCBGAB?>D? B F?CMDDD 2 2 + 2 2 3 + >F?>ODKA>@ B

>OAFAGI EAKI??GDG 3?
U?FE?FCOIFC NCBK?GD?
) VOQQd`TQU VOQQd`TQU
) VOQQd`TQU VO]dRd`TQU
) VO]dRd`TQU VOQQd`TQU
) VO]dRd`TQU VO]dRd`TQU
") KQ`T Q`bKdYT]ON VO]dRd`QU
7. HCMA? ;GC??GD? EAKI?DO MAG>OCGOC FCBGAB?>DG () EFD >F?9?-
l
GDD FCBGAB?>DG F?CMDDD B >OAFAGI MAG??GA>A EFA@IMOC?
) ! > 1 ) !<1 ) !=0 ) !<0 ") !>0
8. 5>JA@GCG MAGD?GOFCDDG B F?CMDDD + >A>OCBKG?O 0,4
y i
!/. &C?D>KDO? >F?@G00 >MAFA>O@ F?CMDDD B !/ %.
d e
!/. W?F?; 2 >?MIG@C FAKGFGCG MAGD?GOFCDDG L& >A>OCBDKC 0,2
9. KC >MAK@MA >FC@I>AB >K?@I?O EABC>DO@ O?FE?FCOIFI F?CMDDD >
B 27 FC;?
ü n
O?FE?FCOIFGCF MA#11DDD?GOAF 3, ?OA(C ?? >MAFA>O@ IB?KD?DKC>@
ü ç
10. 8MAFA>O@ F?CMDDD > O?FE?FCOIFGCF MA#11DDD?GOAF 3 EFD
20°C >A>OCBKG?O 1 !/( %). &C?D>KDO? >MAFA>O@ #OAA F?CMDDD EFD
50°C B !/( %).
a p
Ç
70
BCFDCGO
1. &A >MAK@MA FC; IB?KD?DO>G >MAFA>O@ F?CMDDD, ?>KD B >AFA>?G-
GAA F?CMDDD 3 + 3 MAGD?GOFCDDG L (I@?O IB?KD??GC B 2 FC;C?
2. 8MAFA>O@ F?CMDDD > O?FE?FCOIFGCF MA#11DDD?GOAF =3 EFD
50°C >A>OCBKG?O 0,05 !/ %. 8MAK@MA !/ % (I@?O >MAFA>O@
F?CMDDD, ?>KD EABC>DO@ O?FE?FCOIFI @A 60°C?
) 0,10 ) 0,15 ) 0,015 ) 1,5 ") 2,00
3. &A >MAK@MA FC; IB?KD?DO>G >MAFA>O@ F?CMDDD > O?FE?FCOIFGCF
MA#11DDD?GOAF =2, ?>KD ?? O?FE?FCOIFC (I@?O GC 50°C BC.? EF?QG?A?
4. & MCMDJ >KI?CGJ FCBGAB?>D? F?CMDDD 22 +32 2 2 + 22(ECF)

(I@?O >F?9?GA B >OAFAGI MAG??GA>A EFA@IMOC?
1. ]\d SQ`\b]S]dd OTU]OO Vb\b
2. ]\d SWS]TDS]dd PO]HS]`\bHdd Z2.
3. ]\d VOQDS]dd TbYS]dU
4. ]\d VO]dES]dd TbYS]dU
5. ]\d SSYdS]dd PO]HS]`\bHdd Z2.
) 1,2, 3 ) 1,3,5 ) 1,4,2 ) 2,3,4 ") 4,5,1
5. &C?D>KDO? D>JA@GI0 MAGD?GOFCDD0 MD>KAFA@C B F?CMDDD
2+2 2 , ?>KD B >A>OAGGDD FCBGAB?>DG MAGD?GOFCDDG

[O2] = 0,02 !/, [NO] = 0,1 !/.
6. HCM D;F?GDO>G >MAFA>O@ B F?CMDDD 2 +2 2 2 EFD IB?-

KD??GDD @CBK?GDG B 2 FC;C?

y i l
e
) XSYdd`QU 16 \bR
) XWS]TDd`QU 16 \bR
) XSYdd`QU 64 \bRb
) XWS]TDd`QU 64 \bRb
") XSYdd`QU 8 \bR
n d
ç ü
7. 8F?@GGG >MAFA>O@ F?CMDDD EFD 10°C >A>OCBKG?O =0,02!/ %.
HCM D;F?GDO>G >MAFA>O@ F?CMDDD EFD O?FE?FCOIF? ) 40°C; ) 0°C ( =2)?
) XSYdd`QU 8 \bR, SWS]TDd`QU 2 \bRb
ü
) XWS]TDd`QU 8 \bR, SSYdd`QU 2 \bRb
) XSYdd`QU 4 \bRb, SWS]TDd`QU 2 \bRb
p
) XSYdd`QU 2 \bRb, SWS]TDd`QU 2 \bRb
Ç a 71
8. HCMD? 1CMOAFC G? BKDG0O GC >MAFA>O@ >AFA>?GGCJ F?CMDDA?
1. =O]HS]`\bHdU \SbS]Ò
2. [SWVS\b`S\b
3. ]\d\OTb \SbS]Ò
4. USYdd]b VOS\M]OQ`d QOV\dPOQ]OS]dU \SbS]Ò
5. =b`bYdRbÒ\
)1 ) 2 ) 3 ) 4 ") 5
9. MCBGAB?>D? MCMAA F?CMDDD (I@?O >F?9?GA B >OAFAGI MAG??GA>A

EFA@IMOC EFD IF?G@.?GDD O?FE?FCOIFC D EABC.?GDD @CBK?GDG?
) 3 + 2-#

) 32 +2 23+#

) 2+2 2 – #

) 2+2 2+#

") +2(Vb\) 2+2+#

10. & MCMDJ I>KABDGJ FCBGAB?>D? F?CMDDD 2 2 +2 2 3 + 96

>F?>ODO>G B >OAFAGI MAG??GA>A EFA@IMOC (BEFCBA)?
1. ]\d SSYdS]dd PO]HS]`\bHdd 2
3. ]\d VO]dES]dd TbYS]dU
4. ]\d VOQDS]dd `SWVS\b`S\Q
) 1,2 ) 1,3 ) 1,4 ) 2,3 ") 4,5
y i l
d e
ü n
ü ç
a p
Ç
72
!"#$ . !?FDA@D??>MDA ;CMAG.
!?FDA@D??>MCG >D>O?FC JDFD??>MDJ
#K?F?GOAB D >OFA?GD? COAFC
9b]]bU `SWb (STd]dHb OKSS]dU) Rb]dWbS` OQOKOS WSQÒ V\SVOTbb-

]dd MdWdd. `RSS]dSW Wb`S\dbYO `SWQ SbFdSQU SQOU` OTd] dR OKFdM
RbPO]O V\d\OTQ – E?FDA@D??>MDA ;CMAG, O`\bEbGFdN W]OOQÒ\O]]dS
QURd WSETS MdWdSQPdWd BYSWS]`bWd d dM QOSTd]S]dUWd d Qd`bG-
FdNQU CS]TbWS]ÒW QO\SWS]]ON MdWdSQPON ]bSPd. -b`S\dbYQ, QU-
Rb]]QS Q VS\dOTdSQPON QdQ`SWON MdWdSQPdM BYSWS]Ò d VS\dOTd-
SQPdW RbPO]OW, dWSG` PbP VOR]bb`SYT]OS, `bP d \bRdbGFSS R]bS]dS.
_bRdbGFSS R]bS]dS dRSS]dU `SWQ RbPYGbS`QU ÒW, Ò Tb]]OW
QYSbS SbFdSQU R]bPOWU`QU Q OKDd\]ON OKOKFS]]ON d]CO\WbHdSN O
MdWdSQPdM BYSWS]`bM; S ]dM CO\Wd\SG`QU V\STQ`bYS]dU O QSFSQÒ-
b]dd OK4SP`d]QM, RbdW]QM QURSN WSETS MdWdSQPdWd BYSWS]`bWd;
O]d R]bPOWU`QU Q OKOKFbGFSN, VOUQ]d`SYT]ON d V\O]ORd\SGFSN CS]P-
HdUWd `SO\S`dSQPdM R]b]dN; QUQ]US`QU \OYT d R]bS]dS `SO\dN \bR-
d`dd ]bSPd d `SM]dPd; \bQDd\UG`QU V\STQ`bYS]dU O Wd\S SFSQ` d
dM V\S\bFS]dUM; VOT`S\ETbG`QU OKF]OQ`T Q`\OS]dU bÒWO, STd]QÒ
SFSQ` d Wb`S\dbYT]OO Wd\b, dM VOQ`\OS]dS dR OT]ON Wb`S\dd.
`RSS]dS BÒN CS]TbWS]`bYT]ON `SWQ PS\Qb MdWdd `bPES d\bS` O\OW-
l
]SG \OYT \bRd`dd YOdSQPOO WQDYS]dU SbFdMQU. [bP, MOTS \SDS]dU
SSK]QM V\OKYSW V\OHSQQS S\OPb SbFdSQU bQÒ V\OOTU` TSTSP`d]QS
SWQ`S]]QS OVS\bHdd d b]bYdRQ, SQ`b]bYdbG` V\dd]]O-QYSTQ`S]]QS
QURd, Q\b]dbG` QONQ`b MdWdSQPdM BYSWS]Ò d dM QOSTd]S]dN.
y i
e
`RSS]dS VIII PYbQQS VS\dOTdSQPOO RbPO]b d BYSP`\O]]OO Q`\OS-
d
]dU bÒWb KSTS` QVOQOKQÒb`T TbYT]SNDSW YSDSWS SQOS]dG Q`\OS-
]dU SFSQ`, QONQ` BYSWS]Ò d dM QOSTd]S]dN ]S dTS OVdQb-
`SYTQ`b, b ]b OQ]OS QO\SWS]]QM ]bS]QM RYUTO d b]bYdRb. U V\O-
ü n
HSQQS dRSS]dU `SWQ S SbFdMQU \bQDd\U`QU V\STQ`bYS]dU O VO]U`dUM
bÒWb, bÒW]ON WbQQQ, MdWdSQPOO BYSWS]`b, V\OQÒO d QYOE]OO S-
ç
FSQ`b, CdRdSQPdM d MdWdSQPdM QONQ` SFSQ`b, bYS]`]OQ`d.
U QURd Q ]SPOÒ\QW bKQ`\bP`]QW Mb\bP`S\OW QOTS\Eb]dU `SWQ, dQ-
p ü
VOYTRSSWQS V\d OKSS]dd ]OQS VO]U`dU d RbPO]OWS\]OQ`d QYSTSS`
]bbYS VOUQ]U`T SbFdWQU ]b dRSQ`]QM dW V\dWS\bM, b Rb`SW RbP\SVYU`T
V\d VOWOFd TOVOY]d`SYT]QM V\dWS\O. U Tb]]OW QYSbS MO\ODdN BCCSP`
TbQ` V\OSTS]dS MdWdSQPdM OVQÒ, dQVOYTROb]dS Pb\`d] d QMSW.
Ç a 73
:FAM 1. !?FDA@D??>MDA ;CMAG
8OCG@CFO: 1.2.1.
)?K@ IFAMC. :?C9DA>G: TbS` P\b`PSG Mb\bP`S\dQ-
`dPS \bKO` SS]QM VO RbdWOQURUW MdWdSQPdM BYS-
WS]Ò, RbPO]OWS\]OQÙW dM QONQ`bM; ]b V\dWS\S
BYSWS]Ò Ò\OO d `\S`TSO VS\dOTO POWWS]`d\SS`
RbPO]OWS\]OQ`d, V\OdQMOTUFdS dRWS]S]dd QONQ` Q
SSYdS]dSW bÒW]QM WbQQ; VOUQ]US` QSF]OQ`T VS\dO-
TdSQPOO RbPO]b, O`P\QÒO 9.`.-S]TSYSSQW.
5GO?>FCDDG: a.: 3.2.2. (6-ON PYbQQ)
M?>IF>C: `bKYdHb VS\dOTdSQPON QdQ`SWQ, QVSHdbYT]QS `bKYdHQ
VO \bR4UQ]S]dG VS\dOTdSQPOO RbPO]b ( SSK]dPS `bKYdHb 7 d T\S-
dS), QVSHdbYT]QS Pb\ÒPd, VOTOÒYS]]QS SbFdWdQU, SSK]dP.
+A@ IFAMC
l
`RSS]dS VS\dOTdSQPOO RbPO]b WOES` V\OOTd`TQU ]SQPOYTPdM b-
y i
\db]`bM. XQVSD]OQ`T YGKOO dR b\db]Ò RbdQd` O` VOTOÒYS]]OQ`d
Sd`SYU d SbFdMQU. ZR]bPOWdWQU Q P\b`PdW QOTS\Eb]dSW TSM ]bdKOYSS
bQÒ d SQVSD]O V\dWS]USWQM DPOYT]ON V\bP`dPS b\db]Ò.
d e
I BCFDCGO. XbFdWQU Rb\b]SS VO\SbS`QU QOQ`bd`T Pb\ÒPd \bR-
WS\S 4M5 20 BYSWS]Ò (O` OTO\OTb TO PbYTHdU) Q dQVOYTROb]dSW `bK-
YdHQ VS\dOTdSQPON QdQ`SWQ ]b OKYOEPS SSK]dPb. 6b PbETON Pb\ÒPS
n
TOYE]Q KQ`T RbVdQb]Q: MdWdSQPdN R]bP BYSWS]`b, SO VO\UTPOQN
]OWS\, OP\SYS]]bU O`]OQd`SYT]bU bÒW]bU WbQQb, CO\WSYQ QQDSO OP-
ü
QdTb d OTO\OT]QM QOSTd]S]dN ( CO\WSYbM ]bT R]bPOW BYSWS]`b SPbRQ-
ü ç
bS`QU SO bYS]`]OQ`T), CO\WSYb QOO`S`Q`SGFSO QQDSWS OPQdTS
dT\OPQdTb (OQ]Ob]dU dYd PdQYO`Q). U PbSQ`S V\dWS\b Sd`SYT VOPb-
RQbS` ]b TOQPS, PbP QOQ`bYUG`QU Pb\ÒPd TYU BYSWS]Ò , d .
p
U MOTS S\OPb Sd`SYT V\STYbbS` SbFdWQU \bRYOEd`T B`d Pb\ÒPd
VO\UTPS OR\bQ`b]dU bÒW]QM WbQQ BYSWS]Ò d \bQVOYOEd`T \UTOW
Ç
74
a
T\S Rb T\SOW `S BYSWS]`Q, S POÒ\QM b]bYOd]QS QONQ`b. W`b]O-
d`QU UQ]O, Ò OTO\OT d SYdN Rb]dWbG` O`TSYT]QN \UT. ]OQYS ÒO,
PbP SbFdSQU QbWd VOT`S\TU` VS\dOTdSQPOS VOÒ\S]dS WS`bYYdSQPdM
d ]SWS`bYYdSQPdM QONQ` \bQVOYOES]]QM \UT BYSWS]Ò, OQ]O]QM
d PdQYO`]QM QONQ` OPQdTO d dT\OPQdTO (VOQYS QORTb]dU WO`dbHdd),
Sd`SYT RbUYUS`, Ò QS BÒ UYUS`QU VS\dOTdSQPdW RbPO]OW, POÒ\QN
KQY O`P\Q` 9.`.-S]TSYSSQW 1869 OTS. Z] QOOKFbS` dW O \bKO`bM
SS]QM, SFS TO -S]TSYSSb VQ`bDdMQU SQ`b]Od`T QURT WSETS dRSQ`-
]QWd Ò \SWU 63 MdWdSQPdWd BYSWS]`bWd, d O ÒW, SW O`YdbYbQT
\bKO`b -S]TSYSSb O` ]dM. 9O QSTS]dU SbFdMQU TOOTd`QU OV\STSYS-
]dS, Tb]]OS -S]TSYSSQW VS\dOTdSQPOWS RbPO]S d bE]OQ`T RbP\SVYS-
]dU SO VbWU`d.
]OQPOYTPS SbFdSQU dWSG` V\STQ`bYS]dS O QOQ`bS bÒWb d Rb\UTS
UT\b, TbS`QU QO\SWS]]OS OV\STSYS]dS VS\dOTdSQPOO RbPO]b d QO-
OKFbS`QU, Ò Q\bES]dS RbdQdWOQ`d CO\WQ (QOQ`bb) d QONQ` Md-
WdSQPdM BYSWS]Ò d OK\bROb]]QM O` ]dM V\OQ`QM d QYOE]QM S-
FSQ` O` Rb\UTb UT\b KOYSS Ò]O O`\bEbS` OV\STSYS]dS VS\dOTdS-
QPOO RbPO]b.
II BCFDCGO. ]OQYS bP`SbYdRbHdd R]b]dN O bYS]`]OQ`d BYSWS]Ò
PdQYO\OTQOTS\EbFdM d OTO\OT]QM QOSTd]S]dUM, dM OPQdTbM d
dT\OPQdTbM (VOQYS QORTb]dU FAODBCDDD) Sd`SYT OK\bFbS`QU P
PYbQQS: «U]dWb`SYT]O dRSd`S `bKYdHS d VOQ`b\bN`SQT O`S`d`T ]b
]dESV\dSTS]]QS D>>K?@ABCO?K@>MD? BAEFA>C (OV\OQQ TbG`QU ]b
KOYTDOW CO\Wb`S KSWbd dYd BP\b]S)». WOTS\Eb]dS OV\OQO WOES`
KQ`T QYSTSGFdW:
y i l
e
1. =bP dRWS]US`QU bYS]`]OQ`T BYSWS]Ò VO PdQYO\OTS O` TO bRO`b
d O` TO MYO\b?
n
3. =bPdS BYSWS]`Q V\OUYUG` OTd]bPOSG bYS]`]OQ`T?d
2. =bP dRWS]US`QU bYS]`]OQ`T YS`SdM OTO\OT]QM QOSTd]S]dN BYS-
WS]Ò ]bd]bU O` SYS\OTb S\M]SW \UTS d P\SW]dU ]dE]SW \UTS?
4. =bP dRWS]UG`QU O`]OQd`SYT]QS bÒW]QS WbQQQ BYSWS]Ò S\M-
ç ü
]dM d ]dE]dM \UTbM QYSb ]bV\bO – OR\bQ`bG` dYd SWS]TDbG`QU?
5. =bPdS QONQ`b V\OUYUG` OPQdTQ d dT\OPQdTQ d ?
ü
6. =bPdS QONQ`b V\OUYUG` OPQdTQ d dT\OPQdTQ BYSWS]Ò d ,
d ?
a p
Ç 75
!?FDA@D??>MA? D;F?G?GD? >BAA>OB JDFD??>MDJ
#K?F?GOAB D DJ >A?@DG?GDA
YSWS]`Q II
VS\dOTb
UQQDdS OPQdTQ Li2O BeO B2O3 CO2 N 2O5 – – –
rS`SdS ÛÂ ÛÛÛ ÛÛ Û
OTO\OT]QS – – – CH4 NH3 H 2O HF –
QOSTd]S]dU
\dT\OPQdTQ LiOH Be(OH)2 H3BO3 H2CO3 HNO3 – – –
UbYS]`]OQ`T d
Q`SVS]T OPdQYS]dU (+1) (+2) (+3) (+4) (+5) (-2) (-1) 0
QQDSW OPQdTS
YSWS]`Q III
VS\dOTb
UQQDdS OPQdTQ Íà2O ÌýO Àë2O3 ÑèO2 Ï2 O 5 ÑèO3 Úë2O7 –

rS`SdS ÛÂ ÛÛÛ ÛÛ Û
OTO\OT]QS – – – ÑèH4 ÏH3 H2Ñ HÚë –
QOSTd]S]dU
\dT\OPQdTQ ÍàOH Ìý(OH)2 Àë(OÙ)3 H2ÑèO3 H3ÏO4 H2ÑO4 HÚëO4 –
UbYS]`]OQ`T d Q`S-
VS]T OPdQYS]dU (+1) (+2) (+3) (+4) (+5) (+6) (+7) 0
QQDSW OPQdTS
l
7. =bPdS QONQ`b V\OUYUG` OT]QS \bQÒ\Q OTO\OT]QM QOSTd]S-
]dN CÒ\b d MYO\b?
8. =bP dRWS]UG`QU QYSb ]bV\bO QONQ`b OPQdTO \UTbM 2, ,
23, 2, 25 d 2, , 23, 2, 25, 2 ?
y i
9. gÒ Q R]bS`S O QONQ`bM dT\OPQdTO , ()2, ()3,
d
2 3, 34, 2 4? =bPdS RbPO]OWS\]OQ`d V\OUYUG`QU dM QON-
Q`bM ]bV\bYS]dd QYSb ]bV\bO? e
n
10. =bP dRWS]UG`QU WS`bYYdSQPdS d ]SWS`bYYdSQPdS QONQ`b
BYSWS]Ò PbP S\M]SO, `bP d ]dE]SO \UTb VO WS\S OR\bQ`b]dU dM
bÒW]ON WbQQQ?
ü
ü ç
11. W\b]d`S QONQ`b OPQdTO d dT\OPQdTO (OQ]Ob]dN d PdQYO`)
BYSWS]Ò d , d , d , d , \bQVOYOES]]QM QS\MS ]dR
OTd] VOT T\SdW. =bPdS dR ]dM V\OUYUG` KOYSS QdYT]QS OQ]O]QS dYd
p
PdQYO`]QS QONQ`b?
12. =bPdS QONQ`b V\OUYUG` BYSWS]`Q d ?
Ç
76
a
]OQYS VOYSS]dU O`SÒ ]b OV\OQQ Sd`SYT WSQ`S Q SbFdWdQU
V\dMOTU` P QYSTSGFdW QOTbW:
1. ]O WS\S OR\bQ`b]dU bÒW]QM WbQQ BYSWS]Ò dM WS`bYYdSQPdS
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T) T]U`ZwZbYwF Pb R^YUbWbMO;
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8NUF 3. $S6PIQ]? U[NP]UGPIQE
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8NUF 4. \QB! FUGPZSIJIU= LGE]Q
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YwWb`Z^` YwWORwOWZLH J]Yw^< Z` PbMJ^Z`Zb bPW`MÙ`ZZbSO PbWQMRO, bZ^
W]YPbU]E]AwYQ H]bw^JZb; T) bRY^ML S`w]UUbT, YbU^, bYZbT]Z^Q ^ Z`Rbwb-
WL` PWbYwL` T`>`YwT] (]US]K, EW]=^w, RW`SZ^B); YSbU], P]W]=^Z, Yw`RUb
^ MW. – ]SbW=ZL` T`>`YwT], E) PWbYwW]ZYwT`ZZ]Q YwWORwOW], bIW]KOA-
ç ü
>]QYQ T W`KOUFw]w` PbYwWb`Z^Q T bPW`MÙ`ZZbS PbWQMR` J]Yw^< wT`WMLH
wÙ, Z]KLT]`wYQ RW^Yw]UU^J`YRbB W`9`wRbB.
ü
ybYU` PbUOJ`Z^Q bwT`wbT Z] TbPWbYL OJ`Z^R^ ^KOJ]Aw w^PL RW^Yw]U-
U^J`YR^H W`9`wbR ^ ^H YTbBYwT]. 0 DwbB <ÙFA OJ^wÙF =bWSOU^WO`w YU`-
MOA>^B QLLZSBUGPJSZ>LFQ= GU@NNUL:
a p
3 ;G;KQ RGPEK! PFPEF8E ;GKPEG==KRLP;KL GLLE;K PFLMKCLCK/
CaO, NaCl, KBr, KHL)$KQ KFCC7) PN83.? CG;FHG8 NPLH :FNGGLCCG8 PF=.
Ç
122
– 4EF =L+;F GGPENFGKHFL K=K EG7MCF GGPENFGKHFL NL$LPENF? GFNFMKE
=K 4=L;EGKRLP;K/ EF; LL GGP:=GN K=K GGPENFG?
(?YU^ w]R]Q TbKSb?ZbYwF ^S``wYQ, W`RbS`ZMO`wYQ PWbM`SbZYwW^Wb-
T]wF RU]YYO DU`RwWbPWbTbM^SbYwF TbMZbEb W]YwTbW] NaCl).
|J^wÙF PbQYZQ`w, Jwb =^K^J`YR^` YTbBYwT] IbUF9^ZYwT] RW^Yw]UU^-
J`YR^H T`>`YwT ^bZZbEb w^P] YHb?^ Yb YTbBYwT]S^ PbT]W`ZZbB (YwbUb-
TbB) YbU^.
"]R^` J]Yw^<L YbM`W?]wYQ T OKU]H RW^Yw]UU^J`YR^H W`9`wbR PW^ PW`-
TW]>`Z^^ /c2 ^ e2, e/c ^ e2J T wT`WML` wÙ]? "]RbTb ^H ]EWÈ]wZb` YbY-
wbQZ^` T bILJZLH OYUbT^QH? |J`Z^R^ bwT`J]Aw Z] Dw^ TbPWbYL, ]
OJ^wÙF MbPbUZQ`w, Jwb w`SP`W]wOW] R^P`Z^Q T`>`YwT Y SbU`ROUQWZbB
RW^Yw]UU^J`YRbB W`9`wRbB Z^KR]Q, w` ^K Z^H, RbwbWL` YbYwbQw ^K Z`Pb-
UQWZLH SbU`ROU, Z` PWbTbMQw DU`RwW^J`YR^B wbR, ] Z`RbwbWL` T`>`YwT]
Y PbUQWZLS^ SbU`ROU]S^ (Z]PW^S`W, R^YUbwL) bIU]M]Aw DU`RwW^J`YRbB
PWbTbM^SbYwFA.
ybYU` DwbEb M]AwYQ RW]wR^` PbQYZ`Z^Q b wT`WMLH wÙ]H Y ]wbSZb-RW^-
Yw]UU^J`YRbB W`9`wRbB: `YwF Z`RbwbWL` PWbYwL` ^ YUb?ZL` T`>`YwT],
RW^Yw]UUL RbwbWLH YbYwbQw ^K ]wbSbT. }wb Sb?Zb PW`MYw]T^wF T T^M` E^-
E]ZwYRbB SbU`ROUL, YbYwbQ>`B ^K SZb?`YwT] ]wbSbT. yWbJZbYwF T`>`YwT,
bIW]KbT]ZZLH TK]^SbM`BYwT^`S ]wbSbT, EbW]KMb TL9`, ] ^H YPU]TL, R]R
PW]TÛb, Z` PWbTbMQw DU`RwW^J`YwTb (PW`MYw]T^wÙ^: LEJ2, LE/ ^ w.M.).
{`w]UUL bIW]KOAw bYbILB w^P RW^Yw]UU^J`YR^H W`9`wbR. 0 ^H RW^Y-
w]UU^J`YR^S YwWb`Z^`S TL O?` KZ]RbSL.
Z]Z^Q b w^P]H RW^Yw]UU^J`YR^H W`9`wbR O wT`WMLH wÙ, ] w]R?` b K]-
T^Y^SbYw^ ^H YTbBYwT bw w^P] RW^Yw]UU^J`YRbB W`9`wR^, bIbI>]AwYQ
PW^ PbSb>^ YU`MOA>`B w]IU^<L:
y i l
\S4SLJGP L ?UZSFDZENIU=
NSSJFU=
(Cl2I2)
Q@! Q LGU=LJGP FNQLJPZZUG
\S4SLJGP L QUIIU=
NSSJFU=
(NaCl, CaO)
d e
\S4SLJGP L PJU?IU=
NSSJFU=
(PZ?P], SiO2)
n
yWbJZbYwF – Z^KR]Q yWbJZbYwF – TLYbR]Q yWbJZbYwF – bJ`ZF TLYbR]Q
`SP. R^P`Z^Q – Z^KR]Q `SP. R^P`Z^Q – TLYbR]Q `SP. R^P`Z^Q – TLYbR]Q
ü
`SP. PU]TU`Z. – Z^KR]Q `SP. PU]TU`Z. – TLYbR]Q `SP. PU]TU`Z. – TLYbR]Q
+`RbwbWL` W]YwTbW^SL T TbM` z bYZbTZbS, W]YwTbW^SL T TbM` +` W]YwTbW^SL T TbM`
ç
]YwTbWL ^ W]YPU]TL T bY- ]YwTbWL ^ W]YPU]TL PWbTb- ]YPU]TL Z` PWbTbMQw wbR
ZbTZbS Z` PWbTbMQw wbR MQw wbR
ü
|J`Z^R^, OJ]YwTOA>^` T bwT`w]H Z] TbPWbYL, U<SIQGP_JLE T`W-
I]UFZb (YUbT`YZb). ]w`S OJ^wÙF W]YYR]KLT]`w, R]R^` J]Yw^<L TU^QAw
p
Z] PbYwbQZYwTb YbYw]T] T`>`YwT.
Ç a 123
8NUF 10. aUIJNUZ>IPE @QL>?SIIPE NP[UJP
3JPIBPNJ: 1.2.1.; 1.3.1.; 3.2.1.

.UB DNUFP. 8;P4Q=LE: bPW`MÙ`Z^` KZ]Z^B ^
OS`Z^B OJ`Z^RbT Pb `M^Z^<` bIOJ`Z^Q T <ÙbS.
,SLDNL!: w`YwbTL` TbPWbYL ^ K]M]Z^Q T MTOH T]-
W^]Zw]H, PWb`RwbW Û^ IbUF9bB U^Yw T]wS]Z] Y Z]-
P^Y]ZZLS^ Z] Z`S w`Yw]S^.
.UB DNUFP
|J^wÙF bWE]Z^KO`w RU]YY: `YU^ PbKTbUQAw OYUbT^Q, W`RbS`ZMO`wYQ
W]YY]M^wF OJ`Z^RbT Pb bMZbSO Z] R]?MbB P]Ww`. |J]>^SYQ W]KM]AwYQ
w`YwbTL` TbPWbYL.
yW`MU]E]`S T]9`SO TZ^S]ZÂ 2 T]W^]Zw] w`YwbT. ]M]Z^Q MbU?ZL
ILwF YHb?^ ^ bHT]wLT]wF EU]TZL` <Ù^ `M^Z^<L bIOJ`Z^Q.
l
GPNQPIJ
) HCl ) NaCl ) KI ) H2SO4 ) K2SO4

i
1. \ FPFQ6 LUSBQISIQE6 Q?SSJLE Q QUIIPE, Q FUGPZSIJIPE LGE]>?
y
]S= G ?UZSFDZS P]UJP?
d e
2. 3FUZ>FU 1ZSFJNUIUG D;PLJGDSJ G U[NP]UGPIQQ 6Q?Q;SLFQ6 LGE-
3. \ FPFU= Q] @NQGSBSII!6 IQ S UN?DZ @ULZSBUGPJSZ>IULJ>
Cl2, HCl, NaCl?
ü n
JQ@UG 6Q?Q;SLFQ6 LGE]S= 1JQ6 LUSBQISIQ= BPIP @NPGQZ>IU?
A) ^bZZ]Q, PbUQWZb-RbT]U`ZwZ]Q, Z`PbUQWZb-RbT]U`ZwZ]Q
ç
B) Z`PbUQWZb-RbT]U`ZwZ]Q, ^bZZ]Q, PbUQWZb-RbT]U`ZwZ]Q
ü
C) Z`PbUQWZb-RbT]U`ZwZ]Q, PbUQWZb-RbT]U`ZwZ]Q, ^bZZ]Q
D) PbUQWZb-RbT]U`ZwZ]Q, Z`PbUQWZb-RbT]U`ZwZ]Q, ^bZZ]Q
E) ^bZZ]Q, Z`PbUQWZb-RbT]U`ZwZ]Q, PbUQWZb-RbT]U`ZwZ]Q
a p
Ç
124
4. $CMCJ SJWIC ZPZ5OC.CWP ?WOWMO@KCQhW O-ZO5hPCLWA 6h5OhH-
Q@Ih ZO5hPCLJIh?
) )
) )
5. - IZLWMGLW MCMhJ SZWHhQWQhA WSPE MZKCLWQPQCJ SKJ>E, Z5OC>Z-

KCQQCJ HZQZOQZ-CMBW?PZOQ@I IWJCQh>IZI?
1. CO2 2. CO 3. HCl 4. NH4Cl 5. NaCl 6. H2SO4
) 1, 2 ) 2, 3 ) 4, 5 ) 2, 4 ) 3, 6
6. :MC.hPW s-p h p-p Sh6IC-SKJ>h.
1. 2. 3.
4. 5.
7. - MCMhJ 4LWIWQPCJ, 4LWMPOZQQCJ #ZOIGLC CPZIZK MZPZO@J ?Oh-

y i l
KWHWQC Qh.W, SCICJ K@SZMCJ 4LWMPOZZPOhBCPWLEQZSPE?
A) 1s22s1
D) 1s22s22p5
B) 1s22s22p2
E) 1s22s22p63s2
C) 1s22s22p4
d e
1. HCl 2. HF 3. CO2 4. H2O
ü n
8. - IZLWMGLCJ MCMhJ KW;WSPK Z5OC>GWPSJ KZHZOZHQCJ SKJ>E?
5. H2S 6. CO
IZLWMGLJOQZW SPOZWQhW.
) HCl, H2O, CO2
) H2SO4, Na2SO4, KCl
ü ç
9. :MC.hPW OJH KW;WSPK, hIW8;hJ K PKWOHZI SZSPZJQhh PZLEMZ
) NaCl, NaOH, K2SO4

) O2, Fe, H2S
p
) C, SiO2, HNO3
a
Ç 125
10. - MCMhJ IZLWMGLCJ IW.HG CPZICIh SG;WSPKGWP ZHhQCMZKZW
9hSLZ MZKCLWQPQ@J SKJ>WA?
1) SO3 2) H2S 3) H2SO4 4) NH3 5) H3PO4
11. ?OWHWLhPW #ZOIGLG SZWHhQWQhJ, Z5OC>ZKCQQZ6Z 4LWIWQPZI +

S KZHZOZHZI, WSLh #ZOIGLC ZSQZKQZ6Z ZMShHC 4LWIWQPC OCKQC X2O3.
12. :MC.hPW OJH, Z5OC>G8;hA PZLEMZ IWPCLLh9WSMG8 SKJ>E:
) Na, Al, C ) K, Si, Ca
) Li, Mg, Be ) H, N, Ba ) Fe, Si, Au
KCOhCQP
1. - MCMhJ SZWHhQWQhJJ hIWWPSJ h hZQQCJ, h ?ZLJOQZ-MZKCLWQPQCJ
SKJ>E?
P) HBr N) Na3PO4 b) NaI i) H2SO3 7) H2O
2. 0MZLEMZ 4LWMPOZQZK G9CSPKGWP K Z5OC>ZKCQhh JhIh9WSMhJ SKJ-
>WA K IZLWMGLW MhSLZOZHC?
P) 3 N) 1 b) 2 i) 4 7) 6
3. - MCMZA h> ?OhKWHWQQ@J Qh.W #ZOIGL ?ZSLWHZKCPWLEQZSPE
Ph?ZK JhIh9WSMhJ SKJ>WA 4PhJ SZWHhQWQhA HCQC ?OCKhLEQZ:
Br2, HI, KI?
a) ff^, ]`^cf-_a`fgf^, f]`^cf-_a`fgf^
b) f]`^cf-_a`fgf^, ff^, ]`^cf-_a`fgf^
c) f]`^cf-_a`fgf^, ]`^cf-_a`fgf^, ff^
y i l
e
d) ]`^cf-_a`fgf^, f]`^cf-_a`fgf^, ff^
e) ff^, f]`^cf-_a`fgf^, ]`^cf-_a`fgf^
Q@Ih ZO5hPCLJIh?
n d
4. $CMCJ SJWIC ZPZ5OC.CWP ?WOWMO@KCQhW s-ZO5hPCLWA 6h5OhH-
P)
ç ü )
ü
) )
a p
Ç
126
5. :MC.hPW p3–p Sh6IC h p–p ?h-SKJ>h.
1. 2.
3. 4.
5.
6. ?OWHWLhPW #ZOIGLG SZWHhQWQhJ, Z5OC>ZKCQQZ6Z 4LWIWQPZI +

S KZHZOZHZI, WSLh #ZOIGLC ZSQZKQZ6Z ZMShHC 4LWIWQPC + OCKQC 25.
7. - MCMhJ IZLWMGLCJ IW.HG CPZICIh SG;WSPKGWP ZHhQCMZKZW

9hSLZ MZKCLWQPQ@J SKJ>WA?
1) H2 O3 2) H 3 3) H2SO3 4) H3O4
8. - MCMZI h> SZWHhQWQhA QWP MZKCLWQPQZA SKJ>h, Z5OC>ZKCQQZA
HZQZOQZ-CMBW?PZOQ@I IWJCQh>IZI?
1) H2O 2) 3) H 4) H4 5) 2
l
9. 0MZLEMZ 4LWMPOZQZK G9CSPKGWP K Z5OC>ZKCQhh JhIh9WSMhJ SKJ-
>WA K IZLWMGLW MhSLZOZHC?
10. :MC.hPW OJH, Z5OC>G8;hA PZLEMZ hZQQG8 SKJ>E:
y i
e
P) ]Ybj, bO2, k2SO4 N) kND, ]Y3:O4, bYbj2 b) mbj, :2O5, H2O
i) Pj2, H2, O2 7) ]Y2SO4 , ]m3 , bY(]O3)2
d
11. - MCMhJ 4LWIWQPCJ, 4LWMPOZQQCJ #ZOIGLC CPZIZK MZPZO@J
n
?OhKWHWQC Qh.W, SCICJ Qh>MCJ 4LWMPOZZPOhBCPWLEQZSPE?
P) ...3'23o4 N) ...4'1 b) ...3'2 i) ...2'22o5
ç ü
12. - MCMhJ SZWHhQWQhJJ WSPE h hZQQCJ, h MZKCLWQPQCJ SKJ>h?
ü
) () ) ) H2 )H ) 2
4Ug`W Mcg ggc\ ]c fÙ `CfK ac[f [Gg
a p
]cag MMHLH MZG\f^ f g[Z « [U_ a^V», -
]`WVZ^ `\ZLH a]cX:
Ç 127
1. 8_ J`[fgX M`\Lg [O aX_O J`_gcgcPg`W-
fgWL? 8_ [f^g^ VfUf J`gcgcPg`Wfg ] KàfX[ ]\-
KcZ]][ ]c\U_O g[X ] ]c\[?
2. "G\Z g[[ __S J`[fga ] VfUfL J`_gcgcPg`W-
fg McVZg^ _a`fgf^, __S – ff^ a^VW? <ca\g ]c-
[cX.
3. 8_^ a^VW ZHgaZg [G\Z _a`fgfO a^VWL a`fgfgWL
J`[fga? 8_ ]c\`^g^ U` S[U_S a^VO, McVaffXS
J`[fg[? 8_a a`fgfgW Vg a NH4Cl HNO3?
4. "G\Z __[ [`_Z`[ [Gg McVagW^ a\c\f^ a^VW?
5. 8_ a\X _a`fgfO a^V ZHgaZLg? "`_Z`X \ffO
__O a^V MXaLg \]`WfX[?
6. 8_K g] _cg`Ù_ cCg_ McVZLg gac\X g`?
8_^ a^VW [G\Z g][ _cg`Ù_O cCg_ DVU_[ aO-
ga[ aHga?
<W[ffX cMgX ZUf_a PfaLg^ \ `\ZLHK Vf^g^.
. JgO P`WL Vcf \`^ _G\K a]c V\f^ ]c\`^Lg^
M``X – f faf fMcffK ZUf_[ MHK _Ùga M`à
aXa\g^ Pf_ ] ]^gM``WfO g[, _gc^ Vfg^ a _`-
fXO GZcf` ]` MZG\fO cVZ`Wgga ]W[ffXS cMg. > ac[^
MZG\f^ f`V ggaXS cVZ`Wgga ZUg`W \`Gf cV1^fgW
l
g a]cX V\f^, f _gcX ZUf_ f [K` \gW ]ca`WfXO
ga ZUgXagW ZcafW VffO ]\Kga_ ZUHS^.
y i
gag. > VMGf g_S `ZUa c_[f\Zg^ ]c ga`f g-
d e
ü n
ü ç
a p
Ç
128
V ! .
- !- !!

7 C_`Wf[ _Zc ] S[ ]f^g S[U_O c_P Dc[-

cZg^ ]`\ag`WfX[ Jg][:
1. )f`V g[f-[`_Z`^cfK ]f^g^ S[U_S c_PO.
2. 'VZUf JfcKgU_S fa S[U_S ]cPa (c_PO).
3. %Vag ]f^gO S[U_S c_P^S f fa J`_gcffO
gc.
4. 'VZUf _fg_ V_f[cfgO ]cg_f^ S[U_S c-
_PO.
5. 'VZUf MffgO ]cg_f^ S[U_S c_PO a J`_-
gc`gfXS cgacS.
6. 'VZUf MffgO S[U_S c_PO, ]cg_LHS a c-
KfU_S aHgaS.
7. 8`D_P^ S[U_S c_PO, MMHf VffO.
Z_`g`Wf-agfag`WfX c_P – Jg ]cPX, VZU-
[X f Zcaf J`_gcffO gc. ZfafX ]f^g^ a g[ VffO,
l
gf^HS^ _ Jg[ c_P^[, – Jg g]fW _`f^, _`f, a-
gfa`f, _`g`W, agfag`W _`g`Wf-agfa-
g`Wf^ c_P^.
> ]cP VZUf^ _`g`Wf-agfag`WfXS c_PO ZU-
y i
d e
f_ \`GfX fZUgW^ ]c[f^gW ZaffX cf Vff^ gc[fX
(S[U_O ^VX_) cVaagW S. . JgO P`WL fMS\[, ]cG\
aK, ]c\`gW aV[a^VW [G\Z Z[f^[ gaggaZLH[
n
]f^g^[. ZfafX a^V [Lg^ [G\Z `\ZLH[ ]f^g^[:
ü
J`_gcgcPg`WfgW J`[fga – _`f agfa`f – g-
]fW _`f^ – _`g`W agfag`W – \fga _`f^
ü ç
agfa`f^ (]cg_LH \fac[ff) – cafga g\U ]-
`ZUf^ J`_gcfa – _`g`WfX ` agfag`WfX DZf_P
g[a fa.
p
> g[ _`g`Wf-agfag`WfXS c_PO fM` aG-
f VfUf [Lg `\ZLH Z[f^:
Ç a 129
– Z[f cafagW gfg`WfZL J`_gcgcPg`WfgW J`[f-
ga ] S [gZ a ]c\U_O g[ S[U_S J`[fga;
– ]c\`^gW V __K g[ a __O [KZg ]cS\gW J`_gcfX a
S[U_S \ff^S;
– ]c\`^gW g]fW _`f^ J`[fg a S[U_S \ff^S;
– ]c\`^gW, Ug MZ\g _`g`[, Ug – agfag`[ a agZ-
]LHS a c_PL aHgaS;
– Z[gW aXU`^gW U` g\a[XS ]`ZU[XS J`_gcfa;
– ZcafagW U` _`^LHS agfaàLHS J`_gcfa;
– VfgW ]`\ag`WfgW ga`f^ _JDDPfga a Zcaf-
f^S S[U_S c_PO.
> ]`\ZLHS _`S Z[f^ ZUf_a ga`^gW _JDDPfgX
a _`g`Wf-agfag`WfXS c_P^S ]c\`^gW Jg c_P
MZ\Zg cVaagW^ f fa _f_cgfXS ]c[ca.
y i l
d e
ü n
ü ç
a p
Ç
130
:OZM 1. 0PW?WQE ZMhSLWQhJ
0PCQHCOP: 1.2.1.; 3.1.1.

jWLE GOZMC. :9C;hASJ: M1^f^g ]f^g g-
]f _`f^ (.Z), a^VW [G\Z g]fWL _-
`f^ ]f^g[ a`fgfg; ]c\`^g g]fW
_`f^ J`[fga a \ff^S _a`fgfO
ffO a^VWL.
)QPW6OCBhJ: #.: 2.2.2.
'WSGOS@: ]`_gX ] ]c\`fL g]f _-
`f^ a \ff^S, g^HS V \aZS ` gcS J`[fga, ZUMf_.
+ZH GOZMC
/`^ ]gcf^ [gaP ZUg`W fUfg Zc_ agZ]g`WfO
M\X: ]c\`f a`fgfg J`[fg ] _ÙgaZ a^VO, McV-
affXS K g[[, gfg^ g`W_ _ \ff^[ [`_Z`^cfX[
gcf[. > g_S \ff^S ]cZggaZLg, __ ]ca`, _a`fgfX
a^V. `WCfga fcKfU_S \ffO (`GfX aHga,
[LH a a[ ga [g``) [Lg f[`_Z`^cf gcf. > fS
]cM`\Lg ffX a^V. > g_S \ff^S _Ùga a^VO [G\Z
f[ f a]\g U`[ a`fgfO \fPX J`[fg. <Jg[Z a
y i l
e
\ff[ `ZU \`^ Sc_gcg_ ]`Gf^ g[a a S[U_S J`-
[fgS S ]Mfg McVaXagW a^V P`McVf ]`WVagW
]f^g «SPW?WQE ZMhSLWQhJ».
n d
<\ ]f^g[ «SPW?WQE ZMhSLWQhJ» ]f[g^ ZàfXO Vc^\, ]`Z-
U[XO J`[fg[ a cVZ`Wgg ]c[Hf^ J`_gcffO ]cX (` ]c),
McVZLHO a^VW a S[U_S J`[fgS, g \fK g[ _ \cZK[Z. 4à-
ç ü
fX Vc^\X MVfUg^ f\ [a`[ J`[fg __ ]`fXO Vc^\. <c Jg[
Vc^\ J`[fg fM`WCO J`_gcgcPg`WfgWL MZ\g MVfUgW^
gcPg`WfX[ Vf_[ (–), [LHK f[fWCZL J`_gcgcPg`W-
ü
fgW – ]`Gg`WfX[: ]Y+bj–, bY+2d-2, m+bj–, m2d-2, ]-3m3, W+4d2 g.\.
>Ùf Vc^\ ]c\`^g^ _Ùga[ ]`ZUffXS J`_gcffXS
p
]c. > ]cgXS [`_Z`S f]`^cfO a^VWL a g^f g[a g-
0 0
]fW _`f^ J`[fga caf fZ`L: m2 , O2 ,Cl2 , F , Ca g.\. > Jg[
Ç a 131
`ZU, a a^V g[, Ug [Hf^ J`_gcf ` J`_gcffO ]cX f
]cS\g, g[X J`[fg f ]`ZULg ]c\`ffK Vc^\. .g]fW
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,g[ ZUf_[ V\g^ hSSLWHZKCPWLESMhA KZ?OZS.
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+1
ç ü
"fK J`[fgX ]câ`^Lg a cVfXS \ff^S cVfZL g]fW
ü
+1
]-3m3 , ]2d, ]+2d, ]+4d2; m2W-2, W+4d2, W+6d3 . .
> MfcfXS \ff^S (\ff^ S \aZS J`[fga) ZUf_,
p
Vf^ g]fW _`f^ \fK J`[fg, `K_ ]c\`^Lg g]fW
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132
J`[fga. 4Ug`W \`Gf \gW fMS\[X fgcZ_P. /`^ JgK
gcMZg^ M1^fgW ]ca` ]c\`f^ g]f _`f^ Pfgc`W-
fK J`[fg f ]c[c \ffO ]Y2bd3, k2bD2d7, kPj(Wd4)2. C
JgO P`WL [Gf ]`WVagW 2 ]M – cD[gU_O `KM-
cU_O.
1. Oh#IWPh9WSMhA S?ZSZ5. 4UgXa^ f\_X g[a, g]fW
_`f^ _gcXS Vagf, Z[[ ]`Gg`WfXS gcPg`WfXS
Vc^\a Zcafag^. 7]c[c:
+1 2*(+1) (-2)*3 +2
]Y2bd3 ]Y2 bd3 ]Y2b+4d(-2)
3
> ac[^ ]\Ug fMS\[ cZ_a\gaagW^ ]cfP][ «Z[[

g]fO _`f^ aS J`[fga, aS\^HS a ga __K-`M S-
[U_K \ff^, caf fZ`L».
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c\`^[K J`[fg ]cf[g^ V (x) ga`^g^ Zcaff
\f[ fVagfX[. 7]c[c:
–2
k2bD2d7 : k2+1bD2 d7 ; 2(+1)+2#+7(–2)=0
2#–12=0 ; =+6
<` ]^ff^ fafXS a]ca, gf^HS^ _ g]f _-
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V\f^: # +2
> \ff^S Rtd, m2Wd4, s5(mbd3)2 ] _`c\Z a\c\Z
]c\`g g]fW _`f^ \cZKS J`[fga (x,y,z).
> aHgaS m2, Rt2d3, m3:d4 ]c\`g a`fgfgW g]fW
_`f^ (.Z) G`V, a\c\ DDc.
> aHgaS Al2d3, Al2(SO4)3, H2SO4 ]c\`g a`fgfgW g-
y i l
]fW _`f^ J`[fga `L[f^ cX.
> U[ cVfP [G\Z g]fWL _`f^ a`fgfgWL? ZM1-
^fg f ]c[cS.
d
<\UgOg a`fgfgW g]fW _`f^ Vg a ]2d5, ]2d3,
e
]m4bj-1, ]2, m]d3, bY+2(]d3)2.
ü n
7 aX]`ff V\fO ga\g^ 10 [fZg, ] gUf _gcXS
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]ca\^g^ MZG\f^ Pfag^ \^g`WfgW KcZ]].
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ü
a`fgfg, ]c\`f .Z, gcZ\fUga a KcZ]].
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p
Ç a 133
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f agfa`f gU_ Vcf^ c]c\`f^
J`_gcfa; M1^f^g _`g`Wf-agfag`W-
fX c_P S g]X; cVaag a Vff^ g]S
S[U_S c_PO \g S ]f^.
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'WSGOS@: gaggaZLH ]`_gX S[X,
ZUMf_.
+ZH GOZMC
/`^ V\f^ [gaP ZUg`W, ]cgZ]^ _ Zc_Z, \g ]^ff^: a
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l
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4 [`_gafXS [g`à ]c agZ]`f S _\a a c_PL
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d
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n
ü
/`^ ]f[f^ JgK, ]c`\[, __ V[f^g^ g]fW _`f^
[\ f aXCZ_VffXS c_P^S.
ü ç
7]a .Z J`[fg [\, MVfUffX ]caO àO gcfX
Zcaff^ a MS c_P^S, [X a\[, Ug ]c _`f [\ (1-^
c_P^) .Z aVcgg, g_ __ f g\g J`_gcfX, ]c ag-
p
fa`f (2-^ c_P^) .Z, fMcg, Z[fWCg^ V-V ]`ZUf^
J`_gcfa.
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134
a
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\LH a J`_gcfX, _`^Lg^ , fMcg, UgPX, ]`ZULH
J`_gcfX, agfaàLg^. > aXCZ_VffXS c_P^S, _K\ \f
UgP (g[, f), g\a^ J`_gcf, _`^g^, \cZK^, ]cf[^ K,
agfaàg^. 'fX[ à[, ]cP _`f^ agfa`-
f^ ]cg_g \fac[ff, ]c```Wf. <Jg[Z c_P, ]caG-
\LH^ V[ff[ g]f _`f^, fVXaLg ZMhSLhPWLEQZ-
KZSSPCQZKhPWLEQ@Ih.
> _`g`Wf-agfag`WfXS c_P^S _`^LH^^ UgP
fVXag^ agfag`[ (a 1-O c_P Jg J`[fg Cu), ag-
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n d
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f^; Z[f ]c\`^gW g]fW _`f^ J`[fga, gÙgW _`-
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Ç a 135
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jWLE GOZMC. :9C;hASJ: cCc^g V_c]`^g
Vff^ M _`g`Wf-agfag`WfXS c_-
P^S; [g\[ J`_gcffK M`f ga`^g _JD-
DPfgX _`g`Wf-agfag`WfXS c_PO.
)QPW6OCBhJ #.: 2.2.2.
'WSGOS@: ZUMf_, \]`fg`WfX ZUMfX
]M^.
+ZH GOZMC
/`^ V\f^ [gaP ZUg`W a fU` Zc_ \g ]^ff^: \`^
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\gW^ a `\ZLHO ]`\ag`Wfg (`Kcg[):
ç ü
1. Z]c\`^Lg^ J`[fgX, a _gcXS g]fW _`f^ V[f`W
(a Zcaff^S \ggUf ]_VgW g`W_ g]fW S _`f^).
ü
2. %Zg^ S[, ]_VXaLH^, __ V[f`W g]fW _`f^ J`[fga.
3. 7\ gc`_[ a S[S-Zcaff^S Vf_[ (+) MVfUg^ _Ù-
ga ]`ZUffXS J`_gcfa, Vf_[ (–) U` g\ffXS J`_gcfa. 7
a p
S[-Zcaff [`_Z` [fKg[fK ]cgK aHga g[X, -
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Ç
136
4. <_`W_Z _Ùga ]cf^gXS J`_gcfa caf U`Z g\ffXS
J`_gcfa, f ZcafaLg^.
5. <`ZUffX PDcX, ` Jg aV[Gf, _cHLg^.
6. 8Ùga ]`ZUffXS ` g\ffXS J`_gcfa a J`[fgS
_`g`^ agfag`^ ]cga`^g^ a Zcaff a a\ _JDD-
Pfg (afU` ]cga`^Lg^ _JDDPfgX ]cgXS aHga).
7. ZfaXa^W f fO\ffXS _JDDPfgS, ZcafaLg^ _JD-
DPfgX \cZKS J`[fga, f ZUgaZLHS a _`g`Wf-agf-
ag`WfO c_P.
8. <cac^g^ cafga _Ùga g[a J`[fga a MS Ug^S
Zcaff^.
7 faf ]c\ga`ffK `Kcg[ ZUg`W ]c\`Kg _`Z
`\ag`W_O a]c: ]c`\gW ga`f _JDDPfga a
gcS _`g`Wf-agfag`WfXS c_P^S.
0 +3 –1
'. Rt+bj2 Rtbj3
1. Rt0 + bj2 Rt bj3
2.
3. agfag`W (_`f)
_`g`W (agfa`f)
4.
5. ._cHfO fg.
2
3
y i l
6. 2Rt+3bj2 2Rtbj3
7. > MS gcfS \a g[ Fe, CgW g[a Cl.
''. ksHd4+mbj sHbj2 + kbj + bj2 + m2d
d e
2. 3.
ü n
1. ksH+7d4 + mbj-1 sH+2bj2 + kbj + bj2 + m2d
4. _`g`W
ü ç 2 (agfa`f)
p
agfag`W
a
5 (_`f)
Ç 137
5. ._cHfO fg.
6. ksHd4 + mbj 2sHbj2 + kbj + 5bj2 + m2d
7. 2ksHd4 +16mbj 2sHbj2 + 2kbj + 5bj2 + 8m2d
8. > MS gcfS 28, 2Mn, 8Z, 16H, 16Cl g[a.
'''. RtW2 + d2 Rt2d3 + Wd2
1. Rt+2 S2 + d2 Rt2 d3 + W+4d2
2. Rt+2 Rt+3
0
S2 S+4
d2 d–2
<_`W_Z a c_P^S \a agfag`^ (Fe+2, S-1), J`_gcfX, g-
\a[X [, Z[[cZLg^.
3.
11 4
4 11
4. 4RtW2 +11d2 Rt2d3 + Wd2

5. 4RtW2 + 11d2 Rt2d3 + 8Wd2
6. > MS gcfS 4Fe, 8S, 22O g[a.
. ZUg[ ac[f _` ga`^g _JDDPfgX ZcaffO 3-5 cV-
ÙfXS _`g`Wf-agfag`WfXS c_PO, ]c\`^g _`-
l
g` agfag`. 4Uf_ aX]`f^Lg Jg V\f^ [g^g`Wf,
ZUg`W g`W_ f]ca`^g S, ][Kg ]`WVagW aXaCffXO f
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e
/`^ cMgX a KcZ]]S [Gf ]c\`GgW gagW _JDDPfgX
`\ZLHS c_PO:
1. bv + m]d3 bv(]d3)2 + ]d + m2d
2. 1H + m2Wd4 1HWd4 + m2W + m2d
3. m2d2 m2d + d2
4. ]m3 + d2 ]2 + m2d
n d
5. P5]d3 P5 + ]d2 + d2
ç ü
6. bDbj3 + m2d2 + kdm k2bDd4 + kbj + m2d
ü
7. Pj2W + m]d3 Pj(]d3)3 + ]d + W + m2d
%MgX MZG\Lg^ ZBWQhKC8PSJ.
a p
Ç
138
:OZM 4. kh?@ ZMhSLhPWLEQZ-KZSSPCQZKhPWLEQ@J
OWCMBhA
0PCQHCOP: 2.1.1.; 2.2.1.

jWLE GOZMC. :9C;hASJ: f fa ]c[ca
M1^f^g g\`WfX g]X _`g`Wf-agf-
ag`WfXS c_PO S UgfX `ZU.
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'WSGOS@: ZUMf_, ]P`WfX ]`_gX
S[X.
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4Ug`W V\g _`Z IZPhKhOG8;hW a]cX:
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ga \fK ` cVfXS aHga?
<` JgK ZUg`W a _Uga `\ag`W_O cMgX ]cZUg
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ga V[f^LHO^ g]fWL _`f^, ]c\`gW \fgUfgW `
y i l
cVÙ _`gÒ agfagÒ:
1. kI +m2Wd4 I2 + k2W + m2d
2. k]d3 k]d2 + d2
3. bj2 + kdm kbjd3 + kbj + m2d
d e
4. m2W + m2Wd3 W + m2d
ü n
.]Zg^ 10 [fZg fUfLg^ MZG\f^. <` aXgZ]`fO ]c\-
ç
gagÒ cVÙfXS KcZ]], ZUf_ MMHLg cVZ`WggX.
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ü
McV[: a 1-O c_P _`g`W (W+6) agfag`W (I–) fS\^g^
a ga cVfXS aHga, c_P g_K g] fVXaLg^ IW.IZLWMG-
p
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> 2-O c_P _`g`W (]+5) agfag`W (O–2) aS\^g a -
ga \fK aHga, c_P g_K g] fVXaLg^ KQGPOhIZLWMGLJO-
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agfag`WfXS c_PO. > g_S `ZU^S ]c ga`f Zcaf-
fO J`_gcffK M`f ]`ZUffX _`g`^[ ` g\ffX a-
gfag`^[ J`_gcfX Z[[cZLg^, Vg[ U` ]`ZUffXS
g\ffXS J`_gcfa Zcafag^.
l
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g`^[ KcZ]], MZG\Lg^ a[ _`[.
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gcZ\fUga a KcZ]], ZcafW ]cVfgP, gagX f \]`fg`W-
n
fX a]cX.
ZIC!QWW >CHCQhW: <agcg fafX ]f^g^, gf^H^ _ S-
ü
[U_[ a^V^[ _`g`Wf-agfag`WfX[ c_P^[.
ç
p ü
Ç
140
a
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_`g`Wf-agfag`WfXS c_P^S aXU-
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g`W ` _``^ agfag`W.
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'WSGOS@: ]`_gX, gf^H^ _ g][ _`g`Wf-agf-
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Ç 141
– gagW _JDDPfg Zcaff^ c_P;
– ]c\`gW g] _`g`Wf-agfag`WfO c_P;
– aX^fgW, [Gf ` gfg _ Ugf[Z `ZUL \ffZL _`-
g`Wf-agfag`WfZL c_PL;
– ]\UggW, _`W_ ]cPfga _`g`^ agfa`W a \ff[
Zcaff c_P.
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1. 8_O a\ S[U_O a^V a aHgaS m2, ]m3, m2W, kbj, Wd2,
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2. 8_O _cg`Ù_O cCg_O M`\g _G\ V JgS aHga
a gac\[ g^f?
ç ü
3. 4_Gg a`fgfgW g]fW _`f^ J`[fga, McVZLHS
ü
Jg aHga.
4. Z]c\à J`_gcffXO M`f, ]cgaWg _JDDPfg Zcaf-
f^ c_P mI + m2Wd4 I2 + m2W + m2d, ]c\`g _`g`W
a p
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'' KCOhCQP
1. 4_Gg a`fgfgW g]fW _`f^ J`[fga a `\ZLHS
aHgaS: bYbj2, bj2, Pj2d3, bvND2, RtW, m2d.
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gac\[ g^f?
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g^ ]`^cf-_a`fgf^ a^VW?
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f^ c_P ]d2 + m2d + m]d3 + ]d, ]c\`g _`g`W a-
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n
2. > \ff^S k2Wd4, ksHd4, k]d3, kbjd4, k2bd3 aXU`g
g]fW _`f^ W, sH, ], bj b f faf VagfXS a[ g]-
fO _`f^ _`^ _`c\.
ç ü
3. 8_^ S[U_^ a^VW [G\Z g[[ a \ff^S: ND2, mND
kND? 7]Cg S J`_gcffZL KcDU_ZL Dc[Z`X.
ü
f^ c_P RtW2+d2 Rt2d3+Wd2, ]c\`g _`g`W agf-
p
ag`W. 8 __[Z g]Z gfg^ Jg _`g`Wf-agfag`Wf^
a
c_P^?
Ç
144
/`^ ]c\`f^ VffO Z[fO ggaX[ [g\[ ]`WVZLg^
ggX, a_`LULH 10-12 a]ca V\fO. > _Uga ]c[c ]c\-
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kWSP m1
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>. ]2d3; >>. ]m3; >>>. m]d2 ; >+. s53]2
2. :MC.hPW OJH S KZ>OCSPC8;WA 4LWMPOZZPOhBCPWLEQZSPE8.
P) :, Pj, Wq, bj, ]Y N) ]Y, :, bj, Pj, Wq
b) ]Y, Pj, Wq, :, bj i) bj, :, Wq, Pj, ]Y
7) Pj, ]Y, :, Wq, bj
3. - MCMZI OJHG SZWHhQWQhJ PZLEMZ S hZQQZA SKJ>E8?
P) ]Ybj, ]m3, NYND2 N) m2W, ]YR, bd2
b) kND, bYd, ]YR i) bYd, bd, mbj
7) Wd2, ]Y2d, bj2
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KCLWQPQG8 SKJ>E?
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b) bYbj2, Wd2, m2d i) ]YR, ]m3, m2W
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y i l
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P) ]2, d2, m
i) m2, R2, ]2
ç ü
N) kbj, bj2, bm4
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Ç a 145
8. PZI MCMZ6Z h> 4LWIWQPZK S ?OhKWHWQQZA Qh.W 4LWMPOZQQZA #ZO-
IGLZA ?ZSLWHQW6Z SLZJ JKLJWPSJ QCh5ZLWW ShLEQ@I KZSSPCQZKhPWLWI?
P) …2s1 N) …5s1 b) …1s1 i) …4s1 7) …3s1
9. $CMZW SZWHhQWQhW IZ.WP 5@PE K JhIh9WSMhJ OWCMBhJJ h ZMhS-
LhPWLWI, h KZSSPCQZKhPWLWI?
P) m]d3 N) k]d3 b) k]d2 i) ]m3 7) ]Y]d3
10. - MCMZI SZWHhQWQhh ICO6CQWB ?OZJKLJWP SCIG8 K@SZMG8 SPW-
?WQE ZMhSLWQhJ?
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?WQh ZMhSLWQhJ.
P) ]Ybj+m2Wd4 ]YmWd4 +mbj
N) bYbd3 bYd+bd2
b) k2d +Wd3 k2Wd4
i) sHd2+4mbj sHbj2+bj2+2m2d
7) bY (dm)2+bd2 bYbd3+m2d
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12. $CMZK MZ4##hBhWQP "2 K ZMhSLhPWLEQZ-KZSSPCQZKhPWLEQZA
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*2
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1. - MCMhJ SZWHhQWQhJJ SPW?WQE ZMhSLWQhJ SWO@ OCKQC (-2) ?
>. ]Y2Wd3; >>. ]Y2W; >>>. ]Y2Wd4; >+ Wd2; +. RtW
y l
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2. - MCMZI OJHG 4LWIWQP@ HCQ@ ?Z G5@KC8;WA 4LWMPOZZPOhBC-
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P) ]d2, Wd2, bd2
i) kbj, ]YND, k>
ç ü
N) 1Hd, m2d, Rtd
7) ]Ybj, mbj, Pj2W3
b) ]2, d2, mND
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KCLWQPQG8 SKJ>E?
p ü
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b) ]m3, mR, ]2, bm4
N) mbj, ]Ybj, mR, ]m3
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a
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Ç
146
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6. $CMhW SZWHhQWQhJ hIW8P ?ZLJOQZ-MZKCLWQPQG8 SKJ>E? >. mND;

>>. kbj; >>>. mI; >+. bj2; +. m2d
7. - MCMZA 6OG??W Z5C KW;WSPKC Z5OC>G8P MOhSPCLLh9WSMG8 OW-

!WPMG IZLWMGLJOQZ6Z Ph?C?
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i) d2, ]YR 7) mR, Rt
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ç ü
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Ç a 147
VI ! . 6LWMPOZLhPh9WSMCJ
HhSSZBhCBhJ. 6LWMPOZLh>.
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cgacf â`^g^ S[U_[, DVU_[ ]cP[. g g[
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ç ü
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_ f\Z;
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p
dm–, g_G g ]cc\X _gfa [g`` ffa _`gfXS
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148
:OZM 1. 0G;QZSPE ?OZBWSSZK 4LWMPOZLhPh9WSMZA
HhSSZBhCBhh
0PCQHCOP: 1.2.1.; 1.3.1.; 4.1.1.

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_gcX aHga ]c cgacf c]à`f
c]\Lg^ f fX, \cZK – f [KZg McV-
agW fX; ]Cg Dc[Z`Z J`_gc`gU_O \-
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gÙ^ aOga fa g[a a Va[g g
S J`_gcffK gcf^.
)QPW6OCBhJ: #.: 2.2.2.
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[gW cgaca, \g``caff^ a\, Sc, JgàXO ]cg, P-
gf, ]acff^ `W, K\c_\ _`WP^, CuSO4, NaOH, Zn, _f-
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Ç a 149
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c\^» (fKÒ_O DV_ S[_ ".#c\O, VZU^ J`_gc]ca\-
l
fgW cgaca, ]c\]`G`, Ug cH]`f aHga f fX ]c-
S\g ]\ \Oga[ J`_gcU_K g_).
y
e
"SfV[ c]\ ]acffO ` f fX ]\ aV\Oga[ [`-
d
_Z` a\X M1^f^g^ f S[, ]ca\ffO a ZUMf_ (ZUMf_,
c.17). 4Ug`W McHg af[f ZUf_a f g, __ ]`^cfX [-
`_Z`X a\X f]ca`^Lg^ _ f[ Na+ Cl– a _cg``S, __ ]`
ü n
cVcXa a^V [G\Z f[ [`_Z`X a\X _cZGLg aM\fX fX
(K\c`V). 4Ug`W g[Ug, Ug c]\ f fX _cg`à HÙ,
ç
g^HS V ]`Gg`Wf Vc^GffXS fa [g`` gcPg`Wf
Vc^GffXS fa K\c_`, ]cS\g f`KUfX[ McV[.
ü
) ]c cgacf a a\ _`g ]`^cf-_a`fgf^ a^VW [G\Z
g[[ a\c\ _`gfX[ gg_[ fU` ]\ aV\Oga[ [`-
p
_Z` a\X ]cacHg^ a ffZL, Vg[ _fUg`Wf cVcXag^, M-
a
cVaaC^ fX fUfLg \aKgW^ a K\cgcaffO Dc[.
Ç
150
7 ]c[c HCl c]\ _`g f fX [Gf ]_VgW f `\ZL-
HO S[:
<`^cf-_a`fgf^ a^VW ff^ a^VW K\cgcaffX fX
.S[ \[fgccZg^ f M`WC[ `g ag[f ` f J_cf.
7Ù fa a a\fXS cgacS _`g, HÙO Ò [Gf
ZVfgW ] ]ca\[g J`_gcU_K g_. 'V Zc_a DV_ [X
Vf[, Ug ]cUf J`_gc]ca\fg f_gcXS cgaca V_`LU-
g^ a \cGf a fS aM\f \aGZHS^ fa. <c ][H ]-
P`WfK ZgcOga, ]\Kga`ffK Vcf (ZUMf_, c.16),
ZUg`W \[fgccZg, Ug _cg``X NaCl, NaOH, CuSO4 _fPfg-
ccaff^ H2SO4, ][HffX a g_fX, f ]c]Z_Lg J`_gcU_O
g_. <g[ ]_VXag, __ a\fX cgacX JgS G aHga ]c]Z_Lg
J`_gcUga (a ]ca[ `ZU `[]U_ f VKcg^, a agc[ – Kcg).
<` ]ca\f^ JgK ]Xg ZUg`W V\g a]cX: ]c]Z_Lg ` J`_-
gcU_O g_ a aHga, cgacffX a a\? .gfag^ ` ]ca\-
f_[ Ug^, MV ]c[O (\g``caff^) a\? `_gc\X ZgcO-
ga ]Z_Lg^ a g_fX, K\ \cGg^ ]cg, a\fXO cgac Sc
]cg \g``caff^ a\. 4Uf_ ZMG\Lg^, Ug `[] f VKc-
g^. 4Ug`W afaW McHg^ a]c[: <U[Z ]cg a\fXO cgac
Sc f ]c]Z_Lg g_? ,f^, Ug ]ca\[gW g_ Vag g \aGZ-
HS^ a cgac fa, ZUf_ \Lg ]ca`WfXO gag f Jgg a]c.
4Ug`W ]\XgGag ]`ZUffX Vff^: aHga, a\fX c-
gacX _gcXS ]ca\^g J`_gcU_O g_, fVXaLg^ 4LWMPOZLh-
PCIh, aHga, f ]c]Z_LH g_, â`^Lg^ QW4LWMPOZLhPCIh.
"G\Z f[ J`_gc`ga ZHgaZg ` ff^, ` `Wf-]`^c-
y i l
e
f^ _a`fgf^ a^VW. '[ff ]Jg[Z f ]\ aV\Oga[ ]cg^Gf^
d
[`_Z` a\X c]\Lg^ f fX. "G\Z UgP[ fJ`_gc`ga
ZHgaZg ` f]`^cf^, ` `M-]`^cf^ _a`fgf^ a^VW, a c-
VZ`Wgg UK f f [KZg McVaXagW fX ]c cgacf a a\.
ü n
4Ug`W g[Ug, Ug J`_gc`gX (HÙ, `) [KZg c]\gW^
f fX ]c c]à`f. > Jg[ `ZU cVcXa S[U_S a^VO
ç
[G\Z UgP[ ]cS\g ]\ aV\Oga[ g]àO JfcK. <c-
P c]\ J`_gc`g f fX ]c cgacf K a a\ ` c-
ü
]à`f fVXag^ 4LWMPOZLhPh9WSMZA HhSSZBhCBhWA.
<cP J`_gc`gU_O \PP a]caX MX` VZUf .afg
p
)ccfZ[. .a `\af^ f MMH` a gcS ]`Gf^S, _gcX
a
fC` a gcGf a fC[ ZUMf_.
Ç 151
>[ ]c[ ZUf_a ]c\`Kg^ VZUgW Jg ]`Gf^ a gUf
5 [fZg, ] gUf _gcXS ZUg`W [g\[ ]c aX^f^g, a __O
g]f _` ]f^` gcL )ccfZ.
7 ]`\ZLHS Jg]S Zc_ VZULg^ cVÙfX aOga g[a
fa ]cUfX JgS cVÙO. ,\g^ a]c: __ aX Vfg, [X
]`WVZ[ a ]H ]acffZL `W, g^HZL V _cg`à NaCl.
>[ g_G Vagf, Ug _cg``X NaCl g^g V fa Na+ Cl–. "-
G[ ` [X ]`WVagW a ]HZ [g`` fgc^ ` S`c, g^H
V g[a? 4Uf_ \Lg gcPg`WfXO gag, g_ __ VfLg, Ug Na,
agZ]^ a c_PL `LfO, McVZg \_ZL HÙW Ug S`c – Jg
^\agXO KV. K\ ZUg`W McHg^ `\ZLH[ a]c[: U[
[Gf M1^fgW g`W cVÙfX aOga g[a fa? > g-
faàLg^ f gag – «S gcf[». /`^ \_Vg`Wga JgK ZU-
g`W ]c\`Kg a[ KcZ]][ VMcVgW cafgW J`_gcff
gcf g[a Na Cl fa Na+ Cl–. <U[Z fX a\Zg M^ __
f ]\acGffX a`^fL UgPX, g[X – __ _gafX UgPX,
]MfX agZ]gW a c_P? 7 faf J`_gcffK gcf^
ZUf_ \`GfX gaggW f Jgg a]c. &cV 5-6 [fZg, \ffXS f
M\Z[Xaf, ]c\gag` 1-2 KcZ]] ]c\ga`^Lg ]\Kga`ffX
gagX a M1^ff^. <`ZUffX gagX MZG\Lg^ MM-
HLg^.
Gf Zc_ Pfag^ (Dc[gaf Pfaf).
y i l
> _fP Vf^gO \^g`WfgW KcZ]] g\`WfXS ZUf_a f ]cg^-
d e
ü n
ü ç
a p
Ç
152
:OZM 2. nhHOCPQCJ PWZOhJ
0PCQHCOP: 1.2.1.; 1.3.1.; 4.1.1.

jWLE GOZMC. :9C;hASJ: M1^f^g ZHfgW M-
cVaf^ K\cga _cg`òK\cga, c_VX-
ag M S c` VfUf a GVf Uà_.
)QPW6OCBhJ: #.: 2.2.2.
'WSGOS@: KOH, _fPfgccaff^ H2SO4, CuSO4,
fKcag`W, [`fW_ S[U_ g_fX, a\,
g_`^ff^ ]Ù_, ZUMf_.
+ZH GOZMC
/`^ V\f^ [gaP ZUg`W \[fgccZg `\ZLHO ]Xg: a gc
S[U_S g_f gf_[ Kcf^[ fàg^ a\ – a _G\XO g_f
\ 1/3 K M1[. > \f g_f \Ma`^g^ 3-4 [K _fPfgccaffK c-
gac H2SO4 (aà^ gf_O gcZO_O ]c f]ccXaf[ ][Caf), a \cZ-
KO – UOf^ `G_ KOH (` fg, g [Gf V[fgW f NaOH) a 3-O –
gà^ `G_ [[UfO `gcX (fgcg [[f^ – NH4NO3). ,g[ g-
cGf ]c[Cag^ g_`^ffO ]Ù_O. .g_f cgac[ [[UfO
`gcX gag^ f [UffZL a\O ]acSfgW g`. 4Uf_ fU`
gcKLg g_fX _fPfgccaffX[ cgac[ H2SO4 KOH, ]\gac-
G\^, Ug f fKc`W. ,g[ ]c_Lg^ _ g_fZ cgac[ NH4NO3
_fggcZLg, Ug f S`\`^ (\f g_f [Gg \G ]c[cVfZgW _
y i l
e
g`Z). 4Ug`W Dc[Z`cZg hSSLWHZKCPWLESMhA KZ?OZS:
",'2* /+C +?;4"+'9CC 9'7""+-% !8'7+"8C"4 4 4"0' /+"C;%"0C
n d
4-0'8'9C' '/8"- (9? +'4?9C'), ? 4 0+* C% !8'7+"8C?% 9?"80?';3
/" 8"'9C' '/8? ("%8?0'9C')?
4Ug`W M1^f^g ]cUfX JgK: __ aX Vfg, [`_Z`X a\X \-
]`WfX, g gW [Lg \a ]`L. <cUf JgK – a fÙ Z f_-
gcXS [`_Z` a\X ZKàK gcf^.
+ –
ç ü
H+
—
104,5°
ü
O
H+
<c cgacf a a\ g^H V fa ]`^cfXS [`_Z` a-
a p
Hga ]\ aV\Oga[ \]`WfXS [`_Z` a\X c]\Lg^ f fX
(ZUMf_, c.18), _gcX a K\cgcaffO Dc[ (_cZGffX a\O)
Ç 153
caf[cf c]c\`^Lg^ a cgac, ]c Jg[ ]cS\g ]K`H-
f JfcK ( ]K`.). Z\fac[ff ]cS\g aV[\Oga UgP
cgac^[K aHga [`_Z` cgacg`^ (a\X). ZMcVZLg^ –
KàfX[ McV[, ]c ][H \fcf-_P]gcfK [SfV[ – faX
_a`fgfX a^V. ) McVaf gO ` fO S[U_O a^V -
]caG\g^ aX\`f[ g]` ( aX\.) ` ]K`. < aX\. ,a g[ ]c-
S\g fKcaf, ` ]K`. > aX\., ]cS\g S`G\f.
>Vf_faf S[U_K aV[\Oga^ [G\Z UgP[ cgac^-
[K aHga UgP[ cgacg`^ a]caX MX` `\af /.'."f-
\àX[. Zf f ]Xg \_V` Jg â`f. g `\af "f\à ]`ZU`
fVaf K\cgfO gc. '. ).8M`Z_a >.). 8g^_a_O, faXa^W f K\-
cgfO gc, M1^f` ZHfgW \PP J`_gc`ga f fX.
)PgX (`GfX \ff^), McVZ[X a cVZ`Wgg aV[\Oga^
[`_Z` a\X fa, ]`ZUffXS g \PP J`_gc`ga ]c cgac-
f aHga a a\, fVXaLg^ 6hHOCPCIh. 7_gcX K\cgX, McVaffX
f[, g\a[X[ c^\[ Ò, fg`W_ ]cUfX, Ug \G ]c aX]ca-
f cgac ]c\`GLg Z\cGagW a\Z, \fffZL a S ga S[U-
_[ a^V^[. _K c\ gac\X aHga fVXaLg^ MOhSPCLLh9WSMhIh
6hHOCPCIh. ) a\Z a S ga fVXaLg MOhSPCLLh>ZKCQQZA KZHZA.
/`^ V_c]`f^ [gcà faK Zc_ _` \`g^ f KcZ]]X,
_G\O V _gcXS ] g\`Wfg \Lg^ `\ZLH V\f^:
1. 7]Cg Dc[Z`X K\cga cfO _`gX fVag S. 8_
S[U_ a^V [Lg^ [G\Z g[[ a [`_Z` H2SO4? CgaWg
KcDU_ZL Dc[Z`Z.
l
2. 7]Cg Dc[Z`Z _cg``K\cga G`VfK _Z]c _c-
g`Ù_O \X. 8_ Ugg^ S[U_ fVaf JgS J`[fga?
8_ _gfX ffX McVZLg^ ]c cgacf \X a a\?
y i
3. 7]Cg Dc[Z`X _cg``K\cga [\fK _Z]c Z`WDg fg-
e
c^, ]cUgOg S S[U_ fVaf gaWg KcDU_ZL Dc[Z`Z.
d
4. <c cgacf a a\ __S V fGZ_VffXS aHga [Gf
fM`L\gW fKcaf S`G\f?
Na2SO4, NaNO3, HNO3, H3PO4, K2SO4, Na3PO4
ü n
5. 7]Cg S[Z-Zcaff f K\c_f^, aVf_LHK [G\Z f[
H+, _gcXO McVZg^ ]c cgacf a a\ _`gX, [`_ZÒ a\X.
6. 7]Cg 4 _gf 4 ff fVag S. <c cgacf a
ç
a\ __S J`_gc`ga, McVZLg^ Jg _gfX ffX?
ü
< gUf ac[f, ga\ffK f aX]`ff V\fO, cMg
KcZ]] Pfag^ ] `\ZLH[ _cgc^[: M1^ff K\cgP,
Vff fVafO K\cga _cg``K\cga, M1^ff JDD_g f-
a p
Kcaf^ S`G\f^, ga`f KcDU_S Dc[Z`, f]f
Ugf Dc[Z` _gfa ffa.
Ç
154
:OZM 3. hSSZBhCBhJ MhSLZP h ZSQZKCQhA
0PCQHCOP: 1.2.1.; 1.3.1.; 4.1.1.

jWLE GOZMC. :9C;hASJ: : ]Cg Ugg Zca-
ff^ \PP _`g fafO; \g ]c-
\`f _`g[ faf^[ gU_ Vcf^
gc \PP, M1^f^g McVaf f
K\c_f^ (H3O+) a a\fXS cgacS _`g.
)QPW6OCBhJ: #.: 2.2.2.
'WSGOS@: ]`_gX S[X \PP _`g
fafO, ZUMf_.
+ZH GOZMC
/`^ V\f^ [gaP ZUg`W ]_VXag `\ZLHO ]Xg: a ]c-
Mc_Z 2-3 [K _fPfgccaffO cfO _`gX M`WCZL _`MZ, -
\cGHZL 20 [K \g``caffO a\X \Ma`^g^ 1-2 [K `_[ZfK
cgac. 4Uf_ ZMG\Lg^, Ug Pag aHga a _`MS f [f^g^.
,g[ ZUg`W gcGf ]càg \cG[ ]cMc_ (_`gZ) a
_`MZ \g``caffO a\O. 4Uf_ a\^g, __ cgac a _`M
_cCag^ a _cfXO Pag.
,\g^ hSSLWHZKCPWLESMhA KZ?OZS:
?7 4- 2"'' ""3;9C1 *4C0'99"'?
y i l
e
ZgagX ZUf_a f`VcZLg^, ]c ][H a][Kg`WfXS f-
]ca`^LHS a]ca ZUg`^ f ]cS\^g _ aXa\Z, Ug _fPfgccaf-
n d
f^ _`g H2SO4 gg, KàfX[ McV[, V [`_Z`, ]c cgacf
a a\ ]\ aV\Oga[ ]`^cfXS [`_Z` a\X c]\g^ f fX H+
fX _`gfK gg_, [ff fX H+ V[f^Lg Pag `_[Z. 7
\_ ]Cg^ Zcaff \PP HCl H2SO4. 4Ug`W g[Ug, Ug
ü
\aZSfafX _`gX [KZg \PcagW a \a, gcSfafX – a gc
ç
gZ]f. >gc^ gcgW^ gZ]f ]cS\^g UfW `Gf:
mbj m+ + Cl–

p
–

ü
<ca^ gZ]fW: m2Wd4 m++ mWd4
>gc^ gZ]fW: mWd4 2m++ Wd4
2–
–
'fX, g\ffX _`g[ cgacZ, f [KZg gagW^ aM\fX[,
a
f _cZGLg^ [`_Z`[ a\X K\cgcZLg^. /_Vf, Ug aM\-
Ç 155
fX fX m+ a cgac fU` \f^Lg^ [`_Z`[ a\X, McVZ^
f K\c_f^ (m3d+) Vg[ ZG Jgg f K\cgcZg^:
`
m+ + m2O H3O+
>]c: ]c\ga[ __K [SfV[ aVf_g _a`fgf^ a^VW,
McVaff^ g \ff^ f H+ g[[ _`c\ [`_Z`X a\X?
/[fgccZg^ agcO ]Xg: ZUf_ a\^g, __ ]c \Ma`f a
ZSO ]cC_ NaOH ` Ca(OH)2 f[fK ]cC_ Df`Dg`f `
G ]c \Ma`f 2-3 _]`W a K ]cgaXO cgac, Pag [ f [f^-
g^. ,g[ Jg G [W ]c[Hg^ a g_f a\O ]c[Cag^ –
]c Jg[ ]cS\g V[ff Pag cgac f [`faXO. 4Uf_[
]c\`Kg^ M1^fgW ]cS\^H. ZfaXa^W f SGS ]XgS _-
`gO, f ]XgLg^ \gW M1^ff JgO c_P ]cS\^g _ V_`LUfL,
Ug ]cUf V[ff^ Pag Df`Dg`f V_`LUg^ a McVaf
fa a a\f[ cgac. <Cg^ Zcaff \PP HÙ NaOH:
]Ydm Na+ + OH–

4Ug`W M1^f^g, Ug \PP^ \aZS_`gfXS ([LHS \a K\-
c_\fX KcZ]]X) gcS_`gfXS fafO g_G ]cS\g gZ]fUg:
<ca^ gZ]fW: bY(dm)2 bY(dm)++ OH–

>gc^ gZ]fW: bY(dm)+ bY2+ + OH–

l
/`^ V_c]`f^ VffO ZUf_[ ]cZUg^ aX]`fgW `\ZLH
V\f^ (8-10 [f.):
y
1. 8_ aHga fVXaLg^ _`g[ gU_ Vcf^ g[f-[-
`_Z`^cfK gcf^ ffO \PP? 7]Cg ]cUgg i
Zcaff \PP VgfO _`gX.
d e
2. 8_ aHga fVXaLg^ faf^[ gU_ Vcf^ g[f-[-
`_Z`^cfK gcf^ ffO \PP? 7]Cg ] 3 ]c[c f
faf^, cgac[X fcgac[X a a\, ]cUgg S fVaf^.
`gX ]cUgg S.
ü n
3. 7]Cg 3 gZ]f Zcaff^ \PP cgDDcfO _-
4. 7]Cg ]cUgOg Zcaff \PP HÙ K\c_\ Mc^.
ç
5. <c cgacf a a\ __S J`_gc`ga McVZg^ f K\c_-
ü
f^? 7]Cg M1^fg J`_gcff Zcaff K McVaf^.
%VZ`WggX cMg MZG\Lg^, \^g`WfgW KcZ]] ]`ZUg Dc[-
gafZL Pf_Z. $OhPWOhh ZBWQhKCQhJ: ga`f ffO Dc[Z`X
a p
_`g fafO, f]f ]cUgf ZcaffO \PP _-
`g fafO, gcZ\fUga a KcZ]], ZcafW ]cVfgPO.
Ç
156
:OZM 4. hSSZBhCBhJ SZLWA
0PCQHCOP: 1.2.1.; 1.3.1.; 4.1.1.

jWLE GOZMC. :9C;hASJ: f`VcZg aOga fc-
[`WfXS, _`XS, fafXS, \aOfXS [Cf-
fXS Ò, ga`^g Zcaff^ Ugg S; \g
\Pgaf ]c\`f _G\K a\ `.
)QPW6OCBhJ: #.: 2.1.1.
'WSGOS@: ]`_gX S[X \PP Ò,
ZUMf_.
+ZH GOZMC
)_gZ`VcZLg^ ZG [LH^ Vff^ `^S. . JgO P`WL V-
\Lg^ `\ZLH IZPhKhOG8;hW a]cX:
1. 8_ ] a[Z gaZ gÙLg^ fc[`WfX, _`X fafX
`? <ca\g ]c[c \`^ _G\O V fS.
2. 8_ UgPX aS\^g a ga \aOfXS [CffXS Ò? <c-
l
a\g 1-2 ]c[c \`^ _G\O V fS.
3. 8_ ]c\`f \g^ _G\[Z a\Z ` gU_ Vcf^
g[f-[`_Z`^cfK ZUf^?
,\g^ hSSLWHZKCPWLESMhA KZ?OZS: ? 7?7C' C"9- 0C;;"&CC+*
y i
+?#8C,9-' 4C0- ;"8C? ?/CC' C /+",C' C% *+?49'9C3.
d e
4Ug`W g[Ug, Ug ]c `\af JgO ]cM`[X fMS\[
McggW af[f f `\ZLH [[fgX:
n
– fc[`WfX, \aOfX [CffX ` \PcZLg \fgZ-
]fUg;
ç ü
– fafX _`X ` \PcZLg ] f_`W_[ gZ]f^[,
_G\^ Uc\f^ gZ]fW ]cS\g `Gf ]c\X\ZHO McVZg
ü
[fWC g[a;
– fX H+, OH– _`gfX gg_ MVfULg^ UgLg^ `gf-
_[ MZ_a[. 7]c[c, f SC, f -SC, _`gfXO gg_ – J-
a p
-UgXc, _`gfXO gg_ Jf--gc g.\.
<c ]\Kga_ V\fO, _gcX MZ\Zg \fX KcZ]][, ZUgg Jg.
Ç 157
,\f^ KcZ]][:
1. 7]Cg ]cUgg Zcaff^ \PP Ò Na2CO3
NaHCO3. 8_ ]c\`f \g^ fc[`WfX[ _`X[ `^[ gU_
Vcf^ \PgafO gc?
2. 7]Cg ]cUgOg \Pgaf Zcaff Ò Pjbj3
Pj(dm)2bj. 8_ ` fVXaLg^ fafX[ gU_ Vcf^ \P-
gafO gc?
3. 7]Cg ]cUgOg \Pgaf Zcaff Ò
]Yk2:d4 k2W. 8_ ` fVXaLg^ \aOfX[ gU_ Vcf^
\PgafO gc?
4.7]Cg ]cUgOg \Pgaf Zcaff Ò
bYbj]d3 s5(]d3)2. 8_ ` fVXaLg^ [CffX[ gU_
Vcf^ \PgafO gc?
5. .gaWg Dc[Z`X \aZS \aZSfafXS Ò \aZS _`XS Ò,
]cUgOg S \Pgaf Zcaff.
6. 8_a MZ\g Z[[ ]`ZUffXS _gfa ffa ]c ]`fO
\PP 5,85 Kc[[a NaCl? (]P=6,02·1023)
7 aX]`ff V\fO ga\g^ 8-10 [fZg. %VZ`WggX cMg M-
ZG\Lg^ PfaLg^
$OhPWOhh ZBWQhKCQhJ: ]ca`Wf f]f Zcaff^ \P-
PO, ]cUgf ZcaffO, ]ca`Wf ]c\`f a\a Ò, gcZ\-
fUga a KcZ]], ZcafW ]cVfgPO.
y i l
d e
ü n
ü ç
a p
Ç
158
:OZM 5. 0PW?WQE HhSSZBhCBhh.
0LC5@W h ShLEQ@W 4LWMPOZLhP@
0PCQHCOP: 1.2.1.; 1.3.1.; 4.1.1.

jWLE GOZMC. :9C;hASJ: M1^f^g ZHfgW
g]f \PP; ] VfUfL g]f \-
PP ]Xag J`_gc`gX; Vfg Ug -
]`WVZ[X `MX `WfX J`_gc`gX; M1^-
f^g, __ a`^Lg f g]fW \PP ]cc\
J`_gc`ga, _fPfgcP^ g[]cgZc; Dc[Z-
`cZg ]f^g ]g^ffO (_fgfgX) \P-
P ]cU`^g, g __S D_gca f Vag.
)QPW6OCBhJ: #.: 2.2.2.
'WSGOS@: ]cgOC ZgcOga, ]cac^LH ]cSG\f g_,
S`cg^ _`g, Z_Zf^ _`g, cgDDcf^ _`g, cgacX
S`cgK fgc^ S`c\ [\ (II), H2SO4, Mg, Zn, [g`cfG, \-
g``caff^ a\, ]cMc_ _`MX, ZUMf_.
+ZH GOZMC
. P`WL V\f^ [gaP Zc_ fUfg^ ]_a gag f
`\ZLH a]cX: a ` [`_Z`X c]\Lg^ f fX ]c cga-
cf J`_gc`ga a a\ ` S c]à`f? 8_a gfCf \-
PcaffXS f fX [`_Z` _ U`Z f\PcaffXS \`^
cVÙfXS J`_gc`ga? (>]cX ]CZg^ f \_).
y i l
e
4Ug`W f]ca`^g af[f ZUf_a f ]_ gaga. Zf McHg^
_ _`Z, ]c\`K^ af[g`Wf fM`L\gW V ]ca\[X[ ]Xg[. `_-
n d
gc\X ZgcOga, V[c^LHK g_ (ZUMf_, c.16), ]Z_Lg^ a cVfX
]cMc_, K\ \cGg^ ] 10 [` `^fO _`gX, Z_ZfO _`gX, cg-
DDcfO _`gX, S`cgK fgc^ _fPfgccaffK cgac S`-
c\ [\ (2 2"81/8). 4Uf_[ ]c\`Kg^ ]fM`L\gW V aUf[ `[-
ü
]U_ ]cV[XC`^gW f\ cVZ`Wgg[ ]ca\[K ]Xg. /`^ ]`Z-
Uf^ ]ca`WfXS gaga, ZUg`W V\g hSSLWHZKCPWLESMhW KZ?OZS@:
ç
1. ?7 2"9" ""3;9C1 4 "09"2 ;8*,?' ;8?""', ? 4 0+* "2 3+7"'
;4','9C' 8?2/-?
+C&?'819-% #?+30"4?
p ü
2. [ 7?7"2 +?;4"+' 9?C""81'' 7"8C,';4" /"8"C'819-% C "-
3. ;8C 2- 9?#"4'2 !8'7+"8C-, "0?C' +?;4"+* ""81"' 7"-
a
8C,';4" C"9"4, ;C819-2C, ? 2'91'' 7"8C,';4" – ;8?"-2C !8'7+"8C-
Ç 159
?2C, 7?7C' 4'';4?, ,'+'# +?;4"+- 7""+-% /+"%"0C !8'7+C,';-
7C "7, 2"9" ;,C?1 ;C819-2C, ? 7?7C' ;8?"-2C !8'7+"8C?2C?
a`^Lg^ ` J`_gc`gX `WfX[ ` `MX[, `K_ ]_VgW
f \cZKS ]XgS:
1-A Z?@P: fà a 2 S[U_S g_f ] 50 [` fXHffK cg-
ac [g`cfG a Pgf, ]]g_O ] _]`^[ \Ma`^[ a fS _f-
PfgccaffZL cfZL Z_ZfZL _`gZ. <` \Ma`f^ aK
1-2 _]`W cfO _`gX Pag \cG[K JgK g_f ][f^g^
f [`faXO, gK\ __ Pag a \cZK[ g_f, _Z\ [X \Ma`^[ Z_-
ZfZL _`gZ, V[fg^ g`W_ ]` 10-12 _]`W.
2-A Z?@P: a \a M`WC _`MX ][HLg^ \f_aK cV[c _Z_
[Kf^ ` Pf_. > fS \Ma`^g^ ] \f_a[Z _ÙgaZ (5-7[`) c-
gac cfO Z_ZfO _`gX acCff \f_aO _fPfgcP
(~1"). 4Uf_ fM`L\Lg V McVaaC[^ ]ZVXcW_[ KV.
-Z?OZS KPZOZA ?OZ5LWI@ OC>JSQJWP SCI G9hPWLE: ZPQZ!WQhW 9hSLC
HhSSZBhhOZKCQQ@J IZLWMGL M Z5;WIG 9hSLG OCSPKZOWQQ@J IZLWMGL K@-
OC.CWPSJ K WHhQhBW, MZPZOCJ QC>@KCWPSJ SPW?WQE8 HhSSZBhCBhh ():
,\W n – U` ` _Ùga \PcaffXS [`_Z`, N – MH
U` ` _Ùga cgacffXS [`_Z`. .g]fW \PP UH
aK V[c^g^ a ]cPfgS. `_gc`gX, \PP^ _gcXS >30%,
fVXaLg^ `WfX[, \PPO <30% – `MX[. > _Uga
]c[ca J`_gc`ga, M`\LHS ]Ug 100%-fO g]fWL \P-
P, [Gf fVagW _`gX m2Wd4, mbj, m]d3 , HÙ kdm, ]Ydm,
bY(dm)2, NY(dm)2 M`WCfga `K_cgac[XS a a\ Ò: _-
`gX m2W, m2bd3, mR, m2Wd3, m2Wqd3, m3:d4 , ]c_gU_ f cga-
c^[X a a\ faf^ ` â`^Lg^ `MX[ J`_gc`g[.
y
/g``caff^ (Ug^) a\ Ugg^ [X[ `MX[ J`_gc`g[.
i l
d e
`W_ \f V ~556 [``fa [`_Z` [Gg \PcagW.
m2d m+ + OH–
.g]fW \PP `MXS J`_gc`ga ]c^[ ]c]cPf`Wf
g[]cgZc cgac Mcgf ]c]cPf`Wf _fPfgcP cgac.
ü n
< [c cVMa`f^ cgac a\O ]cP c]\ J`_gc`g f fX
Z_c^g^, g gW g]fW K \PP ZaÙag^.
/`^ V_c]`f^ VffO Z[fO ZUf_a, gf^HS^ _ \P-
ç
P, P`McVf Vf^gW^ cCf[ a]ca `\ZLHK g]:
ü
CHC9C 1. >XU`g g]fW \PP ]c \PP 1 [`W
s5(]d3)2, ` MH U` fa a cgac caf 9,03·1023.
CHC9C 2. <c cgacf a 1`gc cgac 0,1 [`W HCl g]fW
a p
K \PP caf 90%. ._`W_ Kc[[a fa a\c\ [Gg -
\cGgW^ a Jg[ cgac?
Ç
160
/`^ V_c]`f^ VffO Z[fO [Gf ]`WVagW `\ZLH V\f^:
1. 7]Cg a gaggaZLHS g`MPS gM`PX J`_gc`gX, g-
f^H^ _ `MO `WfO KcZ]][: kbj, m2Wd4, bY(dm)2, bv(dm)2,
P5bj, m2Wqd3, Pj(dm)3, m]d3, m2Wd3, mND, mR (]c\`g a gag-
ga gM`PO «%gac[g _`g, fafO Ò» fcga-
c[X J`_gc`gX).
2. 7]Cg ] \f[Z ZcaffL \PP \`^ _Ò, fafO
fc[`WfO _`gX.
3. 4_Gg \a ]c[c c_P M[f. ZM1^fg ]cUfZ S aV-
f_faf^.
4. 8_ c_P M[f fVXaLg^ c_P^[ fOgc`VP? <c-
a\g \a ]c[c.
5. ` cgacgW a 1`gc cgac 0,01 [`W HNO3, c_`W_ Kc[[a
fa a\c\ (H+) MZ\g \cGgW^ a Jg[ cgac?
6. ` g]fW \PP Z_ZfO _`gX a cgac ga`^g
2,8%, _`W_ [`_Z` V 1000 [`_Z` _`gX, \cGHS^ a cgac,
\Pca` f fX?
/`^ ]\Kga_ ]W[ffXS gaga f \ffX a]cX _` \`g^ f 6
KcZ]]. Zg\`WfX[ KcZ]][ \Lg^ a]cX 1 3, 6 2, 4 5. cZ]]X, ]`ZUaC
\fgUfX a]cX, cGaLg^ f g\`f \cZK g \cZK. 7 aX]`ff
V\fO ga\g^ 10-12 [fZg. ZgagX KcZ]] MZG\Lg^ PfaLg^.
,g[ ZUg`W a_cgP c_VXag ]g^ffO (_fgfg) \-
PP: aXcGgW \Pcaf J`_gc`ga g]fWL \PP
l
fP`McVf, g_ __ f V[f^g^ a Va[g g _fPfgcP
cgac. /`^ M` MHO Sc_gcg_ \PP ]`WVZg^
?ZSPZJQQCJ (MZQSPCQPC) HhSSZBhCBhh. <g^ff^ (_fgfg) \-
PP (k ) – gfCf ]cVa\f^ [`^cfXS _fPfgcPO fa,
y i
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]`ZUffXS a ]cP \PP, _ _fPfgcP f c]aCS^
d
f fX [`_Z`. ` f]gW Zcaff \PP a MHO Dc[
kP k+ + A– , g V\W k =([K+] [A–] )/ [KA] ` k =(CK +CA )/ CKA

/`^ `MXS J`_gc`ga K ]c ]c\`ffO g[]cgZc â`^g^
ü n
]g^ffO aÙfO f Vag g _fPfgcP cgac. Zf
[Gg ]cf[gW cVfX VfUf^ a Va[g g ]cc\X J`_gc-
`g cgacg`^, V[ffO g[]cgZcX.
ç
` \PP^ J`_gc`ga ]cS\g a f_`W_ gZ]fO, ]g-
ü
^ff^ \PP ]c\X\ZHO gZ]f aK\ M`WC ]`\ZLHO.
4Uf_[ ]c\`Kg^ f]gW Zcaff VfUf ]g^ffO
\PP a\X, â`^LHO^ [X[ `MX[ J`_gc`g[.
a p
m2d m+ + OH– k (m2d)= [H+] [OH–] / [m2d] =10–14
Ç 161
:OZM 6. CMPZO@, KLhJ8;hW QC SPW?WQE
HhSSZBhCBhh. ZSPZJQQCJ HhSSZBhCBhh
0PCQHCOP: 1.2.1.; 1.3.1.; 4.1.1.

jWLE GOZMC. :9C;hASJ: ]cU`^g D_gcX,
a`^LH f g]fW \PP M1^f^g S
aV\Oga; M1^f^g ZHfgW ]g^ffO \-
PP; ga`^g ]c[cX f aXU`f ]-
g^ffO \PP cCg S.
)QPW6OCBhJ: .: 2.1.1.; 4.1.1.
'WSGOS@: ]cgOC ZgcOga, ]cac^LH ]c-
SG\f g_, _fPfgccaff^ H2SO4, _fPfgcc-
aff^ Z_Zf^ _`g, \g``caff^ a\, ZUMf_, fKcag`W.
+ZH GOZMC
. P`WL V\f^ IZPhKCBhh ]ca\g^ ]Xg, \[fgccZLHO
]c ][H ]cac^LHK ZgcOga, Ug _fPfgccaff^ cf^
Z_Zf^ _`g f ]ca\g ` `M ]ca\g J`_gcU_O g_
(`[] gaggaff ` f Kcg, ` Kcg UfW `M). ,g[ ZU-
g`W ]cKgaàg G\_O cgac MS _`g (]c VKga`f
cgac cfO _`gX f\ MXgW ]c\`Wf gcGfX[).
<c ][H gK G ZgcOga (] aUfL `[]X) ]cac^g^
y
]ca\[gW g_ Z_ZfO _`gX, [LHO _[fgfZL g[]cgZcZ,
fKcgO _`gX. ,\g^ a]c: __ aXa\X [Gf \`gW fi l
a`^Lg f g]fW \PP J`_gc`g?
e
faf JgS ]Xga? 8_ _fPfgcP^ g[]cgZc cgac
d
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cgf ]c]cPf`Wf K _fPfgcP ]c^[ ]c]cPf`Wf g[-
ü n
]cgZc. 4Ug`W ZgUf^g, Ug ]c^[^ ]c]cPf`WfgW g[]cgZcO
]cZH `CW `MX[ J`_gc`g[, ]g[Z Ug ]c fKcaf a\fXS c-
gaca `WfXS J`_gc`ga ]cS\g ]cP, McgfXO \PP.
ç
/`^ ]`ZUf^ gaga f ]ga`ffX a]cX ]c[ ZUf_[ ]-
ü
cZUg^ af[g`Wf ]cUggW 44-ZL g[Z ZUMf_.
<_VgW a`^f _fPfgcP cgac f g]fW \PP
[Gf ]c ][H \cZKK UfW ]cgK fgcfK ]Xg: ZU-
a p
g`W ]cKgaàg _fPfgccaffXO cgac CuCl2 a M1[ 1/3 S-
[U_K g_f ]_VXag _`Z ]cWMO McggW af[f f
Ç
162
Pag cgac (_fPfgccaffXO cgac [g G`gXO _c ] PagZ
[`_Z` CuCl2). ,g[ ZUg`W ]g]ff \Ma`^g a cgac a\Z. ag
\cG[K [f^g^ afU` f V`fXO, Vg[ – f K`ZMO.
,`fXO Pag McVZg^ g [Caf^ G`gXS [`_Z` CuCl2 K\-
cgcaffX[ K`ZMX[ f[ Cu2+, U` _gcXS ZaÙag^ ]
[c cVMa`f^ cgac a\O. ) K`ZMO Pag – cVZ`Wgg gK, Ug
g]fW \PP ]c aVcgLH[ _Ùga a\X ZaÙ`W,
_Ùga fa Cu2+ g` M`WC.
>X]ca^ UfW G\_O cgac a _c[U_O ]Z\ (g gW _f-
PfgccZ^ K), [Gf fM`L\gW McgfXO ]cP – __ K`ZMO Pag
]g]ff G`gg. <` \[fgcP ]Xg ZUg`W ]cCag:
__ a`^g f g]fW \PP V[ff _fPfgcP cgac?
<`ZUa gag, f V\g hSSLWHZKCPWLESMhA KZ?OZS:
1. ?7C' '' ?7"+- 2" * 48C31 9? ;'/'91 0C;;"&C?&CC?
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4?1? "9" 8C, 4-,C;8C4 #9?,'9C' /";"399" 0C;;"&C?&CC (K), "/+'-
0'8C1, 7 7?7" +*//' – ;8?"" C8C ;C819" – "9";C;3 !8'7+"8C?
&gMX gaggW f Jg a]cX, _` \`Gf af[g`Wf ]cUggW
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]\KgagW gagX f `\ZLH a]cX:
1. &g g_ g]fW \PP __ D_gcX a`^Lg f f?
7]Cg Dc[Z`Z g]f \PP.
2. &[ ]c\`^g^ ]cc\ J`_gc`g cgacg`^? >`^Lg `
Jg D_gcX f g]fW \PP?
3. 8_ V[ff _fPfgcP cgac a`^g f g]fW \P-
P? &[ aX [Gg Jg M1^fgW?
4. <U[Z ]aXCf g[]cgZcX ZaÙag g]fW \PP
`MXS J`_gc`ga?
y
5. 8_ a`^f _VXag ZaÙf _Ùga fa J`_gc`g
a cgac f g]fW \PP? i l
V[ff VfUf^?
e
6. &g g_ ]g^ff^ \PP (K ), g __S D_gca Vag
d
7. .gaWg Zcaff \PP aXa\g Dc[Z`Z ]g^ffO
\PP [`_Z`X a\X, â`^LHO^ UfW `MX[ J`_gc`g[.
n
>_cZK JgS a]ca ]ca\^g^ MZG\f^. <c\gag`W _G\O
]cX gaUg `CW f \f a]c. <c ][H g`WfXS ZUf_a
ç ü
gagX \]`f^Lg^. ,g[ \`^ V_c]`f^ VffO ZUg`W ]cZUg
KcZ]][ aX]`fgW V\f^ 1,2,3 ZUMf_. Z\f g G V\f [Gf
\gW \fac[ff 2-3 KcZ]][. < gUf 5-6 [fZg gagX 3-S ZU-
ü
f_a MZG\Lg^ a[ _`[. /^g`WfgW KcZ]] g\`WfXS ZU-
f_a ZBWQhKCWPSJ ] `\ZLH[ _cgc^[ (]ca\g^ Dc[gaf
Pfaf): ]cU`f M1^ff D_gca, a`^LHS f g-
a p
]fW \PP; ]c\`f ]f^g^ ]g^ffO \PP, c-
Cf V\fO V\U, gcZ\fUga a KcZ]], ZcafW ]cVfgPO.
Ç 163
:OZM 7. 'WCMBhh hZQQZ6Z Z5IWQC
0PCQHCOP: 1.2.1.; 1.3.1.; 4.1.1.

jWLE GOZMC. :9C;hASJ: M1^f^g ZHfgW c-
_PO ffK M[f, ]cU`^g Zà^, ]c _-
gcXS Jg c_P ]cg_Lg \ _fP, ga`^g
[`_Z`^cfX ffX Zcaff^ \`^ _G\K V S
g]a; ]^f^g, Ug Zcaff^ \_a, KVa `-
M\PcZLHS aHga ]CZg^ a [`_Z`^c-
fO Dc[, Z_VXag, V __S fa f McVZLg^.
)QPW6OCBhJ: #.: 2.1.1.; 2.2.2.
'WSGOS@: cgacX \X Vag, _fPfgccaff^ S`cg^
cf^ _`g, cgac NaOH, `_[Z ` f\_gc Df`Dg`f,
]cMc_, S[U_ g_fX, a\
+ZH GOZMC
. P`WL V\f^ IZPhKCBhh ZUg`W gag ]Xg – a ]cMc_Z c-
gac[ \X \Ma`^g f[fK Vag (K\c_\ _`WP^), ]_VXag
l
_`Z McVaaCO^ M`XO \_ ]cCag: Ug Jg V \_, V _-
i
_S fa f McVa`^? /aOg f]C[ Zcaff c_P. Z\f V ZU-
f_a f \_ ]Cg [`_Z`^cf Zcaff (g`WfX ]CZg a ggc\^S):
]Y2bd3+bY(dm)2 bYbd3+2]Ydm
e y
>X ZG Vfg, a a\fXS cgacS J`_gc`gX ZHgaZLg a Dc[
d
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a a\ (\_), KVX `MX J`_gc`gX [Lg, __ ]ca`, [`_Z`-
^cfZL Dc[Z. 4UgXa^ aXC_Vff, f]Cg a ffO Dc[ Zca-
n
ff^ JgS c_PO (\f ZUf_ ]Cg f \_, g`WfX ac^Lg ]
ü
f[Z ]ca`WfgW f]ffXS a ggc\^S gaga):
2–
2]Y+ + CO3 + Ca2+ + 2OH– CaCO3 + 2Na+ + 2OH–
ü ç
g fVXag^ ]`fX[ ffX[ Zcaff[ c_P. /`^ gK,
UgMX f]gW K _cHffZL Dc[Z, fMS\[ _cggW \f-
_aX fX a ]caO àO gcf Zcaff^. ._cHff ff
a p
Zcaff ]_VXag^ f \_ ]` gK, __ ZUf_ f]CZg K:
2
CO3 + Ca2+ CaCO3
Ç
164
4Ug`W: «ZMcVaf a c_P^S ffK M[f \_a, KVa
`MXS J`_gc`ga VfUg, Ug Jg aHga aXC` V ]c\`X
c\X. <Jg[Z f fMcg[X».
) g]cW ]ca\[ \cZKO ]Xg:
4Ug`W \Ma`^g a \aXO cgac f[fK _`gX \[fgc-
cZg aX\`^LH^ ]c Jg[ ]ZVXcW_ KV. Zf ]cZUg _`Z f]-
gW [`_Z`^cfX ffX Zcaff^ JgS c_PO.
> cgac _`gX (HCl ` H2SO4) \Ma`^g^ 1-2 _]` `_[Z
` Df`Dg`f, Vg[ ]g]ff fàg^ cgac HÙ, ]_
Pag \cG[K f ][f^g^.
,g[ V\g^ hSSLWHZKCPWLESMhA KZ?OZS:
1. 7?7"2* 4C0* ""2'99" +'?7&CC "9";C;3 0?99?3 +'?7&C3?
2. ",'2* /";8' "/+'0'8'99" " 4+'2'9C C90C7?"+ 4"#4+??' ;4"
&4'?
4Ug`W ]`ZUg gagX f Jg a]cX. Zg aS ZUf_a gcMZg^
f]gW [`_Z`^cf ff Zcaff ]cg_LHO c_P. &cV
2-3 [fZgX \f V fM` _gafXS ZUf_a ]Cg Zcaff f
\_, g`WfX ac^Lg ] f[Z ]ca`WfgW aS gaga.
7 `\ZLHS Jg]S Zc_ KcZ]][ \Lg^ V\f^: gaWg [-
`_Z`^cf ff Zcaff \ffXS a[ c_PO, ]c\`g aX]a-
CO \_ ] gM`P cgac[g (f Jg ga\g^ 5-8 [fZg)
1. bYbj2+ k2bd3
2. bvWd4 + ]Ydm
3. bvbj2 + k2W
4. NY(dm)2 + m]d3
5. m3:d4 + P5]d3
y i l
6. k2Wd3 +mbj
d e
< gUf ac[f gagX ]c\gagÒ KcZ]] MZG\Lg^
PfaLg^.
$OhPWOhh ZBWQhKCQhJ: ]ca`Wf ga`f ZcaffO, ZcafW
cX.
ü n
]cVfgPO, gcZ\fUga a KcZ]], gagX f \]`fg`WfX a]-
ç
> _fP Zc_ \^g`WfgW ZUf_a, fM` _gaf ZUgaZL-
HS a ]cS, g_G Pfag^ (Dc[gaf Pfaf).
p ü
Ç a 165
:OZM 8. 6LWMPOZLh>
0PCQHCOP: 1.2.1.; 1.3.1.; 4.1.1.

jWLE GOZMC. :9C;hASJ: cCc^g a Vff^
M _`g`Wf-agfag`WfXS c_P^S, ZK`ZM-
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^f^g ZHfgW c_PO J`_gc`V, ]cS\^HS
a `^S K\c_\fXS c]àS, ]^f^g VfUf
]cP J`_gc`V a ]c[XC`ff[ ]`ZUf
aHga.
)QPW6OCBhJ: #.: 1.1.3.; 1.1.5.; 2.2.2.
'WSGOS@: ]cgOC ZgcOga \`^ J`_gc`V, cgac CuCl2,
aX]c^[g`W (` gM`Vgc), gUf_ J`_gcU_K g_.
+ZH GOZMC
4Ug`W V\g IZPhKCBh8 ]Zg[ _gZ`VP ]agcf^ ZG
l
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y i
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gafg [g`à, g_G ]f^gO M J`_gc`V, VagfXS V Zc_a
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\ZLH V\f^:
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gU_ Vcf^ J`_gcffXS ]c\ga`fO (]_Gg ]cS\ J`_gcfa,
]c\`g _`g`W agfag`W, g_G _`^LHZL^ a-
gfaàLHZL^ UgPX).
ç ü
2) 7]Cg Zcaff^ \PP J`_gc`ga, [LHS Dc-
[Z`X bvbj2, kI, ]Ydm, m2d, ]Ybj, ]Y2Wd4, RtWd4.
ü
)SSLWHZKCPWLESMhA KZ?OZS:
[ 7?7"2 9?/+?48'9CC 4 +30* ?7C49";C 4"#+?;?' 4";;?9"4C-
'819?3 ;/";""9";1 2'?88"4 C "7C;8C'819?3 ;/";""9";1 C% C"9"4?
p
<`ZUffX gagX MZG\Lg^ ZgUf^Lg^.
a
Ç
166
,g[ ZUH^ Vf_[^g^ ZgcOga[, ]_VffX[ f c.19
ZUMf_, ZUg`W \[fgccZg J`_gc`V cgac ` S`c\
[\ (II). <c ]cSG\f g_ UcV cgac ZUf_ a\^g, __ f _-
g\ aX\`^g^ [g`Ù_^ [\W g[f-_cfK Pag, f f\ –
S`c, ]c\`^[XO ] V]SZ. %VZ`Wgg ]ca\[K ]Xg ]c^f^g^
]`ZUf[ gaga f `\ZLH a]cX:
) __ fX ]cg^KaLg^ _ _g\Z?
M) __ fX ]cg^KaLg^ _ f\Z?
a) __ _`g`Wf-agfag`WfX c_P ]cS\^g f _-
g\ f\? 8_ [Gf f]gW J`_gcff-S[gUfX Zcaff^
]cg_LHS c_PO?
<ca`WfX gagX `\ZLH:
_ _g\Z ]cg^KaLg^ fX Cu2+, a VMXg_ \cGH^ a c-
gac, \]`WfX [`_Z`X a\X fX 7+, aX\`^[X a cVZ`Wgg
\PP a\X, â`^LHO^ UfW `MX[ J`_gc`g[. 'fX Cu2+,
â`^LH^ M` `WfX[ _`g`[, ]`ZU^ J`_gcfX g _g\,
`K_ agfaàLg^.
bv2+ + 2 Cu0 agfag`WfXO ]cP
_ f\Z ]cg^KaLg^ \cGH^ a M`WC[ _Ùga a
cgac fX Cl–, [`_Z`X a\X \cGH^ a UfW fVfU-
g`Wf[ _Ùga fX OH–. 'fX Cl–, g\a^ a J`_gcfX f-
\Z, ZMhSLJ8PSJ.
bj– – bj0 _`g`WfXO ]cP
bj0 + bj0 bj2
y
8_ ]c\`f [Gf \gW ]cPZ J`_gc`V, faXa^W f
\ffXS c_P^S? 4Uf_ [g^g`Wf Dc[Z`cZLg ]c\`f.
i l
e
4Ug`W g[Ug, Ug a c_P^S J`_gc`V agfag`WfZL
d
DZf_PL aX]`f^g _g\, _`g`WfZL – f\. Z_`g`Wf-a-
gfag`WfX ]cPX, ]cg_LH ]c J`_gc`V S`c\ [\
(II), â`^Lg^ ]cga]`GfgWL ]cPa, ]cg_LHS ]c aV-
[\Oga [\ S`c:
0
2e
0 +2 –1
ü n
ç
bv + Cl2 bvCl2 c_P^ \ff^
ü
+2 –1 0
bvCl2 bv0 + Cl2 c_P^ J`_gc`V
4Ug`W: __ aX ZG Vfg, J`_gc`gX \PcZLg f fX
a p
]c c]à`f. 8_ fX McVZLg^ Z NaCl NaOH a c]à`f-
f[ g^f? 4Ug`W ]c\`Kg f]gW Zcaff S \PP
Ç 167
f \_. /a ZUf_ aX]`f^Lg K Z_Vf. 4Ug`W V\g Uc\-
fO a]c: ` ]c]ZggW ]g^ffXO g_ UcV c]à JgS J`_-
gc`ga, __ c_P MZ\Zg ]cS\gW a _g\ f\? . ][HWL
f]ca`^LHS a]ca ]c]\ag`^ ZUf_ ]CZg Zcaff^:
]Ybj ]Y+ + Cl–
> _g\: ]Y++ ]Y0 ; > f\: bj– - Cl0 ;
Cj0 + bj0 bj2
'gKa Zcaff: 2]Ybj 2]Y + bj2
]Ydm ]Y + dm–
+
> _g\: ]Y+ + ]Y0 ; > f\: 4OH– - 4 O2 + 2m2d

4Ug`W: ]Xg \_VXag, Ug ]c _`f fa K\c_\ aK-
\ McVZg^ KV O2 a\.
'gKa Zcaff J`_gc`V c]à NaOH:
4]Ydm 4 ]Y + d2+ 2m2d
/`^ V_c]`f^ VffO KcZ]][ ]cZUg^ gagW Zcaff^
J`_gc`V c]àa KCl, CaCl2 KOH. %VZ`WggX S cMg MZG-
\Lg^ PfaLg^.
y i l
d e
ü n
ü ç
a p
Ç
168
:OZM 9. 6LWMPOZLh> KZHQ@J OCSPKZOZK
4LWMPOZLhPZK
0PCQHCOP: 1.2.1.; 1.3.1.; 4.1.1.

jWLE GOZMC. :9C;hASJ: f faf c^\ _-
gafg _gfa ffa Vcf ]c\`^g
aHga, aX\`^[X f _g\ f\ a ac[^
J`_gc`V àXS cgaca; ga`^g Zcaf-
f^ _`g`Wf-agfag`WfXS c_PO,
]cg_LHS f _g\S f\S a ac[^ J`_-
gc`V cgac Ò cVfX[ ga[, g_G
gKaX Zcaff^ c_P J`_gc`V; c_VXag VfUf
]cP J`_gc`V a ]c[XC`ff[ ]`ZUf aHga.
)QPW6OCBhJ: #.: 1.1.3.; 1.1.5.; 2.1.3.
'WSGOS@: cgacX KI Na2SO4, ]cg ZgcOga \`^ J`_-
gc`V, gUf_ J`_gcU_K g_.
+ZH GOZMC
4Ug`W ]ca\g _cg_ZL M\Z P`WL V\f^ [gaP: a
l
J`_gc`V àXS cgaca ZUgaZLg f g`W_ _gfX ffX,
f [`_Z`X a\X. %Z_a\gaZ^W c^\[ _gafg _gfa
ffa, [Gf ZVfgW, __ aHga aX\`^Lg^ f _g\S f\S
]c J`_gc`V cgaca (Jgg c^\ \`Gf aXaCagW^ a _`fO
y i
_[fg)
)_gafgW (]MfgW _`f^)
)_gafgW aVcgg à f]ca
d e
ü n
!q+, k+, NY2+, bY2+, ]Y+, s52+, Pj3+, sH2+, 1H2+, bD3+, Rt2+, ]q2+, WH2+, :%2+, m+, bv2+, m52+, P5+, :2+, Pv3+
)_gafgW (]MfgW _`f^)
ç
)_gafgW ZMXag ]ca fà
ü
4Ug`W: > cgac __O ` ]c ]c]Z_f J`_gcU_K g_
a _g\ aK\ agfaàg^ _gf [g``? <c J`_gc`V c-
gaca Ò __S [g`à f _g\ [Gg aX\`^gW^ aM\fXO [-
a p
g``? /a^ gagX f Jg a]cX, ZUf_ X`Lg^ f c^\ _ga-
fg _gfa. &gMX ]\gac\gW S gagX, a U-McVfZL gcZM_Z f-
Ç 169
àLg cgac O\gK _`^, ]`LX _g\ f\ [f^Lg [-
g[, \Ma`^^ f gcfZ f\ 1-2 _]` _cS[`WfK cgac,
UcV cgac ]c]Z_Lg J`_gcU_O g_. &cV f_gc ac[^
ZUf_ [KZg fM`L\gW, __ f\f^ gcf ]cMcgg g[f-
fO Pag, UcV gcZM_Z _g\ aXS\g KV, f [LHO V]S
(UgMX Z\gacgW^ a aXS\ KV _fP gcZM_ _g\ ]Z_g^ a
]Z\Z a\O). 4Ug`W g[Ug, Ug ]\ a`^f[ I2,aM\f aX\-
`^[K f f\, cgac _cS[` fg (Jg â`f Vf_[ ZUf-
_[ V Zc_a M`K). V, aXS\^HO V _g\, Mcg^ a
[`fW_ZL `McgcfZL ]cMc_Z ]\acKg^ aV\OgaL Kf^.
.`MXO aVcXa ` Sc_gcfXO KZ`, aVf_CO ]\ \Oga[ ]`[f,
ZMG\g ZUf_a, Ug Jg KV 72.
4UH[^ ]c\`Kg^ V]gW c_P, ]cg_LH f _g\
f\ a ]cP J`_gc`V cgac. %_P V]XaLg^ ]c ]-
[H f]ca`^LHS ]\_V_ ZUg`^:
kI K+ + I– ; m2d H+ + OH–

(-)8g\; / k+ ; m+(m2d)/
2m2d + 2 m2 + 2dH–
(+) ; / I– ; OH– (m2d)/ 2I– – 2 I2
ZMH [`_Z`^cf Zcaff c_PO:
2kI + 2m2d m2 + I2 + 2kdm
)SSLWHZKCPWLESMhA KZ?OZS: [;' 0? 8C "7C;83';3 ?9C"9 7C;8"-
l
9" " ";?7? 9? ?9"0' /+C /+"/*;7?9CC !8'7+C,';7" " "7? ,'+'#
+?;4"+ ;"8C?
y i
&gMX gaggW f Jgg a]c, \[fgccZg^ Uc\fO ]Xg.
U-McVfZL gcZM_Z V]`f^Lg cgac[ Z`WDg fgc^ (Na2SO4)
d e
]c]Z_Lg ]g^ffXO J`_gcU_O g_. V, aXS\^HO V MS g-
cf gcZM_, ]\acKg^ f`VZ, a cVZ`Wgg _gcK aX^f^g^, Ug
f f\f[ ZUg_ aX\`^g^ _`c\, f _g\ – a\c\. ZM J`_-
n
gc`V __K aHga a\g`WgaZg aX\`f f f\ _`c\
a\c\ f _g\? %Z_a\gaZ^W g[, Ug f J`_gc\S f aX\`^-
ç ü
`W fgcO, c ` __-`M V S \ffO, ZUf_ ]c\]`-
KLg, Ug J`_gc`VZ ]\acK`W a\. &gMX ]`ZUgW gag f a]c
– a cVZ`Wgg _`f^ __S fa f f\ aX\`^g^ _`c\ Z2 ,
p ü
ZUg`W ]c\`Kg _`Z a][fgW Zcaff \PP a\X:
m2d m+ + dm–

Z\f_ a a^V UcV[cf [`X[ _Ùga[ c]\LHS^ f
a
fX [`_Z` a\X, [Gf ]cOg _ aXa\Z, Ug f _g\S f\S
Ç
170
_`^Lg^ agfaàLg^ f [. ,g[ ZUf_ ]CZg S[X
c_PO, ]cg_LHS f _g\ f\ a ac[^ J`_gc`V a\X:
7 _g\ : 2m2d + 2 m2 + 2dm–
7 f\ : 2m2d + 2 d2 + 4m+
ZMH [`_Z`^cf Zcaff:
4Ug`W McHg^ _ _`Z a]c[: ]c fÙ __S f-
fa a cgac f f\ _`^Lg^ g`W_ ffX K\c_\? &gMX
gaggW f Jgg a]c, f\ McggW^ _ c^\Z _gafg ffa:
–
… W2–, I–, ND–, bj–, dm–, Wd4 , Nd3 , R– …
7 faf ]`ZUffXS VffO ]_VgÒ c^\ _gafg _-
gfa ffa ZUf_ ]cS\^g _ `\ZLH[ aXa\[ gfg`Wf
J`_gc`V cgaca Ò (fMS\[, UgMX f [ ]cC` _
Jg[ aXa\[, ZUg`W [Gg g`W_ V\agW f]ca`^LH a]cX):
1. > ]cP J`_gc`V cgaca Ò _gafXS [g`à (Li-
Al) f _g\ aX\`^g^ KV a\c\ (72).
2. > cVZ`Wgg J`_gc`V cgaca Ò f_gafXS [g`à
(Cu-Au) f _g\ aX\`^g^ [g``.
3. > cVZ`Wgg J`_gc`V cgaca Ò Z`WD\, O\, Mc[\
S`c\ f f\ aX\`^Lg^ c (S), O\ (I2), Mc[ (Br2) S`c (Cl2),
]c J`_gc`V _`c\\cGHS _`g DgcgO _`gX
f f\ aK\ aX\`^g^ _`c\ (Z2).
/]`f^^ Jg aXa\X, ZUg`W g[Ug, Ug ]c J`_gc`V cga-
ca Ò [g`à, M`\LHS c\fO _gafgWL (Zn-Pb) , f _-
y i l
e
g\ aX\`^g^ [g`` a\c\ (72) ]cZUg KcZ]][ f]gW
c_P, ]cg_LH f _g\ f\ ]c J`_gc`V cgac Z`W-
Dg G`V (II).
d
%_VXa^ ]c_gU_[ ]c[ff J`_gc`V, ZUg`W -
n
MHg, Ug a ]c[XC`ffg _gafX f_gafX [g``X (Cl2, F2)
ü
]`ZULg^ ]Zg[ J`_gc`V ]^f^g, Ug \`^ JgS PÒ ]`W-
VZLg^ f cgacX, c]àX Ò. ) S`c [Gf ]`ZUgW __ V
ç
cgac `, g_ V c]à.
ü
%VZ`WggX cMg MZG\Lg^ PfaLg^.
ZIC!QWW >CHCQhW: ]agcg fafX a]cX ] \fP MZU-
f^ (\g^ ]`f).
a p
Ç 171
:OZM 10. CMPZO@, KLhJ8;hW QC ?OZBWSS
4LWMPOZLh>C. OhIWQWQhW 4LWMPOZLh>C
0PCQHCOP: 1.2.1.; 1.3.1.; 4.1.1.

jWLE GOZMC. :9C;hASJ: M1^f^g McVa-
f _Ò ` HÙfO c\X a cgacS ]c
cgacf a a\ f_gcXS Ò, ga`^g
ffX [`_Z`^cfX Zcaff^ ffK M[f
Ò a\X (K\c`V), cVaag Vff^ `W-
fXS `MXS J`_gc`gS.
)QPW6OCBhJ: #.: 1.1.3.; 1.1.4.; 1.1.5.
'WSGOS@: ]cgO ]cMc, ]cac^LHO J`_-
gc]ca\fgW cgaca, \f_aO _fPfgcP cgacX KCl,
AlCl3, H2SO4, NaOH, Na2SO4 , ]`_gX, gcGLH ]c[ff ]c-
P J`_gc`V, ZUMf_.
+ZH GOZMC
,\a^ fG`\ZLH a]cX, ZUg`W _gZ`VcZg Vff^ ZU-
f_a ]f^g «J`_gc`V» V\g IZPhKCBh8:
1) 8_ c_P fVXaLg^ c_P^[ J`_gc`V?
l
2) 8_ UgPX a ]cP J`_gc`V KcLg c`W fgÒ
i
J`_gcU_S Vc^\a?
y
3) "Gg ` MXgW \f_aX[ _Ùga J`_gcU_K Vc^\,
]cS\^HK UcV cgacX cVfXS J`_gc`ga ]c J`_gc`V?
J`_gcU_K Vc^\ `X g_?
d e
4) 8_ Dc[Z`X ZHgaZLg \`^ aXcGf^ a^VO [X aH-
ga, aX\`^[K f J`_gc\S a ]cP J`_gc`V, _Ùga
<`ZUffX gagX ZgUf^Lg^. ,g[ V\Lg^ hSSLWHZKCPWLESMhW

KZ?OZS@:
n
1. "0 4"#0';4C'2 7?7C% ?7"+"4 +'?7&C3 !8'7+"8C#? 2"'
ü
*;7"+31;3? '2 ""3;93';3 C% 48C39C'?
ç
2. \?;;7?C' " #9?,'9CC C ;'+?% /+C2'9'9C3 !8'7+"8C#?.
ü
/`^ ]\Kga_ gaga _` \`g^ f KcZ]]X, \aZ[-gc[ V fS
]cZUg^ 1- V\f, g`WfX[ – 2-. .[O _gafO V KcZ]],
aX]`f^LHS 1- V\f, ]cZUg^ ]\Kga_ ]Xg, \[fgccZL-
a p
HK a`^f f _cgW J`_gc`V _fPfgcP cgac J`_gc-
`g (M`WCK _Ùga fa) Vc^\ fa cgac (1-O ]Xg),
Ç
172
\cZKO KcZ]] – ]Xg, ]_VXaLHO a`^f f _cgW J`_gc`V
]cc\X J`_gc`g (2-O ]Xg).
Z]Xg ]ca\g^ ] `\ZLHO [g\_:
1-A Z?@P. 4gfaàg^ ]cMc, ]cac^LHO ]ca\[gW g_
a cgacS. 8 f[Z ]\\f^Lg^ `[] []c[gc. < ^c_g
aUf^ `[]X (`Wf-`M) V[cfL `X g_ []c[gc[ \-
`g^ aXa\ _Ùga J`_gcU_K Vc^\, ]cS\^HK a P].
. JgO P`WL g_ ]Uc\f ]c]Z_g^ UcV cgacX KCl AlCl3,
[LH \f_aZL _fPfgcPL. <c ]cSG\f g_ UcV c-
gac AlCl3 `[] Kcg ^cU, ]_Vf^ []c[gc aXC.
2-A Z?@P. &cV cgacX H2SO4, NaOH Na2SO4 \f_aO _f-
PfgcP ]c]Z_g^ J`_gcU_O g_ – ] aX\`^[X[ ]ZVXcW_[
KV (H2 – f _g\, Z2 – f f\) a\f, Ug fM`WC^ _cgW a c-
gac H2SO4, Vg[ \g NaOH. > gagS ]c\gagÒ gaggaZL-
HS KcZ]] Jg \g` M ]\Uc_aLg^, Vg[ \`Lg^ aXa\X
(__ cVZ`Wgg ]caK ]Xg fMS\[ g[ggW – U[ M`WC Vc^\
_Ùga fa a cgac ` U[ aXC K _fPfgcP^, g[
M`WC _Ùga J`_gcU_K Vc^\ aXC _cgW J`_gc`V.
8_ cVZ`Wgg 2-K ]Xg fMS\[ g[ggW – f _cgW J`_gc`V
a`^g g_G S[U_^ ]cc\ aHga J`_gc`g. <c ]c]Z_-
f ]g^ffK g_ UcV cgacX _`g HÙO V-V M`WCO
]\aGfg fa 7+ Z7– ]cP Z_c^g^.)
Z]XgX ]ca\^g^ ]c ][H ]\ gcK[ _fgc`[ ZUg`^,
]cVfgP cMg ZHga`^Lg^ [g^g`Wf.
< gUf ac[f, ga\ffK f aX]`ff V\fO, ]ca-
\^g^ MZG\f^ MMHf^. > S\ MZG\fO [Gf KcfUgW^
y i l
e
gag[ 3-S KcZ]] cVfX[ V\f[.
<`ZUffX Vff^ MMHLg^ ]c ][H `\ZLHS a]ca:
1. 8_ D_gcX a`^Lg f ]cP J`_gc`V?
n d
2. 8_ a`^Lg f ]cP J`_gc`V _fPfgcP^ Vc^\ fa a cgac?
3. 8_ _cgW ]cP J`_gc`V Vag g ]cc\X J`_gc`-
ga? 8_ fX (7+, Z7– , _`gfXO gg_, fX [g``) M`\Lg
M`WCO ]\aGfgWL?
ç ü
4. 8_ aHga ]`ZULg a ]c[XC`ffg ]M[ J`_gc-
`V? > __S H ]c[XC`ffXS DcS ]c[f^g^ J`_gc`V?
p ü
%MgX KcZ]] ZBWQhKC8PSJ ?Z `\ZLH[ _cgc^[: ZcafW ]c-
VfgP, ]ca\f ]Xg M1^ff ]`ZUffXS cVZ`Wgga, ]`-
fg gaga (]^ffO), gcZ\fUga a KcZ]].
ZIC!QWW >CHCQhW: <`fgWL ]agcg g[Z «`_gc`V».
Ç a 173
:OZM 11. nhHOZLh> SZLWA
0PCQHCOP: 1.2.1.; 1.3.1.; 4.1.1.

jWLE GOZMC. :9C;hASJ: M1^f^g McVa-
f _Ò ` HÙfO c\X a cgacS ]c
cgacf a a\ f_gcXS Ò, ga`^g
ffX [`_Z`^cfX Zcaff^ ffK M[f
Ò a\X (K\c`V), cVaag Vff^ `W-
fXS `MXS J`_gc`gS.
)QPW6OCBhJ: #.: 2.1.1.; 2.2.2.
'WSGOS@: cgacX Ò NaCl, K2SO4 (` Na2SO4), K2S, ZnCl2,
N2CO3, AlCl3 a _`MS, `_[Zf^ MZ[K ` cgac, \g``c-
aff^ a\.
+ZH GOZMC
/`^ `ZUCK Zaf^ ZUf_[ faK Zc_ ZUg`W ]ca\g _-
cg_O Dcfg`WfXO ]c (V\g IZPhKhOG8;hW KZ?OZS@):
]c[cX.
y i
1. 8_ J`_gc`gX fVXaLg^ `WfX[ `MX[? <ca\g
l
2. <c M`L\f __S ZàO M[ffX c_P [G\Z J`_gc-
`g[ ]cg_Lg \ _fP?
d e
3. 7 __ fX, SgW a fVfUg`WfO g]f, [KZg \Pc-
agW [`_Z`X a\X, â`^LHO^ `MX[ J`_gc`g[?
n
4. < fÙL M`WCK _Ùga __S fa ]c\`^g^ Mc-
Vaf _Ò ` HÙfO c\X a cgac?
ç ü
<` ]`ZUf^ gaga f a]cX ]c[ ` KcZ]][ cV\Lg^ -
]Xgg`WfX _`MX 3-5 [K cgaca Ò ]Ybj, k2Wd4, ]Y2bd3, k2W,
1Hbj2, Pjbj3, \g``caff^ a\, `_[Zf^ MZ[K ` cgac.
ü
4Ug`W ]cZUg ]cacgW _G\XO cgac \g``caffZL a\Z
`_[Z[, g[U^ V[ff^ Pag, \`gW aXa\ – __S fa
p
g` M`WC a cgacS, ][fâCS aO Pag. `K\c^ cV1^ff-
a
^[, \ffX[ f Dcfg`Wf[ ]c, ZUf_ [KZg \`gW ]ca`WfXO
Ç
174
WMWc: _[]MJ CW\ V_ NP[_ [Wd\VI[\WP\ cF PWVdL]dd W _[\Wc
cVdL[\W_ dc]cW 3+, _ [d]dJ – dc]cW +3–. [WTKd [ \N, L\c W _[\Wc_H
HVcd_ ]_\dT, [PVI6_\_ _VdT d W d[\dVVdcW_]]cJ Wc cVdL[\Wc
dc]cW 3+ d +3– ( c]C]\_CdT) ] N]T\[T, CW\ V_ NP[_ \_ 9 c[\_\[T
]dKN]]MN.
_\N Rd RcNc?d d[[VcW_\VI[ cDc WcRc[_ _]_VdKdP@\[T Rd-
Ld]M WcK_[\_]dT cVdL[\W_ dc]cW 3+ d +3– W _[\Wc. Ld\VI [c-
cF?_\: _ W_N dKW[\]c, W _[\Wc_H >V \cVd\cW N9P dc]_Nd
Rcd[Hcd\ HdNdL[ c WK_dNcJ[\Wd. _W_J\ Rd RcNc?d dc]]MH
P_W]]dJ cRVdN, _ d _ Cdd Rcd[HcT\ N9P dc]_Nd W _[-
\Wc_H ZnCl2 d Na2CO3, d _ W KPVI\_\ >\cDc PWVdLdW_\[T cVdL-
[\Wc dc]cW 3+ d +3–. ;cPN_J\, _ d dK RcVPL]]MH dc]cW [c9_\[T
W [c[\_W [V_FMH >V \cVd\cW.
}d~2 Zn2+ + 2Cl–
2–
2~3 2Na+ + CO3
3_RcN]dW, L\c }d()2 d 2~3 TWVT@\[T [V_FMNd >V \cVd\_Nd,
PLd\VI cWcd\ c [W]dT PL]d cW, L\c Vd7I cL]I ]K]_Ld\VI]_T
–
L_[\I dc]cW Zn(OH)+ d HCO3, cF_KPNMH ]_ RWcJ [\PR]d d[[cCd_-
Cdd >\dH >V \cVd\cW, _[R__\[T ]_ dc]M. ]_Ld\, [Vd W _[\Wc [c-
9d\[T FcVI7c cVdL[\Wc dc]cW Zn2+, c]d, WK_dNcJ[\WPT [ NcV-
PV_Nd WcM, Rd[cd]T@\ [F dc]M +3– d RW_?_@\[T W FcV
P[\cJLdWM L_[\dCM:
}d2+ + }d()+ + +
KPVI\_\ >\cDc WcK_[\_\ cVdL[\Wc [WcFc]MH dc]cW 3+ (dVd
33++) W _[\Wc.
L]d _N RcPL_\[T _]_VcDdL]MN [Rc[cFcN ]_Rd[_\I _ Cd@ dc]_
y i l
e
2–
_Fc]_\_ (CO3 ) [ NcV PVcJ WcM, Rc[V LDc V_@\[T WMWcM:
d
–
CO2– + HOH HCO3 + OH–
Ld\VI RV_D_\ PL]d _N – ]_Rd7d\ NcV PVT]c d RcV]c
n
dc]]c P_W]]d _ Cdd cFN]_ >\dH [cVJ [ WccJ (DdcVdK). ¥\cFM
]_PLd\I[T R_WdVI]c Rd[_\I NcV PVT]M 6cNPVM RcVPL]]MH W?[\W,
]]dJ:
ç
}d~2 + }d()~+~ü
cF_\d\ W]dN_]d ]_ dc]M, RcVPL]]M dK [c _?]]MH dc]]MH P_W-
p 2– ü
}d2+ + 2Cl– + HOH }d()+ + Cl– + + + Cl–
2~3 + ~3 +
–
2+ + ~3 + ++ ~3 + ++ –
Ç a 175
__\[T WcRc[: [Vd W dc]]cN P_W]]dd [c _\d\I cd]_ cWc c-
VdL[\Wc c]cdN]]MH dc]cW W R_WcJ d VWcJ L_[\d _W][\W_, _ c
P_W]]d NM RcVPLdN? Ld\VI RcVPL_\ c\W\, c] P\cL]T\[T.
_\N PL]d _N RV_D_\[T _]_VcDdL]MN [Rc[cFcN ([]_L_V_ ]_Rd-
[_\I [c _?]]c dc]]c P_W]]d) [c[\_Wd\I P_W]]d DdcVdK_ [cVJ
K2S d l(N+3)3 , cRM\M [ c\cMNd RcWcdVd[I. ;[\_Wd\Vd 2-H DPRR
Rd7P\ >\d P_W]]dT ]_ c[ , KPVI\_\M cF[P9_@\[T W[N V_[[cN.
Ld\VI RccV9_\ Pc : Rc _ dN DPRR_N Nc9]c V_[[d6dCdc-
W_\I [cVd, [Vd d[Hcd\I dK WMWccW cRM\cW c\]c[d\VI]c cF_KcW_]dT
dH W KPVI\_\ WK_dNcJ[\WdT d[Vc\ d c[]cW_]dJ d PLd\MW_\I 6_ \
\cDc, TWVT\[T Vd _]]_T d[Vc\_ d c[]cW_]d [V_FMN dVd [dVI]MN >V -
\cVd\cN? 3_RdN, dK _ dH c[]cW_]dJ ([V_FMH dVd [dVI]MH) d d[-
Vc\M cF_KcW_]_ [cVI HVcd_ Cd] _? +\W\: «Vcd Cd] _ – >\c [cVI,
cF_KcW_]]_T [V_FMN c[]cW_]dN d [dVI]cJ d[Vc\cJ». -_ d ? [cVd
Nc9]c W V@Ld\I W _]]P@ DPRRP? ;d _[\Wc]dd [cVJ >\cDc \dR_ W
Wc cVdL[\Wc _ dH dc]cW W _[\Wc WcK_[\_\ (3+ dVd OH–)? \d
9 K__]dT WMRcV]T@\[T W c\]c7]dd [cVJ \dR_ Na2CO3.
RcLNP 9 W Wc]MH _[\Wc_H [cVJ NaCl d K2SO4 [cc\]c7]d 3+
d +3– ] N]T\[T? - _ cJ DPRR [cVJ Nc9]c c\][\d dH? ]_T, L\c >\d
[cVd cF_KP@\[T d[Vc\_Nd d c[]cW_]dTNd, TWVT@?dNd[T [dVI]MNd >V -
\cVd\_Nd, PL]d d R_WdVI]c c\WL_@\ ]_ Rc[\_WV]]MJ WcRc[.
_ ]_[L\ [cVJ, cF_KcW_]]MH [V_FMN c[]cW_]dN d [V_FcJ d[-
l
Vc\cJ – W[\PR_@\ Vd c]d W _ Cdd DdcVdK_ [ WccJ? ¥\c WM Nc9\
_ CdT Rcd[Hcd\ W dH _[\Wc_H – d[V_T dVd ?VcL]_T? Ld\VI
y i
[ _K_\I c [cc\]c7]dd dc]cW 3+ d OH– W _[\Wc_H >\dH [cVJ? -_ _T
W _\C RcT[]T\: Rd _[\Wc]dd W Wc [cVJ, cF_KcW_]]MH c\ [V_FcJ
d e
d[Vc\M d [V_FcDc c[]cW_]dT, cF_ dH dc]_, c\_W_NM Wc, W[\PR_@\
Wc WK_dNcJ[\Wd [ WccJ. KPVI\_\ _ Cdd cF_KP\[T c[]cW_]d
d d[Vc\_, TWVT@?d[T [V_FMNd >V \cVd\_Nd, _ CdT DdcVdK_ Rc-
n
\ _\ c c]C_.
2–
2(~3)3 2+ + 3~3
2–
ü
23+ + 3~3 + 6HOH = 2(OH)3 + 32~3
ç
1WcJ[\W_ _[\Wc_ ([V_FcJ d[Vc\M dVd [V_FcDc c[]cW_]dT) K_Wd[T\
ü
c\ Rc[\cT]]cJ ( c][\_]\M) d[[cCd_Cdd RcVPL_NMH >V \cVd\cW.
c]C Pc _ K]_]dT d PN]dT cFcF?_@\[T Rc[[\WcN [VP@?dH
WcRc[cW:
p
a
1. -_ d _ Cdd ]_KMW_@\[T _ CdTNd DdcVdK_?
Ç
176
2. -_ _T [_ cF_KP\[T W _[\Wc Rd _[\Wc]dd W Wc [cVJ,
cF_KcW_]]MH [V_FMN c[]cW_]dN d [dVI]cJ d[Vc\cJ – d[V_T dVd ?-
VcL]_T?
3. -_ _T [_ cF_KP\[T W _[\Wc Rd _[\Wc]dd W Wc [cVJ,
cF_KcW_]]MH [V_FcJ d[Vc\cJ d [dVI]MN c[]cW_]dN?
4. ;d _[\Wc]dd W Wc _ dH [cVJ cVdL[\W]]c [cc\]c7]dd
dc]cW 3+ d OH– W _[\Wc ] N]T\[T?
5. -_ Rc\ _\ DdcVdK [cVJ, cF_KcW_]]MH c\ [V_FcJ d[Vc\M d
[V_FcDc c[]cW_]dT, c\ LDc K_Wd[d\, FP\ Vd [_ d[V_T dVd ?VcL]_T?
;cM\c9dW_T KPVI\_\M, PLd\VI cWcd\ c W]dN_]dT PL]d cW
[VP@?d K_ V@L]dT:
– DdcVdK – >\c _ CdT cF_KcW_]dT [V_FMH >V \cVd\cW W KPVI-
\_\ WK_dNcJ[\WdT dc]cW [cVd d NcV PV WcM;
– W 7dc cN [NM[V DdcVdK – >\c cFN]]_T _ CdT N9P _K-
]MNd W?[\W_Nd d WccJ, Rc\ _@?_T [ _[R_cN (_KVc9]dN);
– _ Cdd DdcVdK_ P[ cT@\[T Rd [dVI]cN _KF_WV]dd _[\Wc_
WccJ dVd RcWM7]dd \NR_\PM W?[\W_, _W]cW[d DdcVdK_ [N-
?_\[T W [\cc]P RcVPL_NMH W?[\W.
;d ]HW_\ WN]d WMRcV]]d [VP@?dH K__]dJ Nc9]c RcP-
Ld\I ]_ cN:
1. ;d _[\Wc]dd W _ cJ Wc [cVJ 2_, 7~3, O~ Rcd[Hcd\
DdcVdK? 1c[\_WI\ P_W]]dT DdcVdK_.
2. 3_ c[]cW_]dd [VP@?dH [c _?]]MH dc]]MH P_W]]dJ ]_Rd-
7d\ NcV PVT]M P_W]]dT:
y i l
~2++ ~()+ + +
2–
S3 + HOH S3 + –
–
d e
ü n
ü ç
a p
Ç 177
PZoX 12. WXqoZA, QOrM_;rt UW :rNZoOrD.
/qtHtUE :rNZoOrDW
/qWUNWZq: 1.2.1.; 1.3.1.; 4.1.1.

tOE LZoXW. PJW;r>uM: RLd[VT\ 6_ \cM,
WVdT@?d ]_ RcC[[ DdcVdK_, d cF T[]T\ dH;
_[ MW_\ Rc]T\dT [\R]d DdcVdK_ d Rc[\c-
T]]cJ ( c][\_]\M) DdcVdK_, P _KMW_\ dH _KVd-
LdT d _\ 6cNPVdcW P.
0Uqt:ZWIrM: ¦.: 4.1.1.
(tuLZuA: RcW_]]_T [cVI (NaCl), [c_ (Na2CO3),
[cVd HVcd_ _V@Nd]dT (AlCl3) dVd [PVI6_\_ Cd] _ (ZnSO4), d[\dV-
VdcW_]]_T Wc_, V_ NP[ d d]d _\cM 6]cV6\_Vd]_, ]_DW_\VI,
PLF]d , HdNdL[ d [\_ _]M dVd FcVI7_T cVF_
$oN LZoXW
c ]_Ld]_\[T [ _ \P_VdK_Cdd K]_]dJ PL]d cW c DdcVdK d RcW]dd
cRM\cW Nc\dWdP@?Dc H__ \_. 1 >\cJ CVI@ PLd\VI K__\ WcRc[M:
1. -_ d _ Cdd ]_KMW_@\[T _ CdTNd DdcVdK_?
2. 3_ _ d DPRRM VT\[T [cVd Rc [WcNP [WcJ[\WP W[\PR_\I dVd ]
W[\PR_\I W DdcVdK?
3. -_ N]T@\ CW\ V_ NP[_ _[\WcM ]cN_VI]MH [cVJ, cF_KP@-
y i l
e
?dH[T c\ _) [V_FMH c[]cW_]dJ d [dVI]MH d[Vc\, F) c\ [dVI]MH c[]cW_-
]dJ d [V_FMH d[Vc\? ¥N >\c cF T[]T\[T?
n d
;c[V RcVPL]dT c\W\cW RcWcT\[T [VP@?d cRM\M: W 3 FcVI7d
cVFM [ _KF_WV]]MNd _[\Wc_Nd [cVJ NaCl, AlCl3 (dVd ZnSO4) d
Na2CO3 cF_WVT@\[T 2-3 _RVd _[\Wc_ V_ NP[_. Nc][\dPT dH PL-
]d _N, PLd\VI [R_7dW_\:
ç
DPRR [cVJ c\]c[d\[T >\_ [cVI?
ü
1. ;cLNP W RcW_]]cJ [cVd V_ NP[ ] N]T\ [WcJ CW\? - _ cJ
ü
2. ;cLNP V_ NP[ RdcF\_\ _[]MJ CW\ W _[\Wc AlCl3 (dVd
ZnSO4)? - _ cJ DPRR c\]c[d\[T >\_ [cVI? 3_Rd7d\ dc]]c d NcV-
PVT]c P_W]]d RWcJ [\PR]d _ Cdd DdcVdK_.
a p
3. ;cLNP V_ NP[ RdcF\_\ [d]dJ CW\ (L\cFM _K]dC_ W CW\
FMV_ VPL7 Wd]_, cN]P\[T d[RcVIKcW_\I _[]P@ FPN_DP V_ -
Ç
178
NP[_) W _[\Wc Na2CO3 ([c_)? - _ cJ DPRR [cVJ c\]c[d\[T [c_?
3_Rd7d\ P_W]]d RWcJ [\PR]d _ Cdd DdcVdK_.
;c[V RcVPL]dT c\W\cW ]_ c[ (dVd ]_ > _]) Rd7P\[T ruuOtNo-
QWqtOEuXrt QoHZouA:
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%%#% !')%# !')?
2. ) '])% %%^ #!)#', ))' #!)#'? '% )!-
#!)].
&ZoQtNtUrt ruuOtNoQWUrM. Ld\VI DcWcd\: «MPLd\ [cc\W\-
[\WP@?P@ \NP PLF]d _ d RcDc\cWI\ c\W\M ]_ WcRc[M d K__]dT».
+] _K_\ DPRR_N [VP@?d WcRc[M d K__]dT:
2. -_ d 6_ \cM WVdT@\ ]_ [\R]I DdcVdK_ [cVJ? -_ WM cF -
T[]d\ PWVdL]d [\R]d DdcVdK_ ([N?]d DdcVdK]cDc _W]c-
W[dT WR_Wc) Rd RcWM7]dd \NR_\PM _[\Wc_?
3. -_ WVdT\ ]_ RcC[[ DdcVdK_ c]C]\_CdT _[\Wc_? ¥N WM
Nc9\ >\c cF T[]d\I?
-_ _T DPRR_ [cVJ Nc9\ RcWD]P\I[T DdcVdKP, cF? P_W]-
]d c\ccDc WM_9_\[T W 6cN
2– + HOH H + OH–
–
3_Rd7d\ dc]]c d NcV PVT]c P_W]]d RWcJ [\PR]d DdcVdK_

_ cJ-]dFPI [cVd dK >\cJ DPRRM.
l
4. _J\ cRV]d Rc[\cT]]cJ DdcVdK_. 3_Rd7d\ P_W]]d
i
RWcJ [\PR]d DdcVdK_ [cVd K2S d ]_Rd7d\ 6cNPVP Rc[\cT]]cJ
y
DdcVdK_ (KDd.) VT P_W]]dT >\cJ _ Cdd. -_ cJ 6_ \c WVdT\ ]_
dKN]]d K]_L]dT Rc[\cT]]cJ DdcVdK_?
e
5. -_ d CW\_ Nc9]c ]_FV@_\I, [Vd cF_Wd\I ][ cVI c _RVI V_ -
d
NP[_ W _KF_WV]]M _[\WcM _Fc]_\_ _VdT (PDV d[VMJ _VdJ) d
[PVI6_\_ ]_\dT? 3_Rd7d\ dc]]c d NcV PVT]c P_W]]d RWcJ
[\PR]d DdcVdK_ [cVd.
ü n
3_ RcDc\cW P c\W\cW c\Wcd\[T 18-20 Nd]P\. ;c d[\L]dd >\cDc
WN]d WM[\PRV]dT DPRR WM[VP7dW_@\[T, cF[P9_@\[T d cC]d-
ç
W_@\[T.
;c[V cF[P9]dJ Rd PL_[\dd W[Dc V_[[_ RcWcd\[T cFcF?]d
Rc]T\dJ Rc DdcVdKP.
ü
+F?d XZrqtZrr oItUrQWUrM DPRR: R_WdVI]c[\I d RcV]c\_ c\W-
p
\cW, PcW]I c\W\cW PL]d cW ]_ cRcV]d\VI]M WcRc[M, [c\P]dL-
a
[\Wc W DPRR, d[CdRVd]_, PcW]I RK]\_CdJ.
Ç 179
PZoX 13. (tvtUrt -XuHtZrGtUqWOEUAC
DWNWJ Ho tNrUrIt o?LJtUrM
(HZWXqrJtuXot DWUMqrt)
/qWUNWZq: 1.3.1.; 4.1.1.

tOE LZoXW. PJW;r>uM: ]_ cRM\_H RcWT\
[Wcd K]_]dT c [WcJ[\W_H >V \cVd\cW, _ CdTH
dc]]cDc cFN]_, DdcVdK [cVJ, WcK]d ]cW]dd
\RVcWcDc >66 \_ Rd _[\Wc]dd >V \cVd\cW
W Wc, _KWdW_\ d K_ RVT\ PN]d ]_Rd[_]dT
NcV PVT]MH d dc]]MH P_W]]dJ _KVdL]MH -
_ CdJ.
0Uqt:ZWIrM: .: 1.1.4.; 3.1.2.
(tuLZuA: HdNdL[ d [\_ _]M, RcFd d, _[\WcM 2~3,
2_4, ~3, }d~2, ~, }d_4, ~~2, 2_3, ~, 3,
, 2_4, V_ NP[, N\dVc_]9.
$oN LZoXW
c ]_Ld]_\[T [ 6cNdcW_]dT W V_[[ DPRR dK 4-5 PL]d cW.
l
1]_L_V_ W[N DPRR_N _\[T cd]_ cWc K__]d: ]_Rd[_\I 6cNPVM
y i
c[]cW_]dJ, d[Vc\ d [cVJ, TWVT@?dH[T [V_FMNd >V \cVd\_Nd. -
c[ WMKMW_\[T Rc c]cNP R[\_Wd\V@ DPRR, c\cM Rd7P\ Rc
2-3 6cNPVM [V_FMH d[Vc\, c[]cW_]dJ d [cVJ. _\N _\[T [VP@-
d e
? K__]d: _9MJ PL]d cV9] ]_Rd[_\I NcV PVT]c d dc]]c
P_W]]d c]cJ _ Cdd, c\]c[T?J[T RcVPL]d@ [V_FcDc c[]cW_-
]dT, d[Vc\M dVd [cVd. Ld\VI RcPL_\ \_ 9 ]_Rd[_\I P_W]]dT
n
_ cJ-]dFPI _ Cdd, Rc\ _@?J N9P ?VcLI@ d d[Vc\cJ. +]
cF TWVT\, L\c _9MJ PL]d [WcFc] W WMFc W?[\W.
ç ü
;c[V WMRcV]]dT K__]dJ DPRR_N _K_@\[T W [\_ _]_H dVd Rc-
Fd _H Rc W_ d[\_VV_ [cVd, [Rc[cF]cJ [cK_\I d[VP@ dVd ?VcL-
]P@ [P, d[\dVVdcW_]]_T Wc_ (Rd c\[P\[\Wdd \_ cWcJ – \_V_T
ü
dVd c9W_T Wc_ d d]d _\cM (V_ NP[ dVd N\dVc_]9). Ld\VI
RcPL_\ _[\Wcd\I [cVd W Wc, RcWd\I d]d _\c_Nd, ]_Rd[_\I
p
dc]]M P_W]]dT Rc\ _@?dH DdcVdK]MH _ CdJ d cRVd\I
a
WcK]d 7P@ [P.
Ç
180
1VP@? K__]d: N9P _ dNd dK >\dH [cVJ d d[Vc\ RcdKcJ-
\ _ CdT? ;cWd\ >\d _ Cdd d ]_Rd7d\ dH NcV PVT]P@ d
dc]]P@ 6cNPVM. 1 >\cJ CVI@ DPRR_N _K_@\[T _[\WcM 2~3,
}d_4, ~~2, 2_3, 2_4, ~, 3, d Ld[\M Rc-
Fd d. ;d WMRcV]]dd R_ \dL[ dH _Fc\ PLd\VI c]\cVdP\
T\VI]c[\I DPRR, [\__T[I RdWVLI _9cDc PL]d _ cRV]-
]cJ _Fc\.
oGWvUtt DWNWUrt: 3_Rd7d\ c\L\ c Hc WMRcV]TNMH R_ \d-
L[ dH _Fc\ (K__]dJ d HdNdL[ dH cRM\cW) d dH KPVI\_\_H.
3_ [VP@?N Pc PLd\VI [cFd_\ \\_d [ ]_Rd[_]]MNd c\-
L\_Nd, RcWT\ d cC]dW_\ dH. ;d WM[\_WV]dd cF?dH cC]c W
V_[[]cN 9P]_V PLd\MW_@\[T _ PcW]I d \cL]c[\I ]_Rd[_]dT c\-
L\cW, \_ d _ \dW]c[\I d PN]dT, RcTWV]]M PL]d _Nd Rd WMRcV-
]]dd R_ \dL[ dH _Fc\.
;d c\[P\[\Wdd WcKNc9]c[\d RcW]dT HdNdL[ dH cRM\cW PL_-
?d[T ]_ R_ \dL[ dH K_]T\dTH 7_@\ WMLd[Vd\VI]M K__Ld d WM-
RcV]T@\ K__]dT Rc \N.
y i l
d e
ü n
ü ç
a p
Ç 181
PZoX 14. &oQqoZtUrt DUWUr> r LGtUr> Ho qtGWG,
QCoNM;rG Q tNrUrIL o?LJtUrM, XoUqZoOEUWM
HruEGtUUWM ZW?oqW (9/")
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]d cW Rc d]dC cFPL]dT d cC]d\I dH.
(tuLZuA: \[\cWM K__]dT W 2-H W_d_]\_H, > -
_]]M [[\W_ VT dH RK]\_CdJ ( cNRI@\, Rc-
\c d \..) dVd FcVI7cJ Vd[\ W_\N_]_ [ \ [\cN
K__]dJ.
$oN LZoXW
c RcW]dT Rd[IN]]cJ _Fc\M RcWT\[T PcW]I RcDc\cW d
PL]d cW (3-5 Nd].), R[\_WVT@\[T W PWVdL]]cN _KN W_d_]\M
\[\cWMH K__]dJ. _L[\W RdN_ RV_D_N W_7NP W]dN_]d@
cd] W_d_]\ \[\_:
tuq
1. 2A?tZrqt -OtXqZoOrqA:
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2. ;cW_]]_T [cVI
y i l
e
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4. \dVcWMJ [Rd\
5. [P[]_T d[Vc\_
6. V@ cK_
n d
2. 5WXWM ZtWXIrM rGttq uoXZW;tUUot roUUot LZWQUtUrt
/ + </– /2< ?
ü
+
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W) ~()2+~
ü
~) ~()2+2~3 ç
p
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) ()3+~
Ç
182
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3. 2 XWXoG uOLJWt ZtWXIrM GtNL ZWuqQoZWGr Qt;tuqQ HZoqtXWtq
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) 2_4 + W~2
W) ~ + J3
~) ~_4 + 2_
) ~_4 + 3
) ~ + ~
4. 5WXWM uoOE Ut HoNQtZ:WtquM :rNZoOrDL?

) O3 W) O2~3 ~) 2_ ) }d~2 ) (4)2~3
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) 3, W_4, ~~2
W) ~3, J~, ~~2
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2 GoOt> :%(><3)2 ZWQUo 18,06·1023 . 5WXoQW uqtHtUE NruuoIrWIrr?
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@,:A3 ? (= 100%)
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