Module 6
Leaves: Form and Structure
The Plant Body: Leaves
 Function of Leaves
– Leaves are the solar energy and
CO2 collectors of plants.
– In some plants, leaves have
become adapted for specialized
functions.
• Leaves are the principle structure,
produced on stems, where photosynthesis
takes place.
• Cacti are an exception. The leaves are
reduced to spines, and the thick green,
fleshy stems are where photosynthesis
takes place.
General leaf form
• Leaves are the main photosynthetic organs
of most plants
– but green stems are also
photosynthetic.
– While leaves vary extensively in
form, they generally consist of a
flattened blade and a stalk, the
petiole, which joins the leaf to a
stem node.
– In the absence of petioles in
grasses and many other
monocots, the base of the leaf
forms a sheath that envelops the
stem.
• Most monocots have parallel major veins
that run the length of the blade, while dicot
leaves have a multi branched network of
major veins.
Bla
Blade
Peti
Petiole

Leaf Arrangement on the Stem
Opposite: 2 leaves at a node, on
opposite sides of the stem
Spiral: 1 leaf per node, with the
second leaf being above the
first but attached on the
opposite side of the stem
Whorled: 3 or more leaves at a
node
• Plant taxonomists use leaf shape, spatial
arrangement of leaves, and the pattern of
veins to help identify and classify plants.
– A Simple leaves have a single,
undivided blade, while compound
leaves have several leaflets
attached to the petiole.
– A Compound leaf has a bud
where its petiole attaches to the
stem, not at the base of the
leaflets.
Venation = arrangement of veins in a leaf
• Netted-venation = one or a few prominent
midveins from which smaller minor veins
branch into a meshed network;
• common to dicots and some nonflowering
plants.
– Pinnately-veined leaves = main
vein called midrib with secondary
veins branching from it (e.g.,
elm).
– Palmately-veined leaves = veins
radiate out of base of blade (e.g.,
maple).
– Parallel venation = characteristics
of many monocots (e.g., grasses,
cereal grains); veins are parallel
to one another.
– Dichotomous venation = no
midrib or large veins; rather
individual veins have a tendency
 to fork evenly from the base of
the blade to the opposite margin,
creating a fan-shaped leaf

Leaves – Comparisons

Monocots and dicots differ in the Stomates – openings in the surface of the leaf and
arrangement of veins, the vascular tissue of leaves stems for gas exchange. The lower surface of a leaf
usually has more. Water vapor also passes out
through these holes.

Guard cells – two of these special cells surround

each stomate and regulate the opening and closing of
the stomate.

Veins – contain the vascular tissue that is continuous

Most dicots have
branch-like veins
and palmate leaf shape
with that in the stem. Xylem carries water and
minerals upward. Phloem carries dissolved food
Monocots have parallel
leaf veins and longer, throughout the plant.
slender blades

Internal structure of leaves

• Each part of the leaf has an important job.

chloroplasts

Function of the Leaf

Cuticle – the outermost layer of both the upper and
lower surfaces of the leaf. It is clear and waxy to • Photosynthesis
prevent against water loss. • Gaseous exchange
– take in O2 and release CO2 during
Epidermis – a layer of cells one cell thick that respiration
provides protection for the inner tissues. These cells – take in CO2 and release O2 during
are clear to allow light to reach the photosynthetic photosynthesis
tissues. Water Vapour can be lost from the surface of the leaf
in a process known as Transpiration.
Mesophyll – between the epidermal layers. It
contains palisade cells that are tall, tightly packed,
TRANSPIRATION
and filled with chloroplasts for photosynthesis.

It also has spongy cells which are irregularly shaped, • Plants must supply water to all
have large air spaces between them, and fewer their tissues. It moves from the
chloroplasts. roots up the stem to the leaves
by capillary action.
Conserves water •
Photosynthesis • Most of the water plants take up
is lost to the atmosphere by
evaporation.
•
• The evaporation of water vapor
from plant surfaces is called
transpiration.
•
• Most takes place through
stomates.
 • The rate of transpiration is regulated by the
size of the opening of the stomates.
• They are usually closed when there is too
little water available, temperature is low, or
there is little light.
• Most plants open their stomates during the • Guard cells act as hydraulic valves
day and close them at night. • Environmental factors are sensed by guard
• This is controlled by cells
the guard cells. – Light intensity, temperature,
relative humidity, intercellular
Stomatal control CO2 concentration
• Integrated into well-defined responses
Almost all leaf transpiration – Ion uptake in guard cell
results from diffusion of – Biosynthesis of organic
water vapor through the molecules in guard cells
stomatal pore • This alters the water
potential in the guard
- waxy cuticle cells
• Water enders them
Provide a low resistance • Swell up 40-100%
pathway for diffusion of
gasses across the Relationship between water loss and CO2 gain
epidermis and cuticle
• Effectiveness of controlling water loss and
- Regulates water loss in allowing CO2 uptake for photosynthesis is
plants and the rate of CO2 uptake called the transpiration ratio.
• There is a large ratio of water efflux and
- Needed for sustained CO2 influx
CO2 fixation during photosynthesis – Concentration ratio driving water
loss is 50 larger than that driving
• When water is abundant: CO2 influx
• Temporal regulation of stomata is used: – CO2 diffuses 1.6 times slower
– OPEN during the day than water
– CLOSED at night • Due to CO2 being a
• At night there is no photosynthesis, so no larger molecule than
demand for CO2 inside the leaf water
• Stomata closed to prevent water loss – CO2 uptake must cross the
• Sunny day - demand for CO2 in leaf is high plasma membrane, cytoplasm,
– stomata wide open and chloroplast membrane. All
• As there is plenty of water, plant trades add resistance
water loss for photosynthesis products
Water status of plants
• When water is limited:
– Stomata will open less or even • Cell division slows down
remain closed even on a sunny • Reduction of synthesis of:
morning – Cell wall
• Plant can avoid – Proteins
dehydration • Closure of stomata
• Stomatal resistance can be controlled by • Due to accumulation of the plant hormone
opening and closing the stomatal pores. Abscisic acid
• Specialized cells – The Guard cells – This hormone induces closure of
stomata during water stress
Guard cells and plant homeostasis – Naturally more of this
hormone in desert plants
• Guard cells are kidney-shaped with thick
inner walls and thin outer walls.
• When they become full of water (turgid) the
unevenness of the walls causes them to
bow outward and the stomate opens.
• When they lose water they become less
turgid and the stomate closes.
• Guard cells gain
and lose water by
osmosis.

Plants and water
• Water is the essential medium of life.
• Land plants faced with dehydration by
water loss to the atmosphere
• There is a conflict between the need for
water conservation and the need for CO 2
assimilation
– This determines much of the
structure of land plants
– 1: extensive root system – to get
water from soil
– 2: low resistance path way to get
water to leaves – xylem
– 3: leaf cuticle – reduces
evaporation
– 4: stomata – controls water loss
and CO2 uptake
– 5: guard cells – control stomata.
• In pine trees, the leaves are adapted to
living in a dry environment too.
• Water is locked up as ice during significant
portions of the year and therefore not
available to the plant; pine leaves possess
– sunken stomata,
– thick cuticles
– needle-like leaves
– hypodermis, which is an extra
cells just underneath the
epidermis –
Cotyledons or “seed leaves”
First leaves produced by a germinating seed
Often contain a store of food (obtained from the
endosperm) to help the seedling become established.

Photosynthesis

• One of the most important biochemical Tendrils

process in plants.
– Let’s not forget cell wall Tendrils - blade of
biosynthesis and adaptation leaves or leaflets are
during plant development, reduced in size, allows
growth, interaction with the plant to cling to other
environment, and disease objects (e.g., sweet
defense. pea and garden peas.
• Among the most expensive biochemical
processes in plant in terms of investment
• The biochemical process that has driven
plant form and function

General overall reaction

6 CO2 + 6 H2O C6H12O6 + 6 O2

Carbon dioxide Water Carbohydrate Oxygen

Specialized leaves
Photosynthetic organisms use solar energy to
synthesize carbon compounds that cannot be formed
without the input of energy.
More specifically, light energy drives the synthesis
of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water with
the generation of oxygen.
Specialized or Modified Leaves
- Some plants obtain nitrogen from digesting
animals (mostly insects).
- The Pitcher plant has digestive enzymes at
the bottom of the trap
- This is a “passive trap” Insects fall in and
can not get out
- Pitcher plants have specialized vascular
network to tame the amino acids from the
digested insects to the rest of the plant

• Drought-resistant leaves = thick, sunken

stomata, often reduced in size
• In American cacti and African euphorbs,
leaves are often reduced such that they
serve as spine to discourage herbivory and
reduce water loss
• The stems serve as the primary organ of
photosynthesis.
- The Venus fly trap has an “active trap”
- Good control over turgor pressure in each
plant cell.
- When the trap is sprung, ion channels open
and water moves rapidly out of the cells.
 - Turgor drops and the leaves slam shut
- Digestive enzymes take over
Monocot vs. Dicot
 Monocot and dicot leaves contain similar
types of dermal, ground, and vascular
tissues, but they are arranged differently
within each type of leaf.
Monocot
 Monocot leaves have stomata on the upper
and lower sides of the leaf, and their veins
run parallel to one another.
 Monocot leaves differ from dicot leaves in
several ways.
 First, they tend to be more oblong or linear
in shape, and their vascular bundles are
organized into veins that originate at the
base of the leaf and run parallel to one
another.
 they have a striate venation pattern. There
is usually only one leaf per node growing off
of the stem.
 Monocot leaves also have bulliform cells.
 These large, bubble-like cells, located just
beneath the epidermis, are thought to help
the leaf bend or fold.
 This is important because folding the leaf
changes its exposure to light and the
amount of water it retains.
 Lastly, monocot leaves have stomata on
both their upper and lower surfaces. Leaves
like this are referred to as amphistomatous.
Dicot
 Dicot leaves have stomata on the lower
side of the leaf. They also have net-like
veins and two types of mesophyll.
pattern generally has one of two
appearances.
 Typically, dicot leaves either have more
stomata on the lower side of the leaf, or
they have stomata only on the lower side of
the leaf. Leaves with stomata only on the
lower side are known as hypostomatous
leaves. This arrangement of stomata allows
dicot leaves to conserve water.
 Dicot leaves (and a small number of
atypical, “net-veined” monocot leaves) have
two different types of mesophyll: palisade
mesophyll and spongy mesophyll.
 Palisade mesophyll cells are located right
beneath the leaf’s upper epidermis. They
contain the highest number of chloroplasts
of any cells in the plant, so they are
optimized for photosynthesis.
 Spongy mesophyll is located below the
palisade mesophyll. Its cells, which also
contain lots of chloroplasts, are further
apart than the cells of the palisade
mesophyll. The loose-packed nature of
spongy mesophyll allows gases to move
through the tissue of the leaf more easily.
Blade (Lamina)
Widest part of
the leaf
Pinnate
A leaf with a
pinnated
pattern (like a
feather) has a
central vein
running down
the middle of
the leaf with
other veins
branching off
to either side
of it.

Palmate

A leaf with a
palmate
pattern has
veins
branching out
from a single
one to form a
shape
 Dicot leaves are not as linear in shape as resembling the
monocot leaves, and their vascular palm of a
structures form net-like veins, instead of hand.
parallel ones. This reticulate venation
 lilies, and related species) and ocrea (typical for
buckwheat family, Polygonaceae).

Petiole

Although petioles
are narrow and
often resemble
stems, they are
considered part of
the leaf. A petiolate
leaf thus consists of
the blade and the
petiole.

Margin

Petioles usually • Leaves may be simple or compound. In

attach at to simple leaves, the blade is continuous. The
the margin (edge) (a) banana plant (Musa sp.) has simple
of the blade along leaves.
the base, but • In compound leaves, the blade is separated
in peltate leaves, into leaflets. Compound leaves may be
the petiole is palmate or pinnate.
attached • In (b) palmately compound leaves, such as
underneath the those of the horse chestnut (Aesculus
blade hippocastanum), the leaflets branch from
the petiole.
• In (c) pinnately compound leaves, the
leaflets branch from the midrib (rachis), as
Sessile Leaves on a scrub hickory (Carya floridana).
• The (d) honey locust has double compound
Leaves that do not have a leaves, in which leaflets branch from the
petiole and are directly veins
attached to the plant stem
are Trifoliate
called sessile (apetiolate)
leaves

In a special type of sessile

leaves called perfoliate
leaves, the stem passes
through the center of the blade

Midrib

Many leaves have a midrib, • Leaves with one (simple), two (unipinnate),
which travels the length along and three (bipinnate) levels of hierarchy.
the center of the leaf. The
midrib contains the main vein • The blade of the simple leaf is continuous.
(primary vein) of the leaf as In the unipinnate leaf, the blade is divided
well as supportive ground into leaflets, which attach on either side of
tissue (collenchyma or the midrib (rachis).
sclerenchyma).
• In the bipinnate leaf, each leaflet is further
Stipules subdivided. The dotted lines indicate the
shape of each level, which is not
Small, green appendages usually found at the base of necessarily the same for each level.
the petiole are known as stipules Other structures
located near leaf base sheath (typical for grasses,
Leaf Tip

Leaf Base
  Region of Cell Division - Composed of
apical meristem in the center of root tip

Module 7
Roots and Soils
Function of Roots

 Anchor plants into soil • Subdivided into 3 meristematic

areas:
 Absorption of water and minerals
– Protoderm - Gives rise
 Store food or water
 Other specialized functions

Root Development

 Upon germination, embryo’s

radicle grows out and develops
into first root.
• Radicle may develop into
thick taproot with thinner
branch roots. Root to epidermis
– Dicotyledonous – Ground meristem -
plants (dicots) Gives rise to cortex
and pith
• Or, after radicle
formation, adventitious
Ta – Procambium - Gives
rise to primary xylem
roots may arise that and primary phloem
develop into a fibrous
root system. Root tip showing
– Adventitious primary meristems
roots do not
develop from  Region of Elongation - Cells become
another root,
Fib
but instead from a stem
several times their original length.
 Vacuoles merge
or leaf.
– Fibrous roots - Large
number of fine roots of  Region of Maturation - Cells differentiate
similar diameter into various distinctive cell types
– Monocotyledonous  Root
plants (monocots) and
some dicots

Root Structure
Longitudinal section
 4 regions: through root tip
• Root cap
• Region of cell

•
division
Region of cell
Root hair
zone of
elongation hairs form.
• Region of o Epidermal cell extensions with
maturation thin cuticle
 Root Cap - Thimble- o Absorb water and minerals
shaped mass of o Adhere tightly to soil particles
parenchyma cells o Increase total absorptive surface
Root hair zone of
covering each root tip of root
radish seedling
 Protects tissues from damage as
root grows
o Secretes
mucilage that  Cortex - Parenchyma cells between
acts as epidermis and vascular cylinder
lubricant  Mostly stores food
• Functions in gravitropism (gravity
perception)  Endodermis - Inner boundary of cortex,
consisting of a single-layered cylinder of
compact cells
  Cell walls impregnated with suberin and •Ivies (English ivy, Virginia
lignin on radial and transverse walls creeper) - Aerial roots aid plants
 bands called Casparian strips in climbing
o Forces water and dissolved  Contractile Roots
substances entering and leaving the central • Pull plant deeper into the soil
core to pass through endodermis  Lilly bulbs, dandelions
o Regulates types of minerals  Buttress Roots
absorbed • Stability in shallow soil
 Eventually inner cell walls become  Tropical Trees
thickened with suberin, except for passage  Parasitic Roots
cells. • Most have no chlorophyll and
dependent on chlorophyll-bearing
 Vascular cylinder - Core of tissues inside plants for nutrition
endodermis Mycorrhizae
 Pericycle - Outer boundary of vascular
cylinder  Mycorrhizae - Fungi that form a
mutualistic association with plant roots
 Continues to divide, even after mature
• Mutualistic association: Both
 Forms lateral (branch) roots and part of the
fungus and root benefit and are
vascular cambium
dependent upon association for
normal development
 Most of cells of vascular cylinder are
 Fungi facilitate
primary xylem or primary phloem.
absorption and
 In dicot or conifer roots - Solid core of
concentration of
xylem, with “arms” in cross section
nutrients, especially
 In monocots, xylem surrounds pith. phosphorus for roots.
 Phloem in patches between xylem
arms  Plant furnishes sugars
 Vascular cambium forms secondary and amino acids to
phloem to the outside and secondary fungus.
xylem to the inside.
• Plants with mycorrhizae develop
 Growth few root hairs compared with
• Determinate growth - Growth that those growing without an
stops after an organ is fully associated fungus.
expanded or after a plant has
reached a certain size • Particularly susceptible to acid
• Indeterminate growth - New rain
tissues are added indefinitely,
season after season Root Nodules

 Plants cannot convert free nitrogen to

Specialized Roots
usable form
 Food Storage Roots
 A few species of bacteria produce
• Starch and other carbohydrates
enzymes that converts nitrogen nitrates
• Sweet Potatoes
and other nitrogenous substances
 Water Storage Roots
readily absorbed by roots.
• Pumpkin family, especially in arid
regions • Root nodules contain large
 Propagative Roots numbers of nitrogen-fixing
• Adventitious buds on roots - bacteria.
Develop into suckers (aerial
stems) • Legume Family (Fabaceae)
 Fruit Trees
 Pneumatophores Human Relevance of Roots
• In plants with roots growing in
water  Sources of food
• Spongy roots that extend above • Carrots, sugar beets, turnips,
the water’s surface and enhance horseradishes, cassava (tapioca),
gas exchange between yams, sweet potatoes
atmosphere and subsurface roots  Spices
 Aerial Roots • Sassafras, sarsaparilla, licorice
• Orchids - Velamen roots, with  Dyes
epidermis several layers thick to  Drugs
reduce water loss • Aconite, ipecac, gentian,
• Corn - Prop roots support plants reserpine
in high wind  Insecticide
• Rotenone

Soils
Soil is formed through the interaction of
climate, parent material, topography,
vegetation, living organisms and time.
• Solid portion of soil consists of
minerals and organic matter.
• Pore spaces between solid
particles filled with air or water.
 Soils divided into horizons:
• Topsoil (10-20cm)
 A horizon - Dark, with
more organic material
than lower layers
 E horizon - Light
• B Horizon (0.3-0.9m) - Subsoil
 More clay, lighter in
color than topsoil
• C Horizon (varies) - Parent
material which extends
bedrock
Parent Material
 Parent material - Rock that has not been
broken down into smaller particles
• Rock types:
 Igneous – Volcanic
 Sedimentary - positively
Deposited by glaciers,
water or wind
 Metamorphic - and K+
Changes in igneous or
sedimentary rocks from
pressure or heat
Climate
 Climate varies throughout the globe, as
does its role in weathering of rocks
• Deserts - Little weathering by
rain, and soils poorly developed
• In areas of moderate rainfall -
Well-developed soils
• Areas of high rainfall - Excessive
water flow through soil leaches
out important minerals.
• important than total
Living Organisms and Organic Composition
In soil there are many kinds of

organisms, roots and other plant parts.
• Bacteria and fungi decompose
organic material from dead
leaves, plants and animals.
• Roots and other living organisms
produce carbon dioxide, which
combines with water and forms
acid that increases the rate at
which minerals dissolve.
• Small animals alter soil by their
activities and by their wastes.
• Humus - Partially decomposed
organic matter, gives soil a dark
color
Topography
 Topography - Surface features
• Steep areas:
 Soil may erode via
wind, water or ice.
• Flat, poorly drained areas:
 Pools and ponds may
appear.
 Development of soil
arrested.
• Ideal topography permits
drainage without erosion.
Soil Texture and Mineral Composition
 Soil Texture - Relative proportion of
sand, silt and clay in soil
• Sand - Many small particles
bound together chemically
• Silt - Particles too small to be
seen without microscope
• Clay - Only seen with electron
to microscope
 Individual clay particles
called micelles
 Negatively
charged and
attract,
exchange or
retain
charged ions,
such as Mg++
 Best agricultural soils - loams
composed of 40% silt, 40% sand and
20% clay
• Coarse soils drain water too
quickly.
• Clay soils allow little water to
pass.
 Soil Structure - Arrangement of soil
particles into aggregates
• Productive agricultural soils are
granular with pore spaces
occupying between 40-60% of
the total soil volume.
 Particle size is more
volume.
Water in the Soil
 Hygroscopic Water - Physically bound to
soil particles and unavailable to plants
 Gravitational Water - Drains out of pore
spaces after a rain
 Capillary Water - Water held against the
force of gravity in soil pores
• Determined by structure and
organic matter, by density and
type of vegetation, and by the
location of underground water
tables
• Plants mostly dependent upon
this type.
 Field capacity - Water remaining in soil
after water drains away by gravity
• Determined by texture, structure
and organic content of soil
  Permanent Wilting Point - Rate of water • Number of groups of bud scale
absorption insufficient for plant needs scars tells age of twig.
• Plant permanently wilts.  Stipules - Paired, often leaflike
 Available Water - Soil water between appendages at base of a leaf
field capacity and the permanent wilting  Deciduous trees
point and shrubs (lose
all leaves annually)
Soil pH - After leaves fall,
have dormant
 Affects nutrient availability axillary buds with
 Alkalinity causes some minerals, such leaf scars below
as copper, iron and manganese to • Bundle
become less available. scars
• Counteract by adding sulfur, mark food
which is converted to sulfuric acid and water
by bacteria, or by adding conducting tissue within leaf
nitrogenous fertilizers scars.
 Acidity inhibits growth of nitrogen-fixing
bacteria. Origin and Development of Stems
• Counteract by adding calcium or
magnesium compounds = liming  Apical meristem at stem tip
• Contributes to increase in stem
length
• Dormant before growing season
begins

Module 8
Stems
External Form of A Woody Twig

 Cells produced by stem meristem • Protected by bud scales and by

become shoot system with branches leaf primordia
and leaves. – Leaf primordia - Tiny
 Woody twig consists of an axis with embryonic leaves that
attached leaves. develop into mature
• Node - Area of stem where leaves
leaves are attached  Apical meristem cells form 3 primary
– Alternate or spiral meristems.
– Opposite - Attached in • Protoderm - Gives rise to
pairs epidermis
– Whorled - In groups of • Procambium - Produces primary
three or more xylem and phloem
• Internode - Stem region between • Ground Meristem - Produces pith
nodes and cortex, both composed of
• Leaf has a flattened blade and is parenchyma cells
usually attached to the twig by  Leaf primordia
petiole. and bud
 Axil - Angle primordia
between petiole develop into
and stem mature leaves
• Axillary and buds.
Bud • Traces
located branch
in axil. off from
– W i l l cylinderb of xylem e and phloem,c o
and enter leaf or bud.
– Trace = strand of
xylem and phloem
or flowers in flowering – Each trace leaves a
plants gap filled with
– Bud scales protect parenchyma in the
buds. cylinder of vascular
 Terminal Bud at twig tip tissue, forming leaf gap
• Growth makes twig longer. or bud gap.
  In many plants cork cambium – Ungrained, uniform
(phellogen) produces cork cells with wood produced
suberin and phelloderm cells. – Some tropical trees
• Function to reduce water loss • If wood produced seasonally:
and to protect stem against injury – In spring: Relatively
• Lenticels - Parenchyma cells in large vessel elements
cork for exchange of gases of secondary xylem
produced - Spring
Tissue Patterns in Stems wood.
– After spring wood:
 Stele - Central cylinder of primary xylem, Fewer, smaller vessel
primary phloem, and pith (if present) elements in proportion
• Protostele - Solid core, phloem to tracheids and fibers -
surrounds xylem Summer wood.
– In primitive seed – In conifers, vessels and
plants, whisk ferns, fibers absent
club mosses and ferns o Tracheids in
• Siphonosteles - Tubular with pith spring larger
in center than later in
– Common in ferns season
• Eusteles - Discrete vascular  One year’s growth of xylem = annual
bundles ring
– In flowering plants and • Vascular cambium produces
conifers more secondary xylem than
 Cotyledons - Seed leaves attached to phloem.
embryonic stems – Bulk of tree trunk
• Store food needed by young consists of annual rings
seedling of wood.
 Dicotyledons (Dicots) - Flowering plants • Indicates age of a tree
that develop from seeds having two • Indicates climate during tree’s
cotyledons lifetime
 Monocotyledons (Monocots) - Flowering  Vascular Rays consist of parenchyma
plants that develop from seeds with a cells that function in lateral conduction
single cotyledon of nutrients and water.
• Xylem Ray - Part of ray within
Herbaceous Dicotyledonous Stems xylem
• Phloem Ray - Part of ray through
 Annuals - Plants that die after going phloem
from seed to maturity within one
growing season
• Usually green, herbaceous plants
• Most monocots are annuals, but Cross section of young
many dicots are also annuals. stem with secondary
• Tissues largely primary growth
 Herbaceous dicots have discrete
vascular bundles arranged in a cylinder.
 Vascular cambium arises between
primary xylem and primary phloem.
• Adds secondary xylem and
secondary phloem

Woody Dicotyledonous Stems
 Wood = Secondary xylem
 Differences in wood:
• Vascular cambium and
cambium active all year:
3-D
 Tyloses - Protrusions of adjacent
parenchyma cells into conducting cells
of xylem
o Prevent conduction of water
o Resins, gums, and tannins
accumulate, and darken
cork wood, forming heartwood.
  Heartwood -  Stolons - Produced
Older, darker beneath the surface
wood in center of the ground and
 Sapwood - tend to grow in
Lighter, still- different directions.
functioning xylem • Potato
closest to  Tubers - Swollen,
cambium fleshy, underground stem
 Softwood - Wood of conifers • Store food
o No fibers or vessel elements • Potatoes - Eyes of potato are
 Hardwood - Wood of dicot trees nodes
 Resin canals - Tubelike canals scattered  Bulbs - Large buds
throughout xylem and other tissues surrounded by
o Lined with specialized cells that numerous fleshy leaves,
secrete resin with a small stem at
o Common in conifers lower end
o In some tropical flowering plants • Store food
 Frankincense and • Onions, lilies,
myrrh hyacinths, tulips
 Bark - Tissues outside the vascular  Corms - Resemble
cambium, including secondary phloem bulbs, but composed
o Mature bark may consist of almost entirely of stem
alternating layers of crushed tissue, with papery
phloem and cork. leaves
 Laticifers - Ducts found mostly in • Store food
phloem that have latex-secreting cells • Crocus and
o Rubber, chicle (chewing gum), gladiolus
 Cladophylls - Flattened,
morphine
leaf-life stems
• Greenbriars,
some orchids,
prickly pear
Monocotyledonous Stems

 Monocots stems have neither a vascular

cactus
Prickly
Wood and Its Uses
cambium nor a cork cambium.
• Produce no secondary vascular
 In a living tree, 50% of the wood weight
tissues or cork
comes from water content.
• Primary xylem and phloem in
• Dry part of wood composed of
discrete vascular bundles
about 60-75% cellulose and
scattered throughout the stem
about 15-25% lignin.
– Vascular bundles
 Density - Weight per unit volume
oriented with xylem
 Durability - Ability to withstand decay
closer to center of stem
• Tannins and oils repel decay
and phloem closer to
organisms.
surface.
Types of Sawing
– Parenchyma (ground
tissue) surrounds
 Radially cut (quartersawed) boards show
vascular bundles.
annual rings in side view.
 Tangentially cut (plain-sawed or slab
Specialized Stems
cut) boards are cut perpendicular to
rays.
 Rhizomes -
• Show annual rings as irregular
Horizontal stems
bands of light and dark streaks
that grow below-
 Knots - Bases of lost branches covered
ground and have
by new annual rings produced by the
long to short
cambium
internodes
• Irises,
 Wood Products
some
• About half of U.S. and Canadian
grasses, ferns
wood production is used as
 Runners - Horizontal
lumber, primarily for construction.
stems that grow
 Sawdust and waste
above ground and
used for particle board
have long
and pulp.
internodes.
• Strawberry
  Veneer - Thin sheet of  Bipinnately
desirable wood glued compound
to cheaper lumber leaf - Leaflets
• Pulp is second most widespread subdivided
use of wood. – Palmately compound
 Paper, synthetic fibers, leaves - All leaflets
plastics, linoleum attached at same point
• In developing countries, about at end of petiole.
half of cut timber is used for fuel.
 Less than 10% in US  Green leaves capture light energy by
and Canada. means of photosynthesis.
• Photosynthesis - Trapping and
storing of energy in sugar
molecules that are constructed
from water and carbon dioxide
 Stomata - Tiny pores on lower surfaces
of leaves
• Allow carbon dioxide to enter and
oxygen to diffuse out
• Water vapor also escapes via
stomata.
– Guard Cells control
water loss by opening
or closing pore of
stomatal apparatus.
 Other functions of leaves:
• Wastes from metabolic
processes accumulate in leaves
and are disposed of when leaves
are shed.
• Play major role in movement of
water absorbed by roots
– Transpiration occurs
when water evaporates
from leaf surface.
– Guttation - Root
pressure forces water
out hydathodes at tips
of leaf veins in some
Module 9 plants.
Leaves

 All leaves originate as primordia in

buds.
 At maturity, most leaves have:
• Stalk = petiole Leaf Arrangements and Types
– Leaves sessile if
lacking petiole  Leaves are attached to stems at nodes,
(monocots) with stem regions between known as
• Flattened blade = lamina internodes.
• Network of veins = vascular
bundles  Phyllotaxy - Arrangement of leaves on
• Stipules at base of petiole stem
 Leaves of flowering plants associated – Alternate - One leaf per
with leaf gaps and have axillary buds at node
base. – Opposite - Two leaves
 Leaves may be simple or compound. per node
• Simple leaves - With a single – Whorled - Three of
blade more leaves at a node
• Compound leaves - Blade divided
into leaflets
– Pinnately compound
leaves - Leaflets in
pairs along rachis
(petiole)

Alte Alternate Op
Opposite Whorled
W
  Venation - Arrangement of veins in a leaf o Changes in
or leaflet blade amount of
• Pinnately veined leaves - Main water in
midvein included within enlarged guard cells
midrib. cause them
– Secondary veins to inflate or
branch from midvein. deflate.
• Palmately veined leaves - – Inflate - Stomata open
Several primary veins fan out – Deflate - Stomata close
from base of blade.
Mesophyll and Veins

 Most photosynthesis takes place in the

Pinnately mesophyll between the two epidermal
Palmately
veined
veined layers.
leaves
Palm
leaves  Palisade Mesophyll
Pinn – Compactly
barrel-shaped
stacked,

 Monocots - Primary veins parallel = parenchyma cells,

Parallel venation commonly in two rows
 Dicots - Primary veins divergent in – Contains most of leaf’s
various ways = netted or reticulate chloroplasts
venation.  Spongy Mesophyll
 Dichotomous venation - Veins fork – Loosely arranged
evenly and progressively from base of parenchyma cells with
blade. abundant air spaces

 Veins (vascular bundles) are scattered

throughout mesophyll.
 Consist of xylem and phloem tissues
surrounded by bundle sheath of thicker-
Par Dicots
Dic walled parenchyma
Internal Structure of Leaves Dichotomous
Veneaion
 Three regions: Epidermis, mesophyll, veins  Monocots have some differences:
(vascular bundles) • Usually do not have mesophyll
 Epidermis - Single layer of cells covering differentiated into palisade and
the entire surface of the leaf spongy layers
• Devoid of chloroplasts • Often have bulliform cells on
• Coated with cuticle (with cutin) either side of main central vein
• Functions to protect tissues  Bulliform cells partly
inside leaves collapse under dry
• Waste materials may accumulate conditions.
in epidermal cells.  Causes leaf
• Different types of glands may to fold or roll,
also be present in the epidermis. reducing
transpiration
Stomata  Shade Leaves
• Receive less total light than sun
 Lower epidermis typically has thinner leaves
layer of cutin and is perforated by • Compared to sun leaves, shade
numerous stomata. leaves:
• Stomata bordered by two guard  Tend to be larger
cells.  Tend to be thinner
– Guard cells originate  Have fewer well-
from the same parent defined mesophyll
cell, and contain layers and fewer
chloroplasts. chloroplasts
o Primary  Have fewer hairs
functions:  Leaves of Arid Regions
– Regulate gas • Arid regions have limited
exchange between leaf availability of water, wide
interior and temperature ranges, and high
atmosphere light intensities.
– Regulate evaporation • Leaves reduce loss of water by:
of water  Thick, leathery leaves
  Fewer stomata
sunken stomata
 Succulent, water-
retaining leaves, or no
leaves
 Dense, hairy coverings
 Leaves of Aquatic Areas
• Less xylem and phloem
• Mesophyll not differentiated into
palisade and spongy layers.
• Large air spaces
 Tendrils
• Modified leaves that curl around
more rigid objects, helping the
plant to climb or to support weak
stems
 Garden peas
 Spines
• Modified leaves that reduce leaf
surface and water loss, and
protect from herbivory.
 Cacti
 Leaf tissue
replaced with
sclerenchym
a.
 Photosynthe
sis occurs in
stems.
 Thorns
 Modified stems arising in the axils
of leaves of woody plants
 Prickles
 Outgrowths from epidermis or
cortex
 Storage leaves
• Succulent leaves are modified for
water storage.
– Have parenchyma cells
with large vacuoles
– Many desert plants
• Fleshy leaves store
carbohydrates.
– Onions, lily
 Flower-Pot Leaves
• Leaves develop into urn-like
pouches that become home of
ant colonies.
• Ants carry in soil and add
nitrogenous wastes that provide
good growing medium for the
plant’s own roots.
– Dischidia, an epiphyte
of Australia
 Window leaves
• In succulent desert plants of
Africa
• Leaves buried in ground, except
for exposed end.
– End has transparent,
thick epidermis and
transparent water
or storage cells
underneath.
– Allows light into leaf,
while buried leaves
keep plant from drying
out
 Reproductive Leaves
• Walking fern - New plants at leaf
tips
• Air plant - Tiny plantlets along
leaf margins
 Floral Leaves (bracts)
• At bases of flowers or flower
stalks
• Poinsettia - Flowers do not have
petals, instead brightly colored
bracts surround flowers.
• Clary’s sage - Colorful bracts are
at top of flowering stalks above
flowers.
 Insect-Trapping Leaves
• Grow in swampy areas and bogs
– Nitrogen and other
elements are deficient
in soil.
 Specialized
leaves trap
and digest
insects.
• Pitcher Plants
– Insects trapped and
digested inside cone-
shaped leaves.
 Insect-Trapping Leaves
• Sundews
– Have round to oval
leaves covered with
glandular hairs that
have a sticky fluid of
digestive enzymes at
tip
• Venus’s Flytraps
– Only in North Carolina
and South Carolina
– Blade halves trap
insects.
 Insect-Trapping Leaves
• Bladderworts
– Submerged or floating
in shallow water
– Tiny bladders on
leaves have trap doors
that trap insects inside
bladders.
Autumnal Changes in Leaf Color
 Chloroplasts of mature leaves contain
several groups of pigments:
• Chlorophylls - Green
• Carotenoids - Yellows
• In fall, chlorophylls break down
and other colors are revealed.
 Water soluble anthocyanins (red or blue)
and betacyanins (red) may also be
present in the vacuole.
Abscission Vascular cambium and Vascular cambium and
cork cambium present cork cambium absent
 Deciduous plants drop leaves Vascular bundles of Vascular bundles of
seasonally. stem in ring stem scattered
 Abscission - Process by which Pollen grains with three Pollen grains with one
leaves are shed apertures aperture
• Occurs as a result of
changes in abscission Structure of Flowers
zone near base of
petiole  Flowers begin as embryonic primordium
• Protective layer that develops into a bud.
 Cells coated  Flowers occur as specialized branches
and at tips of peduncles.
impregnated • May have branchlets of pedicels
with suberin. (stalk of single flower)
• Separation layer  Receptacle - Swollen end of peduncle or
 Pectins in pedicel
middle • Other parts of flower attached to
lamella of receptacle in whorls: sepals,
cells are petals, stamens, and pistil.
broken down  Sepals - Outermost whorl
by enzymes. • Collectively referred to as calyx
• Protects flower while in bud
Human and Ecological Relevance of Leaves  Petals - Next whorl inside sepals
• Collectively referred to as corolla
 Landscaping - Shade trees  Showy corollas attract
 Food - Cabbage, lettuce, celery petioles, pollinators.
spices  Inconspicuous or
 Dyes missing corollas in
 Perfumes - Oils of orange tree, lavender many trees, weeds,
 Ropes and Twine - Agave, hemp fibers grasses, and wind-
 Drugs - Narcotics, tobacco, marijuana pollinated plants
 Beverages - Tea, tequila (agave leaves)  Stamens attached around base of pistil.
 Insecticides - Rotenone • Each stamen consists of filament
 Waxes - Carnauba and caussu waxes with anther at top.
 Aesthetics - Floral arrangements,  Pollen grains
gardens developed in anthers.
 Pistil consists of stigma, style, and
ovary.
• Ovary develops into fruit.
Module 10
Flowers, Fruits, and
Seeds
 Annual plants - Cycle completed in single
season.
• Cycle = from seed germination to
mature plant producing seeds
 Biennial plants - Cycle completed in two
growing seasons.
 Perennial plants - Cycle takes several to
many growing seasons or plant produces
flowers on new growth, while other plant
parts persist indefinitely.

Differences Between Dicots and Monocots

 Two major classes of flowering plants:  Ovaries evolved from carpels with
• Magnoliopsida (dicots) and margins rolled inward.
Liliopsida (monocots) • Carpel - Leaf with ovules on
margins
Dicot Monocots
– Carpels may be fused
Two cotyledons One cotyledon together into
Flower parts in Flower parts in compound ovary.
multiples of four or five multiples of three – Pistil can consist of one
Leaves with distinct Leaves with parallel to several carpels.
network of veins primary veins
  Superior Ovary - Calyx and corolla – Citrus
attached to receptacle at base of ovary.  Pome - Flesh comes
 Inferior Ovary - Receptacle grows up from enlarged floral
and around the ovary. tube or receptacle that
• Calyx and corolla appear grows up around ovary.
attached at top of ovary. – Endocarp
 Ovary contains ovules. papery or
• Ovules develop into seeds after leathery
fertilization. – Apples,
 Flowers can be produced singly or in pears - Core
inflorescences. and a little of
• Inflorescence - Group of flowers adjacent
tissue is from
Fruits ovary;
remainder is
 Fruit - Matured ovary and its accessory from floral
parts tube and
• Contains seeds receptacle]
• All fruits develop from flower  Dry Fruits - Mesocarp dry at
ovaries and accordingly are maturity
found exclusively in flowering – Dehisicent or
plants. indehiscent
 Fruit Regions  Dehiscent fruits- Split at
• Exocarp - Skin Maturity
• Endocarp - Inner boundary – Follicle -
around seed(s) Splits along
• Mesocarp - Tissue between one side
exocarp and endocarp  Larkspur, milkweed,
– Three regions peony
collectively called – Legume -
pericarp. Splits along
two sides
 Variability of fruits  Legume family: peas,
• Can consist of only ovary and beans, lentils, peanuts
seeds  Siliques and silicles -
• Can include adjacent flower parts Split along two sides,
• May be fleshy or dry at maturity but seeds on central
• May split or not split partition, which is
• May be derived from a one or exposed when two
more ovaries halves separate.
 Fleshy Fruits - Mesocarp at least partly
fleshy at maturity.
 Simple fleshy fruits develop from flower – Silique -
with single pistil. More than
 Drupe - Simple fleshy fruit with three times
single seed enclosed by hard, longer than
stony endocarp (pit) wide
 Berry – Silicle - Less
 From compound ovary, than three
with more than one times longer
seed, and with fleshy than wide
pericarp – Mustard
 True berry - With thin family:
skin and relatively soft broccoli,
pericarp cabbage
– Tomatoes,
grapes,  Capsules - Consist of at least two carpels,
peppers, and split in a variety of ways
blueberries, – Irises, poppies, violets,
bananas snapdragons
 Pepo - Relatively thick  Indehiscent Fruits - Do Not Split at
rind Maturity
– Pumpkins, • Single seed united with pericarp
cucumbers • Achene - Base of seed attached
 Hesperidium - to pericarp.
Leathery skin – Sunflower seed, buttercup,
containing oils buckwheat
 • Nut - Similar to achene, but
larger, with harder and thicker
pericarp, and a cluster of bracts
at base
– Acorns, hazelnuts, hickory nuts
• Grain (Caryopsis) - Pericarp
tightly united with seed
– Grasses: corn, wheat, rice, oats,
barley
• Samara - Pericarp extends as
wings for dispersal.
– Maples, ashes, elms
• Schizocarp - Twin fruit that
breaks into one-seeded
segments called mericarps
– Parsley family: carrots, anise, dill
Fruit and Seed Dispersal
 Dispersal by Wind
• Fruits: Samaras, plumes or hairs
on fruit
• Seeds: Small and lightweight, or
with wings
Seeds
• After ripening - Embryo
composed of only of few cells
when fruit ripens; seeds will not
germinate until embryo develops.
 Favorable environmental factors needed
for germination.
• Water and oxygen
• Light or its absence
• Proper temperature range
 Enzymes in cytoplasm begin to function
after water is imbibed.
Longevity
 Seed viability varies, depending on
species and storage conditions.
• Viability extended:
– At low temperatures
– When kept dry
 Vivipary - No period of dormancy;
embryo continues to grow while fruit is
still on parent.

 Structure
• Ovules develop into seeds.
– Cotyledons - Food
storage organs that
function as “seed
leaves”
– Embryo = cotyledons
and plantlet
– Plumule - Embryo
shoot
– Epicotyl - Stem above
cotyledon attachment
– Hypocotyl - Stem below
cotyledon attachment
– Radicle - Tip of embryo
that develops into root

Germination

 Germination is beginning or resumption

of seed growth.
• Some require period of
dormancy.
– Brought about by
mechanical or
physiological factors,
including growth-
inhibiting substances
present in seed coat or
fruit
– Break dormancy by
mechanical abrasion,
thawing and freezing,
bacterial action, or
soaking rains.
o Scarification
- Artificially
breaking
dormancy
 molecules from a region of higher
concentration to a region of lower
concentration

 Molecules move along

concentration gradient.

 Moving from lower to

higher concentration is
against concentration
gradient.

 State of equilibrium -
Molecules distributed
throughout available
space

 Rate of diffusion
depends on pressure,
temperature and
density of medium.

 Solvent - Liquid in which substances

dissolve
 Semipermeable membranes - Membranes
in which different substances diffuse at
different rates
• All plant cell membranes

 Osmosis - Diffusion of water through a

semipermeable membrane from a region
where water is more concentrated to a
region where it is less concentrated
 Osmotic pressure - Pressure required to
prevent osmosis
• Osmotic potential balanced by
resistance of cell wall.
 Pressure potential
(Turgor Pressure) -
Pressure that develops
against walls as result
of water entering cell
 Turgid cell - Firm cell
due to water gained by
osmosis
• Water potential of cell = osmotic
pressure + pressure potential
 Water moves from cell
Module 11 with higher water
Water in Plants potential to cell with
lower water potential.
 Osmosis is primary way water enters
plants from environment.
Molecular Movement
• Pathway of water through plant:
 Diffusion
– Enters from soil into cell walls
• Move and intercellular spaces of root
ment hairs and roots
of

– Crosses differentially permeable

membrane and cytoplasm of
endodermis, then into xylem
 – Flows through xylem to leaves
and diffuses out through stomata
 Plasmolysis - Loss of water through
osmosis
• Accompanied by shrinkage of
protoplasm away from the cell
wall
Normal
Normal cells versus plasmolyzed cells
 Imbibition
• Large
molecules,
such
cellulose
and starch,
develop
electrical
charges
when wet,
Seeds attract water molecules.
and thus
• Water molec ules adhere to large
molecules.
• Results in swelling of tissues
• Imbibition is first step in
Seeds before and after germination of seed.
imbibition
 Active Transport - Process used to absorb
and retain solutes against a diffusion, or
electrical, gradient by expenditure of energy
• Involves proton pump - Enzyme
complex in plasma membrane
energized by ATP molecules
– Transport proteins -
Facilitate transfer of
solutes to outside and
to inside of cell
Water and Its Movement Through the Plant
 Transpiration - Water vapor loss from
internal leaf atmosphere
• More than 90% of the water
entering a plant is transpired.
 Water needed for:
• Cell activities
• Cell turgor
• Evaporation for cooling
 If more water is lost
then taken in, stomata
close.
 The Cohesion-Tension Theory -
Transpiration generates tension
to pull water columns through
plants from roots to leaves.
• Water columns created when
water molecules adhere to
tracheids and vessels of xylem
and cohere to each other.
• When water evaporates from
mesophyll cells, they develop a
lower water potential than
adjacent cells.
• Water moves into mesophyll cells
from adjacent cells with higher
water potential.
• Process is continued until veins
are reached.
• Creates tension on water
columns, drawing water all the
way through entire span of xylem
cells
• Water continues to enter root by
osmosis.
as
Regulation of Transpiration
 Stomatal apparatus regulates
transpiration and gas exchange.
• Stomatal apparatus = 2 guard
cells + stoma (opening).
• Transpiration rates influenced by
humidity, light, temperature, and
carbon dioxide concentration.
 When photosynthesis occurs, stomata
open.
• Guard cells expend energy to
acquire potassium ions from
adjacent epidermal cells.
• Causes lower water potential in
guard cells
• Water enters guard cells via
osmosis.
• Guard cells become turgid and
stomata opens.
 When photosynthesis does not occur,
stomata close.
• Potassium ions leave guard cells.
• Thus, water leaves.
• Guard cells become less turgid
and stomata close.
 Guttation - Loss of liquid water
• If cool night follows warm, humid
day, water droplets are produced
through hydathodes at tips of
veins.
• In absence of transpiration at
night, pressure in xylem elements
forces water out of hydathodes.
Transport of Organic Solutes in Solution
 Important function of water is translocation
of food substances in solution by phloem.
  Pressure-Flow Hypothesis - Organic
solutes flow from source, where water
enters by osmosis, to sinks, where food is  Photosynthesis - Converts light energy
utilized and water exits. to a usable form
• Organic solutes move along  Respiration - Releases stored energy
concentration gradients between • Facilitates growth, development
sources and sinks. and reproduction
 Specifics of Pressure-Flow Hypothesis:  Metabolism - Sum of all interrelated
• Phloem loading - Sugar enters by biochemical processes in living
active transport into sieve tubes. organisms
• Water potential of sieve tubes  Animals rely on green plants for oxygen,
decreases and water enters by food, shelter and other products.
osmosis.
• Turgor pressure develops and Enzymes and Energy Transfer
drives fluid through sieve tubes  Enzymes regulate metabolic activities.
toward sinks. • Anabolism - Forming chemical
• Food substances actively bonds to build molecules
removed at sink and water exits – Photosynthesis
sieve tubes, lowering pressure in reactions - Store
sieve tubes. energy by constructing
• Mass flow occurs from higher carbohydrates by
pressure at source to lower combining carbon
pressure at sink. dioxide and water
• Water diffuses back into xylem. • Catabolism - Breaking chemical
bonds
Mineral Requirements for Growth – Cellular respiration
reactions - Release
 Essential Elements - Essential as building energy held in
blocks for compounds synthesized by chemical bonds by
breaking down
carbohydrates,
producing carbon
dioxide and water
• Photosynthesis-respiration cycle
plants involves transfer of energy via
oxidation-reduction reactions.
 Macronutrients - Used by plants in  Oxidation-reduction reactions
greater amounts • Oxidation - Loss of electron(s)
• Reduction - Gain of electron(s)
• Nitrogen, potassium, calcium, • Oxidation of one compound
phosphorus, magnesium and usually coupled with reduction of
sulfur another compound, catalyzed by
same enzyme or enzyme
 Micronutrients - Needed by the plants in
complex.
very small amounts
• Hydrogen atom is lost during
• Iron, sodium, chlorine, copper, oxidation and gained during
manganese, cobalt, zinc, reduction.
molybdenum and boron • Oxygen is usually final acceptor
of electron.
 When any required element is deficient Photosynthesis
in soil, plants exhibit characteristic
symptoms.  Energy for most cellular activity involves
adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
• Plants make ATP using light as
an energy source.
– Takes place in
chloroplasts and other
green parts of the
organisms
6CO2+12H2O + light  C6H12O6+6O2+6H2O
– Many intermediate
steps to process, and
glucose is not
immediate first product.

Module 12
Plant Metabolism
  Makes it
possible for
photosynthes
 Carbon dioxide reaches chloroplasts in is to occur
mesophyll cells by diffusing through over broader
stomata into leaf interior. spectrum of
• Use of fossil fuels, deforestation, light
and other human activities add  Other photosynthetic pigments include
more carbon dioxide to carotenoids (yellow and orange),
atmosphere than is removed. phycobilins (blue or red, in
– Has potential to cause cyanobacteria and red algae), and
global increases in several other types of chlorophyll.
temperature  About 250-400 pigment molecules
– May enhance grouped in light-harvesting complex =
photosynthesis photosynthetic unit.
 Less than 1% of all water absorbed by  Two types of
plants used in photosynthesis. photosynthetic units
• Most of remainder transpired or work together in light-
incorporated into plant materials. dependent reactions.
 Water is source of electrons in  Two phases of photosynthesis:
photosynthesis and oxygen is released • Light-dependent reactions
as by-product. • Light-independent reactions
 If water is in short supply or light
intensities too high, stomata close and Light-dependent reactions:
thus reduce supply of carbon dioxide • In thylakoid membranes of
available for photosynthesis. chloroplasts
• Water molecules split apart,
 About 40% of radiant energy received on releasing electrons and hydrogen
earth is in form of visible light. ions; oxygen gas released.
• Violet to blue and red-orange to • Electrons pass along electron
red wavelengths are used more transport system.
extensively. • ATP produced.
• Green light is reflected. • NADP is reduced, forming
• Leaves commonly absorb about NADPH (used in light-
80% of visible light reaching independent reactions).
them. Light-independent reactions:
• Light intensity varies with time of • In stroma of chloroplasts
day, season, altitude, latitude, • Utilize ATP and NADPH to form
and atmospheric composition sugars
. • Calvin cycle
 If light and temperatures too high - Ratio  Carbon dioxide
of carbon dioxide to oxygen inside combines with RuBP
leaves may change. (ribulose bisphosphate)
• Accelerates photorespiration, and then combined
which uses oxygen and releases molecules are
carbon dioxide converted to sugars
 May help some plants (glucose).
survive under adverse  Energy furnished from
conditions ATP and NADPH
 If light intensity too high - produced during light-
Photooxidation occurs, which results in dependent reactions.
destruction of chlorophyll.
 If water in short supply or light A Closer Look: Light-Dependent Reactions
intensities too high, stomata close and
thus reduce supply of carbon dioxide  Each pigment has its own distinctive
available for photosynthesis. pattern of light absorption = pigment’s
absorption spectrum.
 Several types of chlorophyll molecules  When pigments absorb light, energy levels
• Magnesium end captures light. of electrons are raised.
• Lipid tail anchors into thylakoid  Energy from an excited
membrane. electron is released
• Most plants contain chlorophyll a when it drops back to
(blue-green color) and chlorophyll its ground state.
b (yellow-green color).  In photosynthesis,
 Chlorophyll b transfers energy is stored in
energy from light to chemical bonds.
chlorophyll a.
 Two types of photosynthetic units:
photosystem I and photosystem II.
 Events of photosystem II come
before those of photosystem I.
 Both can produce ATP.
 Only organisms with both
photosystem I and photosystem II
can produce NADPH and oxygen
as a consequence of electron
flow.
 Photosystem I = chlorophyll a, small
amount of chlorophyll b, carotenoid
pigment, and P700
• P700 = reaction-center molecule -
Only one that actually can use
light energy
• Remaining pigments = antenna
pigments
– Gather and pass light
energy to reaction
center
• Iron-sulfur proteins - Primary
electron acceptors, first to receive
electrons from P700
 Photosystem II = chlorophyll a, B-
carotene, small amounts of chlorophyll
b, and reaction-center molecule: P680
• Pheophytin (Pheo) - Primary
electron acceptor
 Photolysis - Water-splitting,
Photosystem II
• Light photons absorbed by P680,
which boosts electrons to higher
energy level.
• Electrons passed to acceptor
molecule, pheophytin, then to PQ
(plastoquinone), then along
electron transport system to
photosystem I.
• Electrons extracted from water
replace electrons lost by P680.
• One molecule of oxygen, 4
protons and 4 electrons produced
from two water molecules.
 Electron flow and photophosphorylation
• Electron transport system
consists of cytochromes, other
electron transfer molecules and
plastocyanin.
• Photons move across thylakoid
membrane by chemiosmosis.
• Phosphorylation - ATP is formed
from ADP.
 Photosystem I
• Light absorbed by P700, which
boosts electrons to higher energy
level.
• Electrons passed to iron-sulfur
acceptor molecule, Fd
(ferredoxin), then to FAD (flavin
adenine dinucleotide).
• NADP reduced to NADPH.
• Electrons removed from P700
replaced by electrons from
photosystem II.
 Chemiosmosis
• Net accumulation of protons in
thylakoid lumen occurs from
splitting of water molecules and
electron transport.
• Proton gradient gives special
proteins, ATPase, in thylakoid
membrane potential to move
protons form lumen to stroma.
• Movement of protons across
membrane = source of energy for
synthesis of ATP
A Closer Look: Light-Independent Reactions
 Calvin cycle
• Six molecules of CO2 combine
with six molecules of RuBP
(ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate) with
aid of rubisco.
• Eventually results in twelve 3-
carbon molecules of 3PGA (3-
phosphoglyceric acid).
• NADPH and ATP supply energy
and electrons that reduce 3PGA
to GA3P (glyceraldehyde 3-
phosphate).
• Ten of the twelve GA3P
molecules are restructured, using
6 ATP, into six 5-carbon RuBP
molecules.
• Net gain of 2 GA3P, which can
be converted to carbohydrates or
used to make lipids and amino
acids
 Photorespiration - Competes with
carbon-fixing role of photosynthesis
• Rubisco fixes oxygen instead of
carbon dioxide.
• Allows C3 plants to survive under
hot dry conditions
– Helps dissipate ATP
and accumulated
electrons, preventing
photooxidative damage
• When stomata closed, oxygen
accumulates and
photorespiration more likely.
• Products are 2-carbon
phosphoglycolic acid, which are
processed in perioxisomes
– Forms CO2, and PGA
that can reenter Calvin
cycle.
– No ATP formed.
 4-Carbon pathway - Produces 4-carbon
compound instead of 3-carbon PGA
during initial steps of light-independent
reactions
• C4 plants - Tropical grasses and
plants of arid regions
• Plants have Kranz anatomy.
– Mesophyll cells with
smaller chloroplasts
with well-developed
grana
 – Bundle sheath cells stored in roots and specialized
with large chloroplasts stems
with numerous starch
grains Respiration
 4-Carbon pathway
• CO2 converted to organic acids in  Respiration is release of energy from
mesophyll cells. glucose molecules that are broken down
– PEP to individual carbon dioxide molecules.
(phosphoenolpyruvate) • Initiated in cytoplasm and
and CO2 combine, with completed in mitochondria
aid of PEP • Aerobic respiration cannot be
carboxylase. completed without oxygen.
– Form 4-carbon, C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy
oxaloacetic acid,
instead of PGA Major Steps of Respiration
– PEP carboxylase
converts CO2 to  Glycolysis - First phase
carbohydrate at lower • In cytoplasm
CO2 concentrations • No O2 required.
than does rubisco. • Glucose converted to GA3P
 Not sensitive (glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate).
to O2, no • 2 ATP molecules gained.
photorespirat  Citric acid (Krebs) cycle - Second stage
ion • In fluid matrix of cristae in
 4-Carbon pathway mitochondria
• CO2 is transported as organic • High energy electrons and
acids to bundle sheath cells, is hydrogen removed as cycle
released and enters Calvin cycle. proceeds.
 CO2 concentration high • NADH, FADH2 , and small
in bundle sheath, thus amount of ATP produced.
photorespiration • CO2 produced as by-product.
minimized.  Electron transport - Third stage
 C4 plants • In inner membrane of
photosynthesize at mitochondria
higher temperatures • NADH and FADH2 donate
than C3 plants. electrons to electron transport
 At low temperatures, system.
C3 more efficient . • Produces ATP, CO2 and water
 Costs 2 ATP
for C4 A Closer Look
photosynthes
is.  Glycolysis
• Steps:
 CAM photosynthesis - Similar to C4 – Phosphorylation -
photosynthesis in that 4-carbon Glucose becomes
compounds produced during light- fructose carrying two
independent reactions, however: phosphates.
 Organic acids accumulate at – Sugar cleavage -
night (stomata open). Fructose split into two
 Converted back to CO2 during 3-carbon fragments:
day for use in Calvin cycle GA3P (glyceraldehyde
(stomata closed) 3-phosphate).
 Allows plants to – Pyruvic acid formation -
function well under Hydrogen, energy and
limited water supply, as water removed, leaving
well as high light pyruvic acid.
intensity. • Prior to entering citric acid cycle,
pyruvic acid loses CO2 and is
Other Significant Processes that Occur in Chloroplast converted to acetyl CoA.
• If O2 not available, anaerobic
 Reduction of sulfate to sulfide respiration or fermentation
• Sulfides used to make amino- occurs.
acids – Hydrogen released
 Nitrates converted to ammonia during glycolysis
• Ammonia used to make amino- transferred back to
acids, for eg-glutamine which is pyruvic acid, creating
 ethyl alcohol or lactic
acid.
 Citric acid (Krebs) cycle
• Acetyl CoA first combined with
oxaloacetic acid, producing citric
acid.
• Each cycle uses 2 acetyl CoA,
releases 3 CO2 and regenerates
oxaloacetic acid.
O.A. + acetyl CoA + ADP+P+3NAD + FAD 
O.A. + CoA+ATP+3NADH+H+ + FADH2+2CO2
• High energy electrons and
hydrogen removed, producing
NADH, FADH2 and ATP.
 Electron transport and oxidative
phosphorylation
• Energy from NADH and FADH2
released as hydrogen and
electrons are passed along
electron transport system.
• Protons build up outside
mitochondrial matrix, establishing
electrochemical gradient.
• Chemiosmosis couples transport
of protons into matrix with
oxidative phosphorylation:
formation of ATP.
• O2 acts as ultimate electron
acceptor, producing water as it
combines with hydrogen.
• Produces a net gain of 36 ATP
and 6 molecules of CO2 and
cytochromes, carotenoids, fatty
acids, oils, and waxes.
 Secondary metabolism - Metabolic
processes not required for normal
growth and development
• Enable plants to survive and
persist under special conditions
– Colors, aromas,
poisons - Give
competitive edge
o Codeine,
Nicotine,
Lignin,
Salicin,
Camphor,
Menthol,
Rubber
Assimilation and Digestion
 Assimilation - Conversion of organic
matter produced in photosynthesis to
build protoplasm and cell walls
• Sugars transformed into lipids,
proteins, or other carbohydrates,
such as sucrose, starch and
cellulose.
 Digestion - Conversion of starch and
other insoluble carbohydrates to soluble
forms
• Nearly always hydrolysis process

water

Factors Affecting the Rate of Respiration

 Temperature
• Increase from 20o C to 30o C,
respiration rates double.
 Water
• Medium in which enzymatic
reactions take place
• Low water content - Respiration
rate reduced.
 Oxygen
• Reduction in oxygen -
Respiration and growth rates
decline.

Additional Metabolic Pathways

 Other processes contribute to growth

development, reproduction and survival.
• Compounds produced include:
sugar phosphates nucleotides,
nucleic acids, amino acids,
proteins, chlorophylls,