Geotechnical Testing Journal
doi:10.1520/GTJ20170348 / Vol. 42
Manuscript received October 1,
2017; accepted for publication
August 1, 2018; published online
October 16, 2018.
1
School of Civil Engineering,
Wuhan University, No. 8, East-
Lake S. Rd., Wuhan 430072, China
2
School of Civil Engineering,
Wuhan University, No. 8,
East-Lake S. Rd., Wuhan 430072,
China (Corresponding author),
e-mail: xdfu@whu.edu.cn,
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-
4482-9294
Copyright © 2018 by ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959
/ No. 6 / 2019 / available online at www.astm.org
Bin Huang,1 Yuting Zhang,1 Xudong Fu,2 and Benjiao Zhang1
Study on Visualization and Failure Mode
of Model Test of Rock-Socketed Pile
in Soft Rock
Reference
B. Huang, Y. Zhang, X. Fu, and B. Zhang, “Study on Visualization and Failure Mode of Model
Test of Rock-Socketed Pile in Soft Rock,” Geotechnical Testing Journal 42, no. 6 (November/
December 2019): 1624–1639. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ20170348
ABSTRACT
Computed tomography (CT) technology is a kind of nondestructive image
reconstruction technology. CT visualization technology is introduced into the
physical model test of a single pile, which can visualize a rock-socketed pile in soft
rock under different pile top loads. In this article, the visualization process of a
model test of a rock-socketed pile in soft rock is carried out by medical CT. The
implementation procedure, the composition of the device, and the technical
requirements of the test equipment, as well as the CT scanning operation of
nondestructive visualization technique of the single pile model test, are introduced
in detail. The influence of a marked layer setting, side wall effect, size of the model
cylinder, and model pile on the visualization effect of a single pile model test is
discussed. The feasibility and reliability of the model test visualization technology
of a rock-socketed pile in soft rock are demonstrated by examples, and the failure
mode of rock-socketed pile in soft rock is intuitively revealed to be the spherical
cavity expansion mode of the pile end.
Keywords
rock-socketed pile in soft rock, model test, CT visualization, failure mode
Introduction
Rock-socketed piles are widely used in high-rise buildings with high loads and high set-
tlement requirements, bridge engineering, and other fields. Soft rock is widely distributed
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HUANG ET AL. ON VISUALIZATION OF MODEL TEST 1625

in China, and rock-socketed piles in the soft rock are a common type of pile. The uniaxial
compressive strength range of soft rock is generally 0.6∼12.5 MPa, and the modulus is
100∼1,000 MPa (Gannon et al. 1999). There are obvious differences between rock-
socketed piles in soft rock and those in soil. When the relative displacement of the rock
and pile interface occurs, the lateral squeeze will appear, which will be beneficial to lateral
resistance. But, once the rough bite between the pile and the rock is cut, the interface
strength will appear as softening attenuation, whereas the lateral resistance of piles in soil
do not have this feature. The strength of soft rock is generally lower than the strength of
the pile body. The modulus of rock mass is far lower than the elastic modulus of typical
concrete (30 GPa). Unlike a hard rock–socketed pile, the performance of the pile depends
on the rock mass rather than the material of the pile. In addition, soft rock, soil, and hard
rock are not only different from the exertion of lateral resistance and terminal resistance
but also have great influence on load sharing of lateral resistance and terminal resistance,
and the failure mode of the pile is also essentially different.
Generally, the process and the failure form of pile-soil interaction cannot be seen
through conventional indoor pile foundation model tests, and it is difficult to obtain the
intuitive and real bearing mechanism and failure mode of the single pile. Visualization
research can clarify many disputes and assumptions, and it is very meaningful to the study
of rock-socketed piles in soft rock.
In order to realize the visualization of an indoor pile foundation model test, the most
direct way is to do a good job on the marked layer and then start excavation after the test is
finished. Durgunoglu and Mitchell (1973), Kuwajima, Hyodo, and Hyde (2009), Yasufuku
and Hyde (1995), and Aoyama et al. (2016) obtained the failure mode of piles in sandy soil
by means of the excavation technique. It is obvious that the excavation technique can only
obtain the visualization in the final stage of the test, and the excavation operation is dif-
ficult. Furthermore, excavation of materials with large stiffness will produce a bigger re-
bound after unloading, and the laws in place are thus not so reliable.
In order to realize the visualization in the test process, the half-mode or full-mode
perspectives of the test technique have been developed. The half-mode or full-mode per-
spective test generally uses a deformation measurement marker based on digital photog-
raphy and image analysis to obtain the displacement at the measuring point by calculating
the centroid of the punctuation and the position change. The half-mode or full-mode
perspective tests are generally used for the study of the failure mode of the pile. Although
the antifriction measures of the side wall are adopted, the bearing behavior and the bearing
mechanism (Faizi et al. 2015) are generally carried out by the full-mode test (nonclose
contact to the perspective window). The shortcomings of the half-mode or full-mode
perspective tests are the difficulties in the measurement and analysis of meso- or micro-
deformation. The model pile and the pile-surrounding soil are inevitably affected by the
boundary effect, and only the movement of the soil body and pile body near the glass
surface can be observed. However, the deformation of the internal soil cannot be observed.
With the development of optical and image-processing technology, transparent soil
technology and particle image velocimetry technology have emerged. Transparent soil is
limited to transparent material; accordingly, material similarity is inevitable. Generally, it
is limited to the simulation of sandy soil and clay, and its requirement of light is high,
which makes it necessary to combine PIV technology. The PIV technique does not require
measuring, marking, or grid drawing on model test observation surfaces. In various stages
of the test, photographs are taken with a digital camera or close-range digital photography.
Then, by using the digital image correlation technique, the displacement field of soil

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deformation can be obtained by correlation calculation for digital images before or after
deformation. PIV technology is an advanced interdisciplinary technology, which will
undoubtedly bring great development for geotechnical studies and generally require
the use of laser and PIV image-processing software. The usage cost requires a big
one-time investment, and the technology popularization still has some limitations.
The emergence of CT technology has injected new blood into visualization, and it has
been used more and more widely in the field of rock and soil study. The technology re-
constructs the CT image by algorithm based on the change of the physical quantity and the
numerical value of the intensity, velocity, frequency, etc., after the object is penetrated by
the ray. Research results of the CT scanning technology for pile foundation model tests are
very few. Otani, Pham, and Sano (2006), Eskişar, Otani, and Hironaka (2012), and Kikuchi
et al. (2010) have done some work on the subject. CT technology is a mature technology
and is well known, especially in medical diagnosis. Generally, First Class hospitals pur-
chase CT equipment, and the cost of a scan was found basically acceptable by researchers.
Research and development for the CT scan model test device can realize the visualization
of the process of pile top loading, and it can intuitively and genuinely obtain the bearing
mechanism of a rock-socketed pile in soft rock. Besides, its realization of the populari-
zation of geotechnical visualization is very promising.

CT Visualization Technology of Single Pile

Model Test
SINGLE PILE MODEL TEST DEVICE
In order to obtain the bearing mechanism of a rock-socketed pile in soft rock more intui-
tively, a physical model test device for a single pile bearing mechanism, which can be used for
CT scanning, needs to be developed to realize the simulation of the pile-surrounding soil
stress field and the mesoscopic visualization of deformation distribution, development proc-
ess, and the failure form of the single pile subject to vertical load so as to carry out the study
on the test of the single pile bearing mechanism.
The overall idea of the development of the device is that, after the model pile and
ground soil preparation are finished and the assembly of loading system, reaction system,
and measurement system is completed, the device should be placed horizontally on the CT
machine tool. When the vertical load is applied to the pile-surrounding soil and model
pile, the displacement of the pile side soil and the pile endpoint soil during the loading of
the model pile can be clearly observed by the medical CT for visualization scanning in
order to obtain the loading failure form of the model pile. The full set of devices plus
soil load meets the requirements of the CT machine’s bearing capacity of no more than
200 kg, and the materials of nylon, aluminum alloy, aluminum product that are used by the
device can be X-rayed by the CT machine without any artifacts.
The physical model test device for the bearing mechanism of a single pile includes a
model pile, model cylinder, pile top loading system, pile-surrounding soil loading system,
reaction system, and measurement system. The model device is shown in Fig. 1. The over-
burden pressure is applied to the soft rock of the pile by means of a hollow jack with a
guide to ensure the verticality of the pile and the uniform loading of the soft rock.
As for the rock-socketed pile in soft rock with a simulated strength of 1.5 MPa, ac-
cording to triaxial compression test, the modulus of the synthetic rock is 184∼218 MPa

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FIG. 1
Physical model test device
for bearing mechanism of
single pile.

upon an overburden pressure of 100∼500 kPa. The detailed information for the material
mix ratio was established by Mei et al. (2017).
It is necessary to point out that the model pile is made of aluminum tube. In order to
increase the lateral resistance of the model pile, the surface of the model pile is treated by
knurling; the model cylinder made of nylon materials with high strength and light weight
can be scanned by CT. Since the CT scan requires the model device to be tipped, the
four supports fixed on the column can be used to support the weight of the model cylinder
and pile-soil model while avoiding eccentricity during loading. The column is made of
2A12 aluminum alloy with higher strength. Upon verification, if it is made of stainless
steel or other steel, artifacts will be produced in the process of scanning, which will make
the scanning picture unclear and seriously affect the test results. Thus, the CT scanning
with 2A12 aluminum alloy is preferable.

IMPLEMENTATION OF VISUALIZATION OF SINGLE PILE MODEL TEST

CT Scanning Technique
The model test is carried out on a medical CT machine, and the model piles are loaded for
real-time scanning after each stage is stabilized. The deformation behaviors in the loading
process of the model pile are recorded completely, and the model test CT scanning is
shown in Fig. 2.

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FIG. 2
Model test CT scanning.

Technical parameters of the general medical CT scanner are as follows: the maximum
scanning diameter is 70 cm, and the scanning length is 1,570 mm. The thinnest layer is
0.6 mm, the minimum resolution is 0.3 mm, and the maximum machine load is 200 kg.
In order to obtain high-resolution and clear CT images, try to improve the kV value
and mAs value of the tube current. Increasing the kV value can improve the penetration
power of the X ray, and increasing the mAs value can add the amount of radiation while
using a small scanning layer thickness of 0.6 mm.

Material Selection for Test Device

Stainless steel, ordinary steel, iron, and other high-density materials will produce “arti-
facts” during CT scanning. Fig. 3 shows a comparison of the CT scan with different

FIG. 3 A comparison of CT scanning with different materials.

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HUANG ET AL. ON VISUALIZATION OF MODEL TEST 1629

materials. From the left side, it can be seen that there is a bright or dark radiation “light”
near the high-density metal, which seriously affects the visualization of the soft rock sim-
ulation material in the nylon tube; as can be seen from the right side, when the materials
are replaced with aluminum alloy or aluminum product, there is almost no radiation
“light” near the column that impacts the visualization effect, and the artifacts disappear.
Therefore, the model devices are all made of lower-density materials. The model tube
is made of nylon, which can be scanned by CT and have no influence on the internal
specimens; the model pile is made of aluminum tube, and the column is made of 2A12
aluminum alloy; thus, the CT scanning effect is better. The materials of nylon, aluminum
alloy, and aluminum products used by the device can be X-rayed by the CT machine with-
out any artifacts.

Marked Layer Setting

During the compaction of surrounding soft rock specimens, the marked layer should be
arranged according to the design requirements, and the rubber layer can be used as the
marked layer. The marked layer is a rubber membrane with a central opening (with a
diameter slightly larger than the pile diameter), and the outer diameter of rubber is slightly
smaller than the inner diameter of the model cylinder. The marked layer is arranged as
shown in Fig. 4.
The left side of Fig. 5 shows the CT scanning model test results carried out when the
soft rock of the pile does not set the marked layer. Although the CT scanning is used, the
deformation behavior of soft rock around the pile with a pile piercing of 39 mm still cannot
be identified. It can only be seen as the soft rock pressure density at the pile bottom (the
greater the density, the lighter the color), and the layering position of delamination com-
paction can also be identified (white line); the layer is excessively thick so that the surface
density of each layer is larger than the following. Therefore, the marked layer must be set in
pile-surrounding soft rock in the CT visualization model test.
The setting of the marked layer cannot affect the deformation properties of the soft
rock simulation material. Either the marked layer material is very close to the soft rock
property or the material is flexible and the layer is as thin as possible. It is difficult to find

FIG. 4 Test layout of model pile.

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FIG. 5
The contrast of CT scanning
effects on the marked layers of
different materials.

materials that are close to the mechanical properties of soft rock with large differences in
density. Therefore, three kinds of flexible materials, such as medium-fine sand, clay, and
rubber membrane, are considered as the marked layer. The right side of Fig. 5 shows the
contrast of CT scanning of the marked layer with different materials. It should be noted
that the sand-marked layer is not as good as the clay-marked layer, and the clay-marked
layer is inferior to the rubber membrane–marked layer.
It is worth noting that, since the marked layer is set and the modulus of the marked
layer is generally smaller than that of the soft rock, after setting the marked layer, the
settlement of the model pile after loading will be larger than that of the unmarked layer.
When the pile-surrounding soil modulus is small, the settlement of the marked layer can
be neglected, but for the model test of the rock-socketed pile in soft rock, the influence
cannot be ignored. This is an unavoidable shortcoming of the CT visualization test, so it is
suggested that CT visualization of rock-socketed piles in soft rock model tests be mainly
used to study the failure mode and load transfer mechanism of the piles. For the study of
load characteristics and load transfer quantification, a model test will be carried out with-
out setting the marker layer.

Size Selection
To compare the CT scanning effects of the model pile with different diameters, 40 and
24-mm pile diameters are used. The model piles are shown in Fig. 6, in which the model
pile with a diameter of 40 mm is a hollow aluminum tube with a closed bottom and has an
equivalent modulus of 19.4 GPa. The model pile with a diameter of 24 mm is a solid
aluminum rod with a modulus of 70.0 GPa.
Fig. 7 shows the CT images of model tests with differently sized pile diameters under
the condition that the ratio of inner diameter of the model cylinder to the pile diameter is
the same. It can be seen that the ratio of the inner diameter of the model cylinder to the pile
diameter of the model tests with large and small pile diameters is 6.4∼6.8. The pile failure
modes, compaction range of soft rock at the bottom of pile, and pile soft rock deformation
of rock-socketed pile in the soft rock obtained with different pile diameters are basically
the same; the inner diameter of the model cylinder upon the pile diameter of 40 mm is
272 mm, and the outer diameter is 312 mm, but the CT scanning effect is poor; when the

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FIG. 6 Model piles with different diameters.

FIG. 7
The CT scan photos of the
model tests with pile diameters
of different sizes under the
condition that the ratio of the
inner diameter of the model
cylinder to the pile diameter is
the same. (The pile is smooth
and the rock-socketed depth is
5d with an overlying load of
0 kPa.)

diameter of the model cylinder on the 24-mm pile diameter is 154 mm and the outer
diameter is 214 mm, the CT scanning effect is better.
Fig. 8 shows the CT images of the test model with different pile diameter sizes under
the condition that the inner diameter of the model cylinder is the same. Ovesen (1979)
pointed out that when the ratio between the distance from the model to the wall and
molded dimension is larger than 2.82 then the boundary effect can be eliminated. In the
model test, the ratios of large pile diameter model tests are all 1.43 (far less than 2.82), and
those of the small model tests are 2.71 (a little less than 2.82). The pile failure modes,
compaction range of soft rock at the bottom of the pile, and soft rock deformation of
rock-socketed piles in soft rock obtained with different pile diameters present big
differences; the inner diameter of the model cylinder with pile diameters of 24 and 40 mm

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FIG. 8 The CT scanning photos of model tests with different pile diameter sizes under the condition that the inner diameter of the
model cylinder is the same. (The pile has knurling and the rock-socketed depth is 3d with an overlying load of 300 kPa.)

are both 154 mm, and the CT scanning effect for the large pile diameter is better. But, if the
pile foundation is within range of double pile diameter, the pile soft rock appears to con-
tain an upward extrusion, but the model test with small pile diameter does not show this
phenomenon, which is obviously due to the size effect caused by the small size of the model
cylinder.
Therefore, under the condition that the ratio of the inner diameter of the model cyl-
inder and the pile diameter is in a reasonable range, the pile failure modes, compaction
range of the soft rock at the bottom of pile, and pile-surrounding soft rock deformation of
rock-socketed piles in soft rock obtained with different pile diameters are authentic. The
visualization effect is more ideal with the smaller pile diameter (Φ 24 mm), and the details
are clearly visible.

Model Test of Rock-Socketed Pile in Soft Rock

Based on CT Scanning
CT SCANNING OPERATION OF MODEL TEST
After the model specimen preparation is finished, the loading system, reaction system,
and measurement system were assembled, and the device was placed horizontally on the
CT machine tool. A nylon material block with grooves is installed at the bottom of the
model cylinder and the hollow jack to ensure that the reaction plate of the solid jack and
the hollow jack, the hollow jack block, and the bottom of the model cylinder are in the
same plane as shown in Fig. 9.
After the stability of the pile top load deformation at each level of model pile pierced
the soft rock, the CT real-time scanning is conducted. The CT scan of the model pile
piercing the soft rock is shown in Fig. 10.

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FIG. 9
Model device installation.

FIG. 10
CT scan of model test.

CT SCAN RESULTS OF MODEL TEST

Through the proportioning test of cement, gypsum, medium sand, early strength agent, and
water, the soft rock simulation specimen with strength and modulus value required can be
obtained. It can be used more conveniently for the model test of the rock-socketed pile in soft
rock upon the requirement of stable strength for 7 days. For the rock-socketed pile in soft
rock, the simulated strength is 1.5 MPa, and the model pile diameter is 24 mm. The pile body
is roughened with knurling, and the depth of the rock-socket is 5d (120 mm). The over-
burden pressure of the pile-surrounding soil is 0 kPa. The model pile test arrangement is
shown in Fig. 11, and the model pile static load test Q-s curve is shown in Fig. 12. The axial
photos of the CT scan of the model pile at different piercing depths are shown in Fig. 13.
As shown in Fig. 12, the Q-s curve obtained by the pile foundation model test belongs
to a type with slow change; when the load is less than 8.91 kN (the initial settlement point),
the settlement of the pile top is very small (less than 2.0 mm). The vertical load is mainly in

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FIG. 11
CT scan with no pile piercing.

FIG. 12
Static load test Q-s curve of
model pile.

existence to overcome the friction of the pile side and then extend to the end resistance
contribution, and when the end resistance is small, the pile piercing is very small; when the
inflection point or critical point of the Q-s curve occurs at the pile top settlement of 4 mm,
the vertical compressive ultimate bearing capacity of the model pile is 9.93 kN. It increases
by about 2.3 MPa compared with the end resistance at the initial settlement point, and
larger end resistance often results in larger piercing; a great increment happens to the
model pile upon a load of more than 9.93 kN.
In CT scanning photos, substances of different densities are embodied in different
grayscale values. The smaller the density, the greater the grayscale value, and it appears
even darker in the CT photos. As can be seen from Fig. 11, the model piles made of

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HUANG ET AL. ON VISUALIZATION OF MODEL TEST 1635

FIG. 13
CT scan photos at different
model pile depths (pile with a
diameter of 24 mm, pile
knurling, rock-socketed depth
of 5d, overburden pressure of
0 kPa).

aluminum have the largest density and are white; simulation densities of soft rock around
the pile and at the bottom of the pile follow by gray; the horizontal marked layer in the soft
rock around the pile and at the bottom of the pile is the rubber membrane, of which the
density is the smallest and is dark gray. In addition, the density of the nylon material used
by the model cylinder is close to that of the rubber membrane, and it is also dark gray.

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As shown in Fig. 13, when the piercing of the model pile increases gradually, the
spherical cavity expansion at the bottom of the pile becomes more pronounced. There
is a compacted spherical diffusion zone at the bottom of the pile, and the color of the
compacted zone is lighter than that of the noncompacted soft rock zone in the CT photos;
when piercing deformation is large (greater than 28 mm), the pile-surrounding soft rock
appears with significant shear deformation. The greater the piercing deformation, the
greater the shear deformation, and the shear deformation near the bottom of the pile
is more significant; the closer it is to the pile, the greater the shear strain, and the influence
range of the shear strain is 1.0d (d is the pile diameter) around the pile, and cracks appear
in the soft rock in this area (the color of the cracks is deeper than that of the soft rock in the
CT photo). The greater the shear strain, the greater the crack range. The settlement of
the Q-s curve is a steep drop point of 4 mm. When the model pile is pierced 4 mm deep,
the shear deformation of the pile-surrounding soft rock is not obvious, and the spherical
compacted expansion zone at the bottom of the pile is just distinguishable, but it is not as
clear as the one seen when the model pile is pieced into 10 mm. The vertical load failure
mode and the end resistance calculation method of rock-socketed pile in soft rock can be
obtained by piercing deformation.

Failure Mode of Rock-Socketed Pile in Soft Rock

The pile end failure modes of rock-socketed pile in soft rock are scanned by CT, as shown
in Fig. 14. At the unmarked layer (Fig. 14a), the pile end deformation form cannot be
determined, but it can be seen by the gray scale that it is lighter at about 1.2d under the pile
end than the surrounding color. The lighter color shows a greater density, indicating that
the soft rock in the area is compacted; for the same test conditions, increase the marked
layer as shown in Fig. 14b, and it can be known that a small vertical settlement occurs at
the range of 1d below the pile end. Moreover, the deformation form of the soft rock of the
pile end is spherical (not completely spherical), and the spherical part above the pile end is
missing. The shape of the sphere is expanded outward, and the range of the sphere is

FIG. 14
CT scan images (pile with a
diameter of 24 mm, pile
knurling, rock-socketed depth
of 5d, overlying load of
300 kPa).

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HUANG ET AL. ON VISUALIZATION OF MODEL TEST 1637

slightly lighter, indicating that the sphere range is larger because of the increase of the
piercing density of the pile end, and the closer it is to the pile end, the greater the density
is. There is no uplift deformation in the horizontal marked layer, and no sliding surface
appears.
The embedment of the marked layer weakens the bond between the upper and lower
soft rock. The soft rock is divided into a certain thickness, and there is no tensile strength
between the layers, which is not in line with the actual situation. Therefore, a tension crack
is produced at the initial position at the bottom of the pile after the layout of the marked
layer. But, as can be seen from Fig. 14a, this is the negative impact of the marked layer,
which will not appear in the actual working condition.
In order to further prove the reliability of the law of the marked layer, the comparison
is made between the pile side with the marked layer and that without the marked layer. As
shown in Fig. 15b, there is no marked layer on the pile side, and only the marked layer is
arranged in a certain range at the bottom of the pile. It can be seen that the deformation
form of the soft rock of the pile end is obviously spherical, and the range of influence is
about 1.3d. It can be clearly judged that the deformation form of the pile end without the
marked layer at the pile side is consistent with that of the one with the marked layer at the
pile end (as shown in Fig. 15a). However, there are still tensile cracks at the initial position
of the pile bottom, which is affected by the marked layer at the pile end, but the layout of
the marked layer is effective enough to capture the bearing mechanism at the pile end, and
the law obtained is reliable.
Ladanyi (1961) pointed out that the deformation bubble under the pile end upon load
in sandy soil was very similar to the spherical hole expansion in an infinite medium.
Kishida et al. (1973), Yasufuku and Hyde (1995), Kuwajima, Hyodo, and Hyde (2009),
and Aoyama et al. (2016) obtained the same findings by marking excavation techniques.
It is concluded that the penetration mechanism of the pile in the sandy soil is more rea-
sonable by the analysis of the spherical cavity expansion model, and the end resistance
calculation model of the spherical cavity expansion is established (refer to Fig. 16).
According to the CT scan results of the model test, under the condition of different
overburden pressure, rock-socketed depth, pile roughness, etc., they are all the spherical

FIG. 15
CT scanning photos (pile with a
diameter of 24 mm, pile
knurling, rock-socketed depth
of 5d, overlying load of
300 kPa).

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FIG. 16
Schematic diagram of soil
spherical cavity expansion
at the pile end (Yasufuku and
Hyde 1995).

cavity expansion below the pile end upon ultimate load, and the impact of the depth of
1∼1.3d. When cohesive force of simulated specimens of soft rock, c = 0.344 MPa; internal
friction angle, φ = 43.4°; and horizontal angle of rigid cone at the pile end,
ψ = π=4 + φ=2 = 66.7°; the depth of the cone at the pile end is d=2 · tgψ = d=2 ×
tg66.7° = 1.2d. It can be seen that the hypothetical relationship between the horizontal angle
of the rigid cone at the pile end in sandy soil and the internal friction angle assumed by
Yasufuku and Hyde (1995) is also applicable to the rock-socketed pile in soft rock. The
analytical solution of the resistance at the pile end can be obtained by considering the static
equilibrium or the moment-equilibrium of the spherical body at the pile end.

Conclusion
In visualization technology, it is CT technology that can really realize the process of visu-
alization. The model cylinder is made of nylon material, the reaction column is made of
aluminum alloy, and the model pile is made of aluminum, which ensures that no artifact
occurs during the CT scan.
The rubber membrane–marked layer, which is freely deformable, is set in the pile-
surrounding soft rock, and it is possible to obtain the ideal visualization effect under the
premise that the bearing mechanism and failure mode of rock-socketed pile in soft rock are
not influenced.
The soft rock outside the range of 1.0d of the pile is not influenced by the piercing and
shearing of the pile, and the radial influence range of the soft rock at the pile end is larger
than that of the pile-surrounding soft rock; the vertical influence range of the pile end is

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HUANG ET AL. ON VISUALIZATION OF MODEL TEST 1639

about 1.2d, and the influence area is spherical, which demonstrates the failure mode of
spherical cavity expansion of a rock-socketed pile end in soft rock.
By introducing CT visualization technology into the physical model test of single
piles, the visualization research of rock-socketed piles in soft rock under different pile
top loads can be realized, and the failure mode and bearing mechanism of rock-socketed
piles in soft rock can be visually revealed.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research is financially supported by the Wuhan University Experiment Technology
Project Funding and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No.
51378403).

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Aoyama, S., Mao, W., Goto, S., and Towhata, I., 2016, “Application of Advanced
Procedures to Model Tests on the Subsoil Behavior under Vertical Loading of
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10.1007/s40098-015-0152-8
Durgunoglu, H. T. and Mitchell, J. K., 1973, Static Penetration Resistance of Soils, Report
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