O LEVEL’S

BIOLOGY (5090)
 Chapter #1

The Cells
The Cells
 The Cells
*Key Definition: “Cell is the basic unit of
life that makes up living things.”
 The Light Microscope
• The light microscope has 2 convex lenses, with magnification up to
x1500.
• The eyepiece lens (ocular lens) is usually x10 and there is a choice of
objective lenses. (usually x4, x10 and x40), set in a nose piece which
can be rotated (turned around)
• Light from a mirror or a bulb is projected through the specimen
placed on a microscope slide.
• The light passes through the objective and eyepiece lenses,
magnifying the image so you can see the detail of the specimen.
• You can use coarse and fine focus knobs to make the image clearer.
• Images produced by a light microscopes are called photo micrographs
 How to use a microscope
1) Adjust mirror and slide to stage.
2) Switch to lower magnification and focus.
3) Increase magnification and focus & repeat for highest
magnification.
4) Draw cell diagram with a sharp pencil.
(Draw to scale and include magnification)
 The Electron Microscope
• An electron microscope is a microscope that uses
a beam of electrons as a source of illumination.
• The Electron microscope produces a detailed
image. (not clear)
• It has more resolution than the light microscope.
• It always produces black and white images.
• Images produced by an electron microscope are
called electron micrographs.
• You need a screen or a computer to look at the
images produced.
 Characteristics Light Microscope Electron Microscope
1) Magnification x1500-2000 upto x10,000,000
2) Resolution 200nm 0.5nm
3) Image produced visible light rays electron beam
4) Image focused by glass objective lens electromagnetic lenses
5) Image viewed by glass ocular lenses fluoroscent screen
6) Specimen placed on glass slide copper mesh
7) Organisms maybe alive always dead
8) Specimen requires not always stain/treatment requires stains/beam
9) Images colour coloured images black and white
 How to make a slide (plant cell)
1) An onion is cut into quarters.
2) One of the fleshy scale leaves is removed.
3) Snapping leaf backwards exposes the epidermis.
4) A thin inner layer of epidermis is peeled off.
5) Epidermis is placed on slide and covered with 2-3 drops of
distilled water.
6) Coverslip is then lowered and placed over it.
7) A drop of stain is put at one end of slide.
8) Stain is drawn over specimen using a small piece of filter paper
9) Draw adjacent cells out of a photomicrograph of a plant tissue.
(make sure to make double outline to show cell walls)
 How to make a slide (animal cell)
1) Take a piece of liver e.g: chicken liver.
2) Crush the chicken liver make a thin film of it.
3) Place it on a microscope slide
4) Add a dye: methylene blue or iodine and then
place a coverslip on it and examine it.
5) Draw 4 cells out of a photomicrograph of a liver
cell.
(don’t draw double line as an outline of the cell because it has no cell walls)
Cutting Structures for Samples

Transverse Section Longitudinal Section

Cutting Structures for Samples

Transverse Section Longitudinal Section

Examine under a microscope

Animal Cells Plant Cells

 Practical Work
Specification#1: “Examine under the microscope, animal cells and plant
cells from any suitable locally available material, using an appropriate
temporary staining technique, such as methylene blue or iodine solution.”
1) Onion Epidermis Cells
2) Plant Cells with chloroplast
3) Cheek Cells
4) Human Skin Cells
5) Liver Cells
 Practical Work

Precautions:
1) Eye Protection must be worn.
2) Take care when using a scalpel.
3) Follow your teachers guidance.
4) Take care using the stains:
(iodine solution and methylene blue stains can stain
the skin and clothes).
 Practical #1
Onion Epidermal Cells
• Preparing a slide of onion epidermis layer:
1. Peel off the epidermal layer of the curly onion leaf using forceps.
2. Peel it from the incurve of the onion bulb.
3. Place the epidermal tissue on a glass microscope slide.
4. Using a scapel, cut out 1cm square of tissue & arrange it in slide’s centre.
5. Add 2-3 drops of iodine solution.
6. Support a cover slip with one edge resting near to the angle of 45°
7. Gently lower the cover slip over the onion tissue avoiding any air bubbles.
8. Leave the slide for about 5 minutes, this allows the iodine solution stain to
react with the specimen. ( stains the cell nuclei: pale yellow and starch grains
blue)
9. Place the slide on to the microscope stage, choose the lowest power
objective lens and focus on the specimen.
10. Increase the magnification using the other objective lenses, under high
power resolution the cells are observed.
 Practical #2
Plant’s with chloroplast
• Preparing a slide of cells with chloroplast:
1. Using forceps, remove a leaf from a moss plant.
2. Place the leaf in the center of the microscope slide and add 1-
2 drops of water.
3. Place a cover slip over the leaf. Using forceps, a mounted
needle or wooden splint, support a coverslip with one edge,
resting near to the cheek cell sample at an angle of 45°. Gently
lower the coverslip over the tissue. Avoid trapping air bubbles.
4. Examine the cells with high power objective lenses of a
microscope.
5. The green color chloroplasts will be seen.
 Practical #3
Human Cheek Cells
Examining a slide of human cheek cells:
1. Precautions: treat contaminated items with disinfectants or by
autoclaving.
2. Rinseyour mouth with water to remove extra fragments of food
3. Take a cotton bud from a freshedly open pack.
4. Rub the cotton bud lightly on the inside of your cheeks and gums to
collect cheek cells from saliva.
5. Rub that cotton bud on the center of a clean microscope slide, leaving a
sample of saliva.
6. Repeat if the sample is too small. Then drop the cotton bud in to a
container of absolute alcohal or disinfectant.
7. Add 2-3 drops of methylene blue dye. (stains parts of cheek cells making
nuclei more visible)
8. Using forceps, a mounted needle or wooden splint, support a coverslip
with one edge, resting near to the cheek cell sample at an angle of 45°.
Gently lower the coverslip over the tissue. Avoid trapping air bubbles.
9. Leave slide for few minutes for methylene blue to react with specimen.
10. Place the slide on to the microscope stage, choose the lowest power
objective lens and focus on the specimen. Increase the magnification
slightly.
 Practical #4
Human Skin Cells
• Preparing human skin cells slide:
1. Wash your wrist well, then press some transparent sticky
tape on to the cleaned area of skin.
2. Remove the tape and stick it to a microscope slide.
3. Place the slide on the microscope stage.
4. Using forceps, a mounted needle or wooden splint, support
a coverslip with one edge, resting near to the cheek cell
sample at an angle of 45°. Gently lower the coverslip over
the tissue. Avoid trapping air bubbles.
5. Look for cells. You should be able to see nuclei in them.
6. If you add methylene blue stain to the sample, the nuclei
will take the stain making it more distinct.
 Practical #5
Liver Cells
• Preparing Liver cells slide:
1. Take a piece of liver e.g: chicken liver.
2. Crush the chicken liver make a thin film of it.
3. Place crushed liver sample on a microscope slide.
4. Using forceps, a mounted needle or wooden splint,
support a coverslip with one edge, resting near to
the cheek cell sample at an angle of 45°. Gently
lower the coverslip over the tissue. Avoid trapping
air bubbles.
5. Add a dye: methylene blue or iodine and then
place a coverslip on it and examine it.
Specification#2: “Draw diagrams to represent observations of
the animal and plant cells examined above.”
Specification#2: “Draw diagrams to represent observations of the
animal and plant cells examined above.”

Plant Cells Animal Cells

Draw adjacent cells out of a Draw 4 adjacent cells out of a photomicrograph
photomicrograph of a plant tissue. of an animal tissue.
(single line as an outline due to no cell walls)
(double outline to show cell walls)
Examine under a microscope

Animal Cells Plant Cells

 Cell’s Structure

Animal Cells Plant Cells

Specification#3: “Identify on diagrams, photomicrographs or electron
micrographs, the ribosomes, mitochondria, nucleus, cytoplasm and cell
membrane in an animal cell.”
1. Nucleus Animal Cell’s Structure
2. Cytoplasm
3. Cell Plasma Membrane
4. Mitochondria
5. Ribosomes
6. Endoplasmic reticulum
7. Golgi Bodies
8. Peroxisome
9. Microtubules
10. micro filament centrioles
11. micro villi
12. centrosome matrix
13. centrioles
14. Lysosome
Photo-micrograph of an Animal Cell
Electron-micrograph of an Animal Cell
Specification#4: “Identify on diagrams, photomicrographs or electron micrographs,
the ribosomes, mitochondria, chloroplasts, nucleus, sap vacuole, cytoplasm, cell membrane
and cellulose cell wall in a plant cell.”
1. Nucleus Plant Cell’s Structure
2. Cytoplasm
3. Cell Plasma Membrane
4. Cellulose Cell Wall
5. Mitochondria
6. Ribosomes
7. Cell Sap Vacuole
8. Chloroplast
9. Endoplasmic reticulum
10. Golgi Bodies
11. Peroxisome
12. Microtubules
13. micro filament centrioles
14. Lysosome
Photo-micrograph of a Plant Cell
Electron-micrograph of a Plant Cell
Specification#5: “Describe the structure of a bacterial cell, limited to:
ribosomes, circular deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and plasmids, cytoplasm, cell
membrane and cell wall.”
Bacterial Cell’s Structure
1. Capsule
2. Cell Wall
3. Plasma Membrane
4. Cytoplasm
5. Ribosomes
6. Plasmid
7. Pilli
8. Flagella
9. Nucleoid Circular DNA
 Cell Organelle’s Functions
• Specification#6: “Describe the functions of the above structures in
animal, plant and bacterial cells.”
Animal Cell Plant Cell Bacterial Cell

Eukaryotic Cells Prokaryotic Cell

 Cell Organelle’s Functions
All cells have 3 features in common: cytoplasm, cell membrane and DNA

Animal Cell Plant Cell Bacterial Cell

 Animal Cells
1. Nucleus
2. Cytoplasm
3. Cell Plasma Membrane
4. Mitochondria
5. Ribosomes
6. Endoplasmic reticulum
7. Golgi Bodies
8. Peroxisome
9. Microtubules
10. micro filament centrioles
11. micro villi
12. centrosome matrix
13. centrioles
14. Lysosome
 Animal Cells
Cytoplasm
1. The fluid part of the cytoplsm is called Cytosol.
2. 90% of the cytoplasm of liquid part is water with
molecules of salt and sugar dissolved in it.
3. Many chemical reactions take place inorder to keep the
cell alive by providing energy and making substances that
the cell need.
4. All the cell organelles and small particles like starch, food
reserves like oil droplets or granules (small particles of
starch) lie and float in the cytoplasm.
5. In this solution larger molecules of lipids (fat+oil) and
proteins are suspended.
 Cell Membrane
1. A thin layer of cytoplasm around the outermost part
of an animal cell.
2. It is a partially permeable membrane as it stops the
cell content from escaping and controls which
substances can enter and leave the cell.
3. Generally it allows oxygen, water and food to enter
the cell.
4. It allows waste products or manufactured products to
leave the cell.
5. It acts as a barrier and prevents ions, polar molecules
and other harmful substances from entering the cell.
6. Cell membrane maintains the structure and chemical
reactions of the cytoplasm by regulating things in an
out of the cell.
 Nucleus
1. A Nucleus is a double membrane structure (nuclear
envelope) fixed in a cytoplasm.
chromatin network
2. It’s present in all Eukaryotic cells and fungal cells.
3. It is the control centre of the cell. cell
nucleolus membrane
4. It has nuclear pores which connects inner
nucleoplasm with the outside of the nucleus.
5. Chromatin network has the DNA which contains
information to make proteins.
6. Nucleolus makes the ribosomes.
7. Ribosomes are made in the nucleolus and then they
are exported on the cytoplasm. nuclear
8. Nucleus job is to maintain the integrity of the genes envelope
and to control the activities of the cell by regulating
gene expressions.
9. It has directions for the proteins for protein synthesis. ribosomes Rough Endoplasmic
Reticulum
 Nucleus
10. Nucleus controls the type and quantity of the enzymes producedby the
cytoplasm. In this way, it regulates the chemical changes that take place in the
cell, as a result the nucleus controls what a cell will be.
e.g: a blood cell, a muscle cell or maybe a liver cell etc.
11. Nucleus controls the cell division, when existing cells divide, new cells are
produced.
12. A cell can’treproduce without a nucleus.
13. Inside the nucleus are thread like structures called chromosomes which can be
seen more easily at the time of celldivision
 Ribosomes
1. Ribosomes are the tiny organelles
present in the cytoplasm.
2. They maybe heldonto a membrane but
can also be found freely.
3. They are responsible forthe protein
synthesis in the cell.
4. DNA in the nucleus is copied by mRNA
which moves out into the cytoplasm
and binds to the ribosomes and
proteins are built then.
• The process of Protein synthesis:
1. DNA in nucleus acts as a template.
2. mRNA is processed and released into the cytoplasm.
3. mRNA binds to ribosomes.
4. tRNA carries amino acid to mRNA.
5. Anti Codon-codon complementary base pairing occurs.
6. Peptide chain is transferred from resident tRNA to incoming tRNA.
7. tRNA departs.
8. Protein modification after translation.
9. DNA in the nucleus is dictating this sequence and the amino acids are
brought in the right sequence and they are put together and a
protein is made.
 Mitochondria
1. Mitochondria are tiny organelles which may appear
slipper-shaped, circular or oval when viewed in section.
2. In 3-Dimensions, it may be spherical, rod like or extended.
3. It is the power house of the cell and are present mostly in
regions of frequent chemical activity.
4. They are responsible for releasing energy from food
substances through the process of aerobic respiration.
5. It produces ATP.
6. It’s called universal energy currency because it’smolecule
is found in every living organism.
7. Presence of ribosomes inside it ensure that it can make
their own proteins, because protein synthesis takes place
in the presence of proteins.
8. It is present for aerobic respiration which releases energy in
the cell.
 Plant Cells
1. Nucleus
2. Cytoplasm
3. Cell Plasma Membrane
4. Cellulose Cell Wall
5. Mitochondria
6. Ribosomes
7. Cell Sap Vacuole
8. Chloroplast
9. Endoplasmic reticulum
10. Golgi Bodies
11. Peroxisome
12. Microtubules
13. micro filament centrioles
14. Lysosome
 Plant Cells
Cytoplasm
1. The fluid part of the cytoplsm is called Cytosol.
2. 90% of the cytoplasm of liquid part is water with
molecules of salt and sugar dissolved in it.
3. Many chemical reactions take place inorder to keep the
cell alive by providing energy and making substances that
the cell need.
4. All the cell organelles and small particles like starch, food
reserves like oil droplets or granules (small particles of
starch) lie and float in the cytoplasm.
5. In this solution larger molecules of lipids (fat+oil) and
proteins are suspended.
 Cell Membrane
1. A thin layer of cytoplasm around the inner part of a
plant cell.
2. It is a partially permeable membrane as it stops the
cell content from escaping and controls which
substances can enter and leave the cell.
3. Generally it allows oxygen, water and food to enter
the cell.
4. It allows waste products or manufactured products to
leave the cell.
5. It acts as a barrier and prevents ions, polar molecules
and other harmful substances from entering the cell.
6. Cell membrane maintains the structure and chemical
reactions of the cytoplasm by regulating things in an
out of the cell.
 Nucleus
1. A Nucleus is a double membrane structure (nuclear
envelope) fixed in a cytoplasm.
chromatin network
2. It’s present in all Eukaryotic cells and fungal cells.
3. It is the control centre of the cell. cell
nucleolus membrane
4. It has nuclear pores which connects inner
nucleoplasm with the outside of the nucleus.
5. Chromatin network has the DNA which contains
information to make proteins.
6. Nucleolus makes the ribosomes.
7. Ribosomes are made in the nucleolus and then they
are exported on the cytoplasm. nuclear
8. Nucleus job is to maintain the integrity of the genes envelope
and to control the activities of the cell by regulating
gene expressions.
9. It has directions for the proteins for protein synthesis. ribosomes Rough Endoplasmic
Reticulum
 Ribosomes
1. Ribosomes are the tiny organelles
present in the cytoplasm.
2. They maybe held onto a membrane but
can also be found freely.
3. They are responsible for the protein
synthesis in the cell.
4. DNA in the nucleus is copied by mRNA
which moves out into the cytoplasm
and binds to the ribosomes and
proteins are built then.
 Mitochondria
1. Mitochondria are tiny organelles which may appear
slipper-shaped, circular or oval when viewed in section.
2. In 3-Dimensions, it may be spherical, rod like or extended.
3. It is the power house of the cell and are present mostly in
regions of frequent chemical activity.
4. They are responsible for releasing energy from food
substances through the process of aerobic respiration.
5. It produces ATP.
6. It’s called universal energy currency because it’s molecule
is found in every living organism.
7. Presence of ribosomes inside it ensure that it can make
their own proteins, because protein synthesis takes place
in the presence of proteins.
8. It is present for aerobic respiration which releases energy
in the cell.
 Cell Wall
1. Cell Wall is the outermost boundary of the
plants cell.
2. It is made up of Cellulose and other
compounds.
3. It maintains shape, prevents the plant cell
from bursting.
4. It is fully permeable and not selective unlike
cell membrane which is present at the inside
of cell wall.
5. It is a non living part of the plant which allows
water and dissolved substances to pass
through it.
 Cell Sap Vacuole
1. Central Vacuole inside a plant cell is a large fluid filled space.
2. It contains cell sap - a watery solution of sugar, salts and sometimes
pigments.
3. There’s only one central vacuole in plant cell.
4. It takes up a large amount of space in a cell and pushes cytoplasm
outwards so that it just forms a thin lining inside the cell.
5. It is formed by the fusion of many membrane vesicles (tonoplast)
6. It acts as a storage part of the plant’s cell as the fluid inside it called
sap, store organic compounds such as proteins and digestive enzymes
and inorganic ions such as pottasium and chloride.
7. It’s used as a disposal site for by-products that could damage the cell.
8. It also contains pigments which could color the plant. e.g: in Beet
root.
9. It aids in plant growth by absorbing water.
10. It supports the structure of leaves and flowers as it is the outward
pressure of the vacuole on the cytoplasm and cell wall that makes
plant cells and their tissues firm.
 Chloroplast
1. Chloroplast are the organelles found in plant
cell which contains the green pigment called
chlorophyll.
2. Chlorophyll gives green color to the plant.
3. It plays the main role in Photosynthesis.
4. Chlorophyll converts light energy into the
chemical energy.
5. It needs a lot of enzymes to perform the
process of photosynthesis, therefore it contains
a lot of DNA and ribosomes inside it to make it
own enzymes.
 SUMMARY
ANIMAL AND PLANT BOTH Name of Parts Description Found where Function
Jelly like with particles & enclosed by the cell contains the cell organelles/ site of
Cytoplasm organelles. membrane. chemical reactions.
Partially permeable layer that around cytoplasm prevents cell contents from
Cell Membrane forms the boundary around the escaping/controls what enters or
cytoplasm. leaves the cell.
Circular or oval structure inside the cytoplasm controls cell division/ cell
Nucleus containing DNA in the form of development and cell activities.
chromosomes.
circular, oval or slipper-shaped inside the cytoplasm responsible for aerobic respiration.
Mitochondria organelles.
small, circular structures attached inside the cytoplasm responsible for protein synthesis.
Ribosomes to membranes or lying free.
a tough, non living layer madeup around the outside prevents plant cells from
Cell Wall
PLANTS ONLY

of cellulose surrounding cell of plant cells. bursting/allows water and salts to

membrane. pass through freely.
Fluid filled space surrounded by a inside the cytoplasm Contains salts and sugar/helps to
Vacuole membrane. keep plant cell firm
an organelle containing inside the cytoplasm traps light energy for
chloroplast chlorophyll. photosynthesis.
 Bacterial Cells

1. Capsule
2. Cell Wall
3. Plasma Membrane
4. Cytoplasm
5. Ribosomes
6. Plasmid
7. Pilli
8. Flagella
9. Nucleoid Circular DNA
 Structure
1. Bacterial Cells are called prokaryotes.
2. Very small organisms/ uni cellular/ single cells/ not often
more than 0.1mm in length/ 1000x smaller than plant cell.
3. It can only be seen under a high magnification microscope.
4. It’s cell wall is madeup of peptidoglycan - a complicated
mixture of proteins, carbohydrate (sugar) and lipids.
5. It may or may not have a gelatin capsule around it.
6. Inside the cell wall is the cytoplasm, which may contain
granules small particles of glycogen, lipids and other food
reserves.
7. Loop of DNA in coiled present inside it/ no nucleus.
8. Large no. of ribosomes float freely in the cytoplasm.
(smaller than the ribosomes present in animal & plant cell)
9. Some have one or more flagella for locomotion and some
plasmids sometimes.
 Functions
1. Capsule- A protective layer.
2. Cell Wall- Prevents the cell from bursting, allows
water and salts to pass through this freely permeable
membrane.
3. Cell Membrane- Prevents Cell content from escaping
& controls what enters or leaves the cells.
4. Cytoplasm- Contains all cell orgnelles inside it.
5. Circular DNA- Controls cell division/ cell
development and cell activities.
6. Plasmids- Contain genes that carry genetic
information to help the process of the survival and
reproduction of bacterium.
7. Ribosomes- a site of protein synthesis/ makes
proteins inside a bacterium cell.
 Bacterium Cell Division

“This is A-sexual Reproduction of Bacterium”

Each of the divided cells divide further and the cycle continues
~THE END~
 Bacterium Cell Division
1. Each cell of Bacterium contains a single chromosomes made up of a
circular strand of DNA.
2. The Chromosome is not surrounded by a nuclear membrane.
3. It is coiled up to fill a small part of the cell.
4. There are also many smaller circular plasmids present which are also
made up of DNA.
5. Plasmids are used by scientists in the process of genetic modification
because it is relatively easy to insert genetic material into them.
 SUMMARY
Name of Parts Description Found where Function
Capsule Gelatin Capsule layer Outer layer of cell wall A gelatin’s outer protective layer.
Outside of the bacterial Prevents the cell from bursting,
A tough non living layer, allows water and salts to pass
Bacterial Cell Structure

Cell Wall Cell/ surrounding the through this freely permeable

madeup of peptidoglycan cell membrane. membrane.

A partially permeable layer Prevents Cell content from escaping

Cell Membrane Around the cytoplasm & controls what enters or leaves the
that surrounds thecytoplasm cells.
Cytoplasm Jelly like/ contains organelles surrounded by cell Contains all cell orgnelles inside it
and other particles membrane

Circular DNA A single circular chromosomes Controls cell division/ cell

Inside the cytoplasm development and cell activities
inside the Contain genes that carry genetic
Plasmids Small Circular pieces of DNA information to help the process of
cytoplasm/present in the survival and reproduction of
one or more quantity. bacterium.

Ribosomes Small, Circular Structures Inside the cytoplasm A site of protein synthesis/ makes
proteins inside a bacterium cell.