From Gene to Protein

PowerPoint® Lecture Presentations for

Biology
Eighth Edition
Neil Campbell and Jane Reece

Lectures by Chris Romero, updated by Erin Barley with contributions from Joan Sharp
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Overview: The Flow of Genetic Information

• The information content of DNA is in the form

of specific sequences of nucleotides
• The DNA inherited by an organism leads to
specific traits by dictating the synthesis of
proteins
• Proteins are the links between genotype and
phenotype
• Gene expression, the process by which DNA
directs protein synthesis, includes two stages:
transcription and translation
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Molecular Components of Translation

• A cell translates an mRNA message into

protein with the help of transfer RNA (tRNA)
• Molecules of tRNA are not identical:
– Each carries a specific amino acid on one end
– Each has an anticodon on the other end; the
anticodon base-pairs with a complementary
codon on mRNA

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig. 17-13

Amino
Polypeptide acids

tRNA with
amino acid
attached
Ribosom
e

p
Tr Phe Gly

tRNA

Anticodon

5′ Codons 3′
mRNA
The Structure and Function of Transfer RNA

• A tRNA molecule consists of a single

A
RNA
strand that is only about 80 nucleotides
C
C
long
• Flattened into one plane to reveal its base
pairing, a tRNA molecule looks like a
cloverleaf

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Ribosomes

• Ribosomes facilitate specific coupling of tRNA

anticodons with mRNA codons in protein
synthesis
• The two ribosomal subunits (large and small)
are made of proteins and ribosomal RNA
(rRNA)

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

• A ribosome has three
binding sites for tRNA:
– The P site holds the
tRNA that carries the
growing polypeptide
chain
– The A site holds the
tRNA that carries the
next amino acid to be
added to the chain
– The E site is the exit
site, where discharged
tRNAs leave the
ribosome

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Building a Polypeptide

• The three stages of translation:

– Initiation
– Elongation
– Termination
• All three stages require protein “factors” that
aid in the translation process

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

 Ribosome Association and Initiation of Translation

• The initiation stage of translation brings

together mRNA, a tRNA with the first amino
acid, and the two ribosomal subunits
1. a small ribosomal subunit binds with mRNA
and a special initiator tRNA
2. Then the small subunit moves along the mRNA
until it reaches the start codon (AUG)
3. Proteins called initiation factors bring in the
large subunit that completes the translation
initiation complex
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 17-17

Large
ribosomal
3′ U A C 5′ P site subunit
Met 5′ A U G 3′ Met

Initiato
r GT GD
tRNA P P E A
mRNA
5′ 5′
3′ 3′
Start codon
Small
mRNA binding site ribosomal Translation initiation complex
subunit
 Elongation of the Polypeptide Chain

• During the elongation stage, amino acids are

added one by one to the preceding amino acid
• Each addition involves proteins called
elongation factors and occurs in three steps:
1. codon recognition,
2. peptide bond formation, and
3. translocation

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig. 17-18-1

Amino end
of polypeptide

E 3′
mRNA
P A
5′ sit sit
e e
Fig. 17-18-2

Amino end
of polypeptide

E 3′
mRNA
P A
5′ sit sit
e e GTP

GDP

P A
Fig. 17-18-3

Amino end
of polypeptide

E 3′
mRNA
P A
5′ sit sit
e e GTP

GDP

P A

P A
Fig. 17-18-4

Amino end
of polypeptide

E 3′
mRNA
P A
Ribosome ready for 5′ sit sit
next aminoacyl tRNA e e GTP

GDP

E E

P A P A

GDP
GTP

P A
Termination of Translation sar r

• Termination occurs when a stop codon in the

mRNA reaches the A site of the ribosome
• The A site accepts a protein called a release
factor
• The release factor causes the addition of a
water molecule instead of an amino acid
• This reaction releases the polypeptide, and the
translation assembly then comes apart

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig. 17-19-1

Release
factor

3′
5′
Stop codon
(UAG, UAA, or UGA)
Fig. 17-19-2

Release Free
factor polypeptid
e

3′ 3′
5′ 5′ 2 GTP
Stop codon 2
(UAG, UAA, or UGA) GDP
Fig. 17-19-3

Release Free
factor polypeptid
e
5′
3′ 3′
3′
5′ 5′ 2 GTP
Stop codon 2
(UAG, UAA, or UGA) GDP
Completing and Targeting the Functional Protein

• Often translation is not sufficient to make a

functional protein
• Polypeptide chains are modified after
translation
• Completed proteins are targeted to specific
sites in the cell

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Variation in protein structure: Basis of Biological
diversity

• chemical structures of the different amino acids

• bonding of amino acids
• four levels of protein structure
Protein Folding and Post-Translational
Modifications
• During and after synthesis, a polypeptide chain
spontaneously coils and folds into its
three-dimensional shape
• Proteins may also require post-translational
modifications before doing their job
• Some polypeptides are activated by enzymes
that cleave them
• Other polypeptides come together to form the
subunits of a protein

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

• primary structure – sequence of a.a. in the linar *linear
backbone of the polypeptide; specified by sequence of
nucleotides via mRNA; helps determine higher order of
protein formation
• secondary structure – certain regular or
repeating configurations in space assumed by
a.a. lying close to each other in the polypeptide
chain; alpha helix and beta pleated sheet;
describes a.a. within areas in the polypeptide
chain
• tertiary structure – defines 3-dimensional
conformation of the entire chain with twists, turns
and loops;

Tertiary structure of respiratory

pigment, myoglobin. Bound
oxygen atom is shown in red.
Con’t. – tertiary structure

- stabilizes molecule
a. covalent disulfide bonds between cystine
residues forming a.a. cysteine
b. polar hydrophyllic R groups are located on
surface where they can interact with water,
c. nonpolar hydrophobic R groups located
inside, avoiding water)
- product of primary structure
• quaternary structure – most intricate degree of organization
still considered a single molecule
• a protein must have two or more peptide chains forming
subunits. The subunits can be different or identical, and in most
cases they are arranged symmetrically.

Quaternary level of protein

structure as seen in hemoglobin.
Four chains (two alpha and two
beta) interact with four heme
groups to form functional
molecule.
While gene expression differs among the domains of
life, the concept of a gene is universal

• Archaea are prokaryotes, but share many

features of gene expression with eukaryotes

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Comparing Gene Expression in Bacteria, Archaea,
and Eukarya
• Bacteria and eukarya differ in their RNA
polymerases, termination of transcription and
ribosomes; archaea tend to resemble eukarya
in these respects
• Bacteria can simultaneously transcribe and
translate the same gene since they have no nucleus
• In eukarya, transcription and translation are
separated by the nuclear envelope
• In archaea, transcription and translation are
likely coupled
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 17-24
RNA polymerase

DNA
mRNA

Polyribosome

Direction of 0.25
RNA transcription µm
polymeras
e DNA

Polyribosome
Polypeptide
(amino end)

Ribosom
e
mRNA (5′ end)
What Is a Gene? Revisiting the Question

• The idea of the gene itself is a unifying concept

of life
• We have considered a gene as:
– A discrete unit of inheritance
– A region of specific nucleotide sequence in a
chromosome
– A DNA sequence that codes for a specific
polypeptide chain

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig. 17-25
DNA
TRANSCRIPTION

3′ -A
ly
Po

RNA
5′ RNA polymeras
transcript
e
RNA PROCESSING
Exon
RNA transcript
(pre-mRNA)
Intron
Aminoacyl-tRNA
y-A
Pol synthetase
NUCLEUS

Amin
o AMINO ACID ACTIVATION
CYTOPLASM acid
tRNA

mRNA Growing
polypeptide
p 3′
Ca
A -A
Activated ly
P amino acid Po
Ribosomal
E
subunits

Cap
5′
TRANSLATION

E A
Anticodon

Codon

Ribosome
end