Note 04 Force and Motion

Sections Covered in the Text: Chapters 4 and 8

Thus far we have studied some attributes of motion. pulled it will stretch by an amount that can be meas-
But the cause of the motion, namely force, we have ured with a ruler. If we pull on a spring by a certain
essentially ignored. It is true that we have successfully amount of “muscular action” then the spring stretches
described an object in freefall and the motion of a by a certain amount. If two people each pull by the
projectile, both cases of motion being influenced or same amount of muscular action then the spring
“driven” by the force of gravity. But in both cases the stretches twice as much as before.
acceleration of the object remained constant. (We
described what happened to the object while it was
falling, not on what happened to the object once it hit
the ground.) This made it unnecessary for us to
modify our kinematic definitions or to construct new
concepts.
However, once we include the concept of force into
our study of motion in a general way, by allowing for
changes to take place in the magnitude or direction of
the force, then we need to anticipate possible changes
in the acceleration of the object. The object may speed
up, slow down or change direction. The study of
motion then expands into dynamics. We shall begin
our study of dynamics with the concept of force and
the first of the true laws of physics, Newton’s Laws of
Motion. Later in this and later notes we shall see how
these laws can be applied to describe “real world”
problems. Figure 4-1. Observations with a spring scale indicate that
force is a vector.

The Concept of Force

The concept of force is learned early in childhood. We
learn that in order to make something move we must
“push” it or “pull” it; we have to exert a force on it. We
also learn that if we jump from a point above the
ground then we will drop to the ground (and possibly
injure ourselves). In this case something else exerts a
force on us. This force we call the force of gravity. In
physics, a push or a pull is called a contact force,
whereas the force of gravity is called a non-contact
force. We shall discuss non-contact forces and the
associated concept of a field in a later note. For the
moment we focus on contact forces.1
More importantly, if forces of magnitude F 1 and F 2 are
applied to the end of the spring scale in arbitrary
perpendicular directions as shown in the figure, then
the extension of the spring is found to be proportional
to
2 2
F= ( F1 ) + (F2 ) .
The conclusion to be drawn is that force is a vector.
We now consider Newton’s Three laws of motion in
modern€ language and discuss the concepts and
definitions associated with each.

Force is a Vector
If we consider for simplicity a force as a simple pull, Newton’s First Law
then we can quantify the pull in a relative way by Newton’s first law states:
observing its effect on something that stretches, like
an elastic or spring scale (Figure 4-1). If a spring is In the absence of external forces, an object at rest
remains at rest and an object in motion continues in
1
A contact force is actually a manifestation of the electromag- motion with a constant velocity (that is, with a
netic force and is not a true, distinct force. It just happens to be constant speed in a straight line).
easier for teaching purposes to continue using the term contact
force for the present.

04-1
Note 04
You will be able to witness the effects of Newton’s
first law for yourself in the experiment “Linear
Motion”. If you place a glider on a horizontal airtrack
and release it from rest, it will remain at rest. If you
release the glider with some initial velocity, then it
will continue to move at a constant velocity (until it
encounters the bumper at the end of the track). These
observations are consistent with Newton’s first law.
Law of Inertia
Another way of stating the first law is to say “if the
net force acting on an object is zero, then the accelera-
tion of the object is zero”. An object has an attribute
that tends to resist a change in its state of motion. This
attribute is called inertia. The first law is therefore
often called the law of inertia.
Inertial Reference Frame
In physics, we often make use of the concept of an
inertial reference frame. An inertial reference frame is a
reference frame in which Newton’s first law holds. In
other words, an inertial reference frame is one that is
not undergoing acceleration itself. A glider, whether
stationary or moving with constant velocity on a
horizontal airtrack, is an example of an inertial
reference frame.
Another example of a more-or-less inertial reference
frame is a position on the surface of the Earth (say at a
worktable in the lab). It is true that the Earth is
spinning on its axis and is rotating about the Sun, so a
position on the surface of the Earth is therefore
undergoing two types of acceleration. But both types
are very small in relation to the acceleration of most
systems under study; in problems in a first year
physics course they can mostly be neglected.
Inertial Mass
We have stated that an object possesses an attribute
that resists a change in its state of motion. By state of
motion is meant the following: the state of motion of a
ball, for example, can be changed by either throwing
it or catching it. A ball made of lead is harder to catch
than is a ball made of rubber. This attribute is called
inertia as we have seen. A lead ball has more inertia
than a rubber ball of the same size. Inertia is more
familiarly called mass, and in particular, inertial mass.
It may be described in these words:
Inertial mass is the measure of an object’s resistance to
a change in motion in response to an external force.
If the same force acts on masses m 1 and m 2 and
produces the accelerations a1 and a2, respectively, then
04-2
the ratio of the two masses is defined as the inverse
ratio of the magnitudes of the accelerations produced
by the same force:
m1 a2
= .
m2 a1
Now if one of these masses happens to be the 1 kg
standard mass (described in Note 01) then the mass of
the unknown object can be calculated from measure-
ments of the accelerations. 2
Mass is an inherent property of an object, indepen-
dent of the object’s surroundings and of the method
used to measure it. Gravitational mass is defined
somewhat differently from inertial mass as we shall
see. As far as is known an object’s inertial and gravita-
tional masses are equal, and are therefore by inference
taken to be one and the same property.
Newton’s Second Law
Newton’s second law states:
The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to
the net force acting on the object and inversely propor-
tional to the object’s mass.
Note that the word “object” in this statement (and the
ones to follow) could be replaced by the word
“system”. Mathematically, the second law means
a∝
∑F .
m
Writing this expression as an equality and rearranging
we have
∑ F = ma . …[4-1]
Thus the vector sum of forces (net force) on an object
equals the product of the object’s mass and accelera-
tion. The acceleration of an object is in the same
direction as the net force on the object.
Since eq[4-1] is a vector equation these component
equations apply in 3D space:
∑F x = max ∑F y = may ∑F z = maz .
2
Interestingly, though mass is a fundamental quantity, the
finding of inertial mass involves calculation not measurement with
an instrument. As we shall see in due course, the finding of
gravitational mass on the other hand involves measurement with
an instrument like a calibrated spring scale or a balance.
 Note 04

Unit of Force y
From eq[4-1] the dimension of force equals the
product of the dimensions of mass and acceleration,
namely M.L.T–2. Its units are kg.m.s –2. 1 kg.m.s–2 is
called a newton. 1 newton (abbreviated N) may be
defined in words as the force that produces an
acceleration of 1 m.s –2 on a mass of 1 kg. x
30.0˚
Once the resultant force on an object of known mass is
known then the object’s acceleration can be calculated. a = 3.66 m/s/s
Let us consider an example.

Example Problem 4-1 Figure 4-3. The acceleration of the ball in Figure 4-2 during
Finding the Acceleration of an Object the elapsed time the three forces act.

Three forces of magnitude 10.0 N act on a ball of mass

2.00 kg in the directions shown in Figure 4-2.
Calculate the resultant acceleration of the ball. WARNING!
Force and Acceleration
An object undergoes an acceleration only so long
y as the resultant or net force on the object is also
F1 = 10.0 N non-zero. In the event that the force is zero the
acceleration is also zero.

F2 = 10.0 N
30.0˚
x Gravitational Force and Weight
2.00 kg We have seen that mass is a fundamental property of
an object (being the sum total of the masses of its
constituent atoms and molecules). Under ordinary
conditions (non-relativistic speeds) the mass of an
object remains constant. An object has the same mass
F3 = 10.0 N 30.0˚ whether measured on the Earth or on the Moon.
The weight of an object is different from mass. It is
Figure 4-2. Three forces of magnitude F1, F2 and F3 act on defined in these words:
a ball.
In physics, the weight of an object is defined as the
magnitude of the resultant force of gravity on the
Solution: object.
This problem is an extension of Example Problem 2-3.
It was shown in that problem that the resultant force We have seen that when an object is released near the
vector is of magnitude 7.32 N acting in a direction surface of the Earth it always falls downwards with
30.0˚ wrt to the –ve x-axis (Figure 2-13). Since the same acceleration, namely g. In this situation there
is only one force acting on the object, the force of
gravity. Thus
a=
∑F
m ∑F = F g .

7.32(N) It follows from the second law that

we have | a |= = 3.66 m.s–2 .
2.00(kg)
Fg = m a = m g ,
The acceleration vector points in the same direction as
the resultant force vector (Figure 4-3). and so the weight of any object of mass m is

04-3
Note 04

| F g |= Fg = mg (N). …[4-2] The book has a mass m and is subject to the gravita-
tional force of the Earth. But the book is in contact
with the table. Since the Earth pulls downwards on
Weight is a positive scalar with the unit newton. the book and the book is in contact with the table,
then the book pushes downwards on the table with
Newton’s Third Law the same magnitude of force. Since the book pushes
Newton’s Third law states: downwards on the table, the table reacts (third law)
by pushing upwards on the book. This reaction force
If two objects interact, the force F 12 exerted by object 1 (denoted “n”) is called a normal force when it is per-
on object 2 is equal in magnitude but opposite in direc- pendicular (or normal) to a surface. The upshot is that
tion to the force F 21 exerted by object 2 on object 1, that the sum of forces on the book is
is,
F12 = – F 21 . …[4-3] ∑F = F TB + F EB = n + mg = 0 .

The idea is illustrated in Figure 4-4. (Here the notation FTB means the force the table
exerts on the book.) Figure 4-5 is the free-body diagram
of the book. A free-body diagram is a diagram
showing just the forces acting on the object of interest.

The Idea of Tension

Tension is a word used to describe the contact force
exerted by a rope or a string on whatever it is attched
to. A problem involving tension is illustrated in
Figure 4-6. A rope is attached to point W on an
immovable wall. A boy at position B pulls on the rope
with force F BR in a direction towards the right.
Figure 4-4. To every force there is an equal and opposite
Neither wall nor boy actually move. In the process of
reaction force. Shown here are the gravitational forces two
being pulled, the rope becomes taut and is subject to
objects exert on one another.
what is called tension.

To explore this idea further with more familiar contact

forces consider an object like a book lying at rest on a
table (Figure 4-5). Since the book is stationary, and in
an inertial reference frame, it is described by the first
law.
F WR F RW Boy

W B
F RB F BR
F TB = n

book Wall
m

Figure 4-6. The forces involved when a boy pulls on a rope

table attached to an immovable wall. Two free-body diagrams are
shown here—for points W and B.

F EB = m g
You should be able to reason that the forces shown,
namely F BR , F RB , F RW and FWR are all of equal
Figure 4-5. Free-body diagram of a book lying at rest on a
magnitude. |F RW | and |F RB | both refer to the same
table in the laboratory.
tension in the rope. Tension may be defined in these
words:

04-4
 Note 04

The tension in a rope is the magnitude of the force the

rope exerts on whatever it is attached to.

It is important to note that Figure 4-6 shows two free-

body diagrams—for the points W and B. The two
forces in the left half of the figure are the forces acting
only on W. The two forces on the right half of the
figure act only on the point B.

An Object in Translational Equilibrium

An object at rest or moving with constant velocity is
said to be in a state of translational equilibrium. Trans-
lational equilibrium is the state of an object that
satisfies Newton’s first law.3 The condition of transla-
tional equilibrium may be stated mathematically as
Figure 4-7a. A traffic light at rest.

∑F =0.
This means that in 3D space we have the component
equations

∑F x =0 ∑F y =0 ∑F z =0. …[4-4]

The book shown in Figure 4-5 is an example of an ob-

ject in translational equilibrium. More precisely, since
the object is in a state of translational equilibrium and
is at rest, it is said to be in a state of static equilibrium.

Applications of Newton’s Laws

In an introductory physics course there are a number
of “classical” problem types. These include the prob-
lem of tension in a cable pulling or supporting an
object, the working of the Atwood machine and the
analysis of objects pushing on one another. We
consider these three types in examples.
Example Problem 4-2
A Traffic Light at Rest
A traffic light weighing 122 N hangs from a cable tied
to two other cables fastened to a support as in Figure
4-7a. The upper cables make angles of 37.0˚ and 53.0˚
with the horizontal. These upper cables are not as
strong as the vertical cable, and will break if the
tension in them exceeds 100. N. Does the traffic light
remain in this situation, or will one of the cables
break?
Figure 4-7b. The free-body diagram of the traffic light.
Solution:
Two points on this diagram are of special interest: the
light itself and the knot at which the three cables come
together. Both points are in states of static equilib-
rium (at least they are prior to the instant when the
ropes break, if they do break). The free-body diagram
of the traffic light itself is drawn in Figure 4-7b.
Figure 4-7b shows only two forces: the force of
gravity acting downwards and the tension T3 acting
upwards. Applying the equilibrium condition to the
traffic light in the y-direction
∑F y =0 gives T3 – Fg = 0 .
This means that

3
In later notes we shall extend this condition to include T3 = Fg = 122 N.
rotational motion.

04-5
Note 04

The force T 3 exerted by the vertical cable balances the T2 = 1.33T1 = 97.4 N.
force of gravity on the light.
As for the knot, its free-body diagram is drawn in Both of these values are less than 100. N so the cables
Figure 4-7c, with a set of arbitrarily-chosen x-and y- will not break.
axes.

Example Problem 4-3

The Atwood Machine

The Atwood machine, an example of which is shown

Figure 4-7c. The tensions in the ropes act at a common point.
in Figure 4-8, is an apparatus commonly used in intro-
ductory physics labs for studying Newton’s laws. The
version shown here has masses m 1 and m2 connected
together with a rope that passes over a pulley whose
friction is assumed to be negligible.4 We shall assume
here that m 1 is less than m 2 so the former should be
expected to accelerate upward, the latter downward.
Calculate an expression for the magnitude of the
acceleration a of the masses and the tension T in the
rope.

The forces in the ropes can be resolved into their x-

and y-components as listed in the following table:

Force x-component y-component

T1 –T1cos37.0˚ T1sin37.0˚
T2 T2cos53.0˚ T2sin53.0˚
T3 0 –122 N

Eqs[4-4} applied to the knot give

∑F x = T2 cos 53.0o – T1 cos37.0 o = 0 ,

∑F = T1 sin37.0 o + T2 sin 53.0o – 122N = 0 .

y
Figure 4-8. An Atwood machine. In this note we assume
“up” is positive, “down” is negative.
Solving the first equation for T2 gives T2 in terms of T 1:

 cos37.0o  Solution:
T2 = T1   = 1.33T1 . We take “up” as positive, “down” as negative. Apply-
 cos53.0 o 
ing Newton’s second law to m 1 we have
Substituting T2 into the second of the above equations
gives ∑F y = T – m1 g = m1 a . …[4-5]

T1 sin 37.0o + (1.33T1 )sin 53.0o – 122N = 0 Applying the second law to m 2 we have

so that T1 = 73.4 N.
4
We assume we can also neglect the moment of inertia of the
Finally we substitute back to get T2: pulley. In this course, because of a lack of time, we shall have to
omit the concept of moment of inertia.

04-6
 Note 04

∑F y = T – m2 g = –m2 a . …[4-6] The acceleration of the two-block system is

F
Subtracting eq[4-6] from eq[4-5] gives a= .
m1 + m2
–m1 g + m2 g = m1 a + m2 a
(b) We now treat each block individually. The free-
from which we can solve for the magnitude a: body diagrams of m1 and m2 are drawn in Figures 4-9b
and c where the contact force is denoted P.
 m – m1 
a= 2 g .
 m1 + m2 

This expression is general and includes two special

cases. If m2 > m 1 then a is positive and m 1 accelerates
upwards and m 2 downwards. If m 1 > m2 then a is
negative and m 1 accelerates downwards, m2 upwards.
Substituting the above expression for a into eq[4-5]
yields T:
 2m1 m2 
T = g .
 m1 + m2  Figure 4-9b. The free-body diagram of m1.

This expression is general and applies for any value of

m1 and m2. For example, if m1 = m2 then T = mg and a =
0, that is, neither object moves.

Example Problem 4-4

One Block Pushes Another

Two blocks of mass m1 and m2, with m 1 > m 2, are

placed in contact with each other on a surface
assumed to be frictionless (Figure 4-9a). A constant
horizontal force F is applied to m 1 as shown. Find (a)
the magnitude of the acceleration of the system of two
blocks and (b) the magnitude of the contact force
between the two blocks.
Figure 4-9c. The free-body diagram of m2.
From Figure 4-9c the only horizontal force acting on
m2 is the contact force P12 (the force exerted by m1 on
m2), which is directed to the right. Applying the
second law to m2 gives

∑F x = P12 = m2 a .

Substituting the expression for a from above gives the

magnitude of the contact force requested:

Figure 4-9a. A force is applied to two blocks in contact.  m2 

P12 = m2 a =  F.
 m1 + m2 
Solution:
(a) The blocks are in contact and therefore experience Note that the force on the system as a whole (and on
the same acceleration produced by F. Thus m1) is F but the force on m2 is less than F.

∑ F (system) = F = (m
x 1 + m2 )a .

04-7
Note 04

To Be Mastered
• Definitions: force, Newton’s Laws of Motion, inertial reference frame
• Definitions: mass, inertial mass, gravitational mass, weight, tension
• Definition: weight
• Definition: tension
• Definition: free-body diagram

Typical Quiz/Test/Exam Questions

1. State Newton’s Laws.

2. A puck of mass 200.0 g rests on a frictionless ice surface. There are two ropes attached to the puck by a pin at
the puck’s center. Two people pull as hard as they can in a horizontal direction, one person on each rope. If
they pull in the same direction as shown, the puck has an acceleration of 1.52 m.s –2 to the right. If the direction
of rope 1 is reversed and the people pull in opposite directions, then the puck has an acceleration of 0.518
m.s –2 to the left.

rope 1

rope 2
puck

Answer the following questions:

(a) What magnitude of force does each rope exert on the puck?
(b) What are the corresponding tensions in the ropes?
(c) What would be the acceleration of the puck if each person pulls with forces of equal magnitudes in
opposite directions?
(d) What law(s) of motion do these questions involve?

3. An object of mass 1.0 kg is hanging motionless by a cable from a fixed support (see the figure). Answer the
following questions:
support

cable

object

(a) What is the weight of the object?

(b) What force does the cable exert on the support?
(c) What force does the cable exert on the object?
(d) What is the acceleration of the object?

04-8