The Continental 750-Horsepower Aircooled Diesel Engine

Author(s): Herbert H. Haas and Earl R. Klinge

Source: SAE Transactions , 1957, Vol. 65 (1957), pp. 641-656
Published by: SAE International

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44564397

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Transactions

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 The Continental
750-Horsepower Aircooled
THE tinental
tinental Motors
Ordnance
haveMotors Department
cooperatively have cooperatively
accumulated an
experience of many years in solving the peculiar
problems of armored-vehicle powerplants. Many out-
standing engines have been developed especially for
this purpose, and a number of them are in volume
production. The most important of these engines is
the AV-1790 aircooled gasoline engine installed in
A successfully 750-HP
successfully aircooled
developed withdeveloped diesel with engine the has primary been
the primary
purpose of reducing the fuel consumption of
gasoline-engined-powered combat vehicles by
approximately 40%. The new powerplant is
characterized by low fuel consumption, light
weight, and high compactness.
The basic features of the engine are: 5.75-
in. bore x 5.75-in. stroke, 1790-cu in. dis-
placement, compression ignition, 4-stroke
cycle, direct-injection system, 90-deg Vee,
12-cyl, aircooled, exhaust turbocharged.
Rated output is 750 hp at 2400 rpm with a
potential output increase up to 850 hp.
Engine oil coolers transmission oil coolers,
and cooling fans are mounted on the engine
and form an integrally cooled powerplant.
Volume
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Diesel Engine
Herbert H. Haas and Earl R. Klinge,
Continental Aviation and Engineering Corp.
This paper was presented at the SAE Annual Meeting, Detroit, Jan. 17, 1957.
the M-48 medium tank. This engine installation typi-
of the Army accumulated and Con- an fies the special requirements of combat vehicles. These
requirements might be stated basically as:
1. Minimum bulk for the total power package
including all cooling of engine and transmission.
2. Maximum power within the limits of the mili-
tary fuel specifications.
3. Adequate cooling of the power package buried
in an engine compartment with all openings on top
and with considerable airflow restrictions from ar-
mored bullet-proof airflow grilles.
4. Aircooling to minimize the problems in the
temperature extremes of arctic and desert.
5. Light-weight power package.
6. Serviceability of all items from the top or front
end of the engine.
7. Ability to function under extreme dirt condi-
tions and complete submersion in water.
Diesel Versus Spark Ignition - Although satisfac-
tory gasoline-engine powerplants resulted from the
development work of the past, there exists a strong
desire to reduce fuel consumption and increase ve-
hicle range because of the logistic fuel problem.
Various avenues of development are being pursued
to achieve this objective. One of the most obvious
matters to consider is whether or not the fuel economy
of the diesel engine could be utilized in solving this
problem without serious penalties in other areas.
The possible gain in fuel consumption is very large
65, 1957 641
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 is now available with many thousands of aircooled
125-ļ-n engines in the Army, it is possible to conclude from
DIESEL: 7 LB/HR
100
this experience and from comparable liquid-cooled
powerplants on the market, that the aircooled engine
% G AI N 75 G A I N OF DIESEL offers these advantages:
1. Power package bulk is minimum especially
50

GASOLINE ENGINE
25 IN when designed for desert conditions.
Q I I I 1 I I MILES PER GALLON 2. Power package weight is minimum.
• 8 w I
3. Cooling power is minimum especially in the
FUEL ļ extremely confined space of an armored vehicle.
CONS rrnac 6 I I 4. Cooling trouble and cooling system mainte-
nance are eliminated.
CONS rrnac

IB/HP-HR ' V
.2
5. The problem of supplying coolants in the desert
A VDS-1 790
0.0 I I 1 I I I and in the arctic is eliminated.

40 60 8 0 100
It is upon this basis that it was determined that this
PERCENT RATED SPEED new engine would be aircooled.
Fig. 1- Fuel consumption of diesel versus gasoline engine for
propeller load curve General Description

History - The predecessor of the AVDS-1790 air-

cooled diesel engine is the AV-1790 gasoline engine
which, in its various models, is currently standard
as shown in Fig. 1 . From this curve foras well
combat as from
vehicles. Some dieselization efforts on this
experience, it can be concluded thatengine the in overall
the past fuel
have shown that a redesign is nec-
consumption of the combat vehicle will drop
essary as much
to obtain a diesel engine of satisfactory life
as 40% .
at an output equal to or greater than the gasoline
Additionally, the turbocharged diesel engineengine. has However, it was desirable to maintain the
two other advantages: basic configuration of the gasoline engine which
1 , High overload capacity. represents a very suitable solution of the problems
2. Turbocharger compensates automaticallyassociated for with aircooling and power package instal-
the losses due to high altitude and high ambient tem- lation in armored vehicles. Furthermore, it reduces
perature. vehicle changes to a minimum and makes the diesel
However, to achieve this goal, there are several engine suitable for retrofit in existing installations.
pertinent points to be considered: Although the dimensions of the major parts like the
1. Build the diesel engine into the same space as crankshaft could not be the same on the diesel engine
the gasoline engine. as they were on the gasoline engine, the background
2. Maintain the same net output. of the gasoline engine is very apparent in the diesel
3. Aircool the diesel engine and satisfy the strin- engine.
gent cooling requirements. Basic Configurations - Following the basic con-
4. Cold start down to -25 F without external aid.
figuration of the gasoline engine, the new AVDS-
5. Make provisions to build a family of engines 1790ofdiesel is again a 12-cyl, 90-deg Vee engine
different sizes using basically interchangeable with major
overhead camshafts, the cooling fans located on
components as has been done on the gasoline series
of engines in production.
All these requirements could be successfully met
with the development of the aircooled Continental
AVDS-1790 diesel engine. This engine can replace
the present gasoline engine without any major pen-
alty. A moderate weight increase and some small ad-
ditions to the bulk are offset, when the total bulk of
powerplant plus fuel tank is considered. If desired,
the turbocharged diesel engine also can be overloaded
10 to 15% compared to the gasoline engine.
Aircooling - The cooling problems discussed in
this paper are the result of specific requirements of a
combat vehicle, such as bullet-proof air entrance and
exit grilles, limited space for ducts, torque converter
transmission cooling, and others. These problems are
naturally the same for liquid-cooled and aircooled en-
gine installations. Because a great deal of experience
Fig. 2- Three-quarter right-front-end view of 1790 diesel

642 SAE Transactions

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the top of the engine, and the engine oil and transmis-
sion oil coolers both mounted on the engine and
cooled by the engine fans (unit cooling). The engine
is attached directly to the transmission. Photographs
of the complete engine package are shown in Figs.
2 and 3, basic installation dimensions in Figs. 4 and
5, and cross-sectioned views in Figs. 6 and 7.
Design Topics - With the features mentioned in
the foregoing paragraphs, the similarity between the
gasoline and diesel engine ends. The high combustion
pressure, the injection system, and other characteris-
tic items of the compression ignition engine required
a new design concept. Five major objectives have
been set for the design and development of the new
Fig. 3- Three-quarter left flywheel end view of 1790 diesel
engine.
1. Provide a rigid basic engine structure which
permits high unit bearing loads and reduces stress aircooled cylinder unit, by ample oil cooling, and by
concentration and engine friction. This has been adequate cylinder spacing and at the same time, mini-
accomplished by a single-piece crankcase of high mizing the length of the accessory drive to keep the
rigidity and short stress path, by a crankshaft of gen- engine length within the given limits.
erous dimensions, and by a carefully designed bear- 3. Drive the accessories in accordance to the indi-
ing construction. vidual requirements of each. This has been accom-
2. Insure adequate cooling for cylinder and piston. plished by driving all the accessories from the fly-
This has been accomplished by careful finning of the wheel end and splitting the drive into two, a stiff

Fig. 4- Plan view of 1790

diesel installation

Volume 65, 19 57 643

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 Fig. 5- Side view of 1790
diesel installation

train for camshafts and fuel injection pumps, andcorporating

a the oil filters, control valves, and
flexible train for the cooling fans. internal passages.
4. Simplify machining, tooling, assembly, and
d. The triple oil pump including the drive gears
and control valves.
maintenance. This has been done by dividing the en-
gine in several major assembly units: e. The oil pan including the oil reservoir for the
dry sump system.
a. Crankcase, a comparatively simple casting
incorporating the bearing construction. 5. Provide accessibility to oil and fuel filters and
to
b. Accessory drive assembly incorporating the the injection system (injection pumps, injection
nozzles, and injection timing) from the top and the
accessory drives, the bearings, shafts and gears,
as well as the automatic timing device and front
one end of the engine.
fan unit. Major Dimensions - The bore and stroke of the
engine
c. The damper and filter housing assembly in- are 53A in. x 5% in. and the displacement
1790 cu in. These dimensions are the same as the
gasoline engine primarily because of the given bulk
limitations. The cylinder spacing is 9.00 in. or 1.56
times the bore. This ratio, which is a critical dimen-
sion in both aircooled and liquid-cooled engines, is
dictated by the required uniformity of the cylinder-
dome wall structure and by the necessary cooling fin
area in between the cylinders. Simultaneously, this
spacing permits large counterweights on the crank-
shaft so that the reactions of the heavy reciprocating
parts were reduced to a negligible size.
Combustion System - The combustion system is of
the 4-cycle direct-injection type with an open quies-
cent combusion chamber. It has the so-called "Mex-
ican hat" shape and is formed by the piston crown.
The advantages of this type combustion chamber are:
1. High performance potential.
2. Minimum fuel consumption.
3. Suitability for exhaust turbocharging.
4. Good cold start.
5. Low heat rejection to cylinder and piston.
Fig. 6- Transverse section of 1790 diesel 6. Uniform thermal loading.
7. Good breathing capacity particularly if com-
bined with a dome cylinder head and angle valves.
644
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 However, it is to be pointed out that these qualities a simple and rugged one-piece cast aluminum struc-
can be used to full extent only when particular at- ture of Alcoa 355 with forged aluminum main bear-
tention is given to an adequate engine structure and ing blocks as shown in Fig. 9. Special attention has
matching performance of the entire injection system. been given to the shape of the various crankcase sec-
On the combustion chamber chosen, considerable ex- tions to minimize stress concentration and deforma-
perience has been gained on previous developments tion under load. The contours of the crankcase are
and resulted in satisfactory combustion efficiency up smooth and without ribs of any kind. Short and
to 2600 rpm. straight stress paths are provided. The introduction
Aircooling System - The cooling arrangement of of the combustion force into the crankcase is accom-
Fig. 8 deserves some explanation. The basic reason plished, rather than by a few stiff bolts, by many
for suction cooling is to surround the engine and the highly flexible bolts to assure a good stress distribu-
fuel tanks with the incoming cold air. This permits tion over the entire crankcase structure. All highly
confining the hot discharge air to a relatively small stressed bolts are of the necked type.
duct in its path toward discharge from the vehicle. Uniform load distribution in the bearing area is
A slight penalty on cooling fan size is endured for considered indispensable for utilizing the bearing
this arrangement as the cooling fans must handle capacity to its maximum. This is obtained by a heavy
the less dense hot air. On the other hand, it can be diaphragm support structure with four cap bolts and
demonstrated that the circumferential temperature two through bolts for each bearing, clamping the
distribution around the cylinder is more uniform with main bearing caps in the tunnel slot of the crankcase.
suction cooling than with pressure cooling. Besides The bearing caps thus function as an integral part of
the oil coolers for the engine, the torque converter the crankcase, tying the two crankcase side walls
transmission coolers are mounted on the engine and together. No motion of the bearing has been experi-
cooled by the engine fans. This results in considerable
space saving compared to having separate fans for
each cooling function. It should be pointed out that
the torque converter transmission cooling constitutes
a problem in off-road operation. A large portion of
the engine horsepower might have to be dissipated
through the transmission oil coolers if the vehicle is
operated at full throttle but nearly stalled in the mud.
On the AVDS-1790, transmission oil cooling is pro-
vided for a heat rejection equivalent of one-third
of the net engine output.
Another problem is the airflow restriction pre-
sented by the bullet-proof grilles for admission and
discharge of the cooling air. These restrictions add
considerably to the required cooling fan power.
As a result, the total fan power amounts to nearly
twice the fan power needed for the engine cooling
alone. Two 26-in. axial fans are provided to satisfy
all cooling requirements. They are mounted on top
of the engine and driven at twice the engine speed.
Detail Description - Crankcase: The crankcase is Fig. 8- Airflow over engine in vehicle hull

Fig. 7- Longitudinal section of 1790 diesel

Fig. 9- Bottom view of 1790 diesel crankcase

Volume 65, 1957 645

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 rod and are backed with rather heavy steel shells,
0.250 in. thick in the case of the main bearings. The
main bearings have a width of 2 in., the connecting-
rod bearing of 1.35 in. Connecting-rod and main
bearing polar load diagrams are shown in Figs. 1 1
and 1 2. The results to date with these bearings have
been excellent, and no difficulty of any kind has been
encountered.
Connecting Rod: The connecting rod is of con-
ventional design. The length from center-to-center
is 1 1 in., the piston-pin diameter is 2 in. The piston-
pin bushing at the small end of the connecting rod is
a rolled, steel-backed bronze bushing pressed into
place and diamond-bored.
The rod is forged from SAE 4 1 40H steel ( Cr, Mo,
Fig. 10- Crankshaft and connecting-rod assembly of 1790 Mn) and fully shotpeened. Considerable effort has
diesel
been directed towards maximum load capacity at
minimum weight by extensive stresscoat, strain gage,
and fatigue tests. Also, it may be mentioned that the
roundness of the big end bearing is maintained over
/'y' ' ' a wide variation of load and of the torque applied to
'iaaj WvY' max- LOAD: the connecting-rod bolt, thus permitting the full utili-
24'400 LBS
zation of the bearing capacity. A view of the connect-
ing rod is shown along with other related components
in Fig. 13.
Piston and Rings: The piston is an aluminum forg-
ing of Alcoa 32ST-6 in view of the very high loads
' 2500 RPM encountered, particularly in the piston-pin boss area.
r^/wY Tr The' piston
"vVwiv O^s/
is oil cooled by an oil jet mounted in the
V40C /v/YJl' crankcase.4AAI
A separate oil system xn/1
is built into the /
N'/V 5.75 DIESEL engine to handle the piston cooling.
CYLINDER
Piston-ring selection presented very little difficulty,
the 4-ring setüp being characterized by all chrome-
plated rings for maximum dirt wear resistance. A
Fig. 1 1- Connecting-rod bearing load with respect to
crankthrow 15-deg included-angle keystone-top ring is used,
along with two taper-faced compression rings and a
dual-edge conformable oil scraper ring. Basic ring
enced in spite of the very high total Joads (20,000-lb
thickness is 0.090 in. which provides maximum bore
peak) being handled.
The crankcase extends far below the crankshaft
conformability and minimum ring groove wear with-
out any evidence of ring flutter at high speed. The
centerline, and the cast aluminum oil pan is made a
part of the structure. Thus, a stiff beam member is
obtained which compensates for the small total crank-
case height, which is characteristic for aircooled
300¿ /'/' /<C*' ' 0 T~>'^AX- LOAD: 20,100 IBS
engines. UNIT LOAD

Crankshaft and Bearings: The crankshaft received

considerable attention because of the anticipated
high output ratings demanding the use of peak com-
bustion pressure between 1600 and 1800 psi. In ad-
dition, and perhaps even more important, was the r

need for torsional rigidity and bending rigidity of the ' ' ' PResS :M'5 PSIA
crankshaft. Thus, the main journal size was chosen
as 4.25 in. and the crankpin size as 3.75 in. The Y DEGREES REFER
width of the cheek is 1.6 in. Crankshaft counter-
weights integrally forged were provided for approxi-
mately 85% balance. This was done to reduce the
internal forces trying to break the engine in the mid- zX^'i avds" 1 79
dle. The crankshaft of Fig. 10 is forged from SAE
4340 steel (Ni, Cr, Mo, Mn) ańd nitrided. The bear- Fig. 12- Main bearing load diagram
ings are copper-lead in both main and connecting

646 SAE Transactions

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piston assembly is shown in Fig. 1 3 with other related
components.
Cylinder .Unit: The cylinder head is án aluminum
casting of Alcoa 142-T75 Cu Ni alloy with high-
temperature strength characteristics, The main fea-
tures of the cylinder-head design are: overhead cam-
shaft, two angled valves, a simple cooling fin design,
and an injection nozzle installation with a high de-
gree of accessibility. The valve plane is shifted slightly
off-center to permit the nozzle assembly to be re-
moved directly from the top.
The combustion-chamber dome shape was the sub-
ject of a careful investigation with models and cylin-
der heads. A compromise was necessary between the
conflicting desires of a large-radius dome for mini- Fig. 14- Accessory gears of 1790 diesel
mum stress, and a sharp-cornered dome which would
permit an increase in piston length and reduce the
piston-crown area exposed to combustion.
The cooling fins are set on the cylinder head at an
angle of 30 deg and reach from the intake to the
exhaust side of the head.v Ample cooling fin area was
developed by this method, although some foundry
trouble occurred in casting these long deep fins. The
cooling performance of the cylinder is outstanding
with a maximum head temperature of 350 F at 750-
hp output at 6 in. of water pressure drop across the
cylinder. It is felt that the success of the cylinder and
the satisfactory functioning of the injection nozzle
is largely due to this cooling condition.
The cylinder barrel is from 8740H steel (Cr, Mo,
Mn) and is screwed and shrunk into the cylinder
head while the head is heated. The valve seats and Fig. 15- Top view of engine showing exhaust manifolds, fuel
valve guides are shrunk into place at the same injection system, and cooling fan towers of 1790 diesel
time. This is a procedure of long standing in the air-
craft industry and caused no difficulty of any con-
sequence. Also routine is the use of Al-Fin bonded diesel cycle there is no need for expensive alloys.
However, it has been found desirable to stellite-face
aluminum cooling fin muff on the barrel.
The intake and exhaust valves and seats are all the intake valve seat to prevent wear. Apparently
fabricated from a common silicon-chrome valve seat wear occurs because of the completely dry inlet
steel, and due to the low exhaust temperature of the valve operation in a supercharged engine. The ex-
haust valve never showed any sign of difficulty.
The injection nozzle assembly is extended through
the rocker box for easy removal without touching any
other parts of the cylinder assembly. A hold-down
spring is used to avoid overloading the nozzle gasket
and to compensate for differential expansion be-
tween aluminum and steel as shown in Fig. 13.
On the lower end of the injection nozzle assembly,
cooling fins are provided over which air is bled from
the supercharger through a hole drilled from the
inlet port. Additionally, the nozzle holder is cooled
by the oil in the rocker box, and a seal on the upper
end of the nozzle holder prevents oil from leaking to
the outside.
Accessory Drive: The entire accessory drive sys-
tem is enclosed in one housing assembly on top of
the crankcase (Figs. 14 and 15). It includes the
bevel gear drive for the two overhead camshafts, the
Fig. 13- Aircooled cylinder and major components of 1790 automatic injection timing unit, the drive for the two
diesel
injection pumps, and the drive for both cooling fans.

Volume 65, 1957 647

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The drive is taken from a gear next to the flywheel, The oil pump is mounted on the flywheel end of
thus assuring a nearly constant velocity which is con- the crankcase and is driven by spur gears from the
sidered an important provision in the basic engine accessory drive gear on the crankshaft. The oil-pump
design. Both camshafts and injection pumps are assembly is formed by the main pressure purrip, the
driven by a hollow shaft of high torsional stiffness piston cooling pump, and the scavenge pump. The
whereas the fan drive is taken through flexible quills scavenge pump has three gears and operates as a twin
to avoid overstress during the acceleration period. pump. A safety valve attached to the main pressure
All shafts, gears, bearings, and seals are integral with pump and the thermostat bypass valve for the piston
the accessory drive housing assembly, which forms a cooling circuit are both part of the oil purrip assembly
completely independent unit for machining and as- and prevent damage from overload during cold start.
sembly. Also the idler gear which transmits the drive from
Lubrication System: Considerable attention has the crankshaft to the oil pump shaft is mounted on
been given to the lubrication system with regard to the oil pump.
the following requirements: The oil pan is divided in the pressure pump com-
1. Absolute minimum engine height. partment, the reserve compartment, and the two open
2. Operation at 30-deg angle lengthwise and end compartments. The oil flowing back from the
crosswise with a minimum oil quantity. engine is picked up on both ends of the pan by the
3. Dry sump condition when engine operates at twin scavenge pumps and fed to the pressure pump
high speeds to prevent oil foaming and power loss by compartment. After this compartment is filled, the
crank dipping. oil overflows to the reserve compartment, where it
4. Minimum unusable oil quantity. is stored. Thus, a constant level of 5 in. is maintained
5. Ample piston oil cooling. above the pressure pump pickup, which is an integral
6. Proper feeding of the main oil pump pickup part of the pressure compartment. Small trickle holes
under all conditions.
on both sides of the reserve compartment feed oil
7. Storage of the lube oil reserve within the engine.
back at a small rate into the circulation. The capacity
The lubrication system shown in Fig. 16 devel- of the reserve compartment is 10 gal. The capacity
oped for this engine satisfies these requirements. ofIt
the pressure pump compartment is 7 gal and repre-
consists of two circuits, the main lubricating circuit
sents the minimum oil quantity at which the engine
and the piston cooling circuit, which are operating can
in- be safely operated. During the overflow of the
dependently and are fed by one multiple oil pump. surplus oil and the stagnating period in the reserve
The main pressure pump draws its oil from a com- compartment, the oil foam generated during the
partment in the oil pan, which is fed by a twin scav-
circulation can disintegrate, thus preserving the load-
enge pump from both ends of the engine. The oil is
carrying capacity of the oil. The air is discharged
forced at a maximum quantity of 50 gpm through
through a vent on top of the reserve compartment.
the engine oil coolers, then through a full-flow filter,The lube oil filters and control valves are located
and thence through the engine oil galleries to the in the filter housing which again forms an indepen-
bearings. A pressure regulator is influenced by dent the unit mounted in the engine "V" on the damper
pressure in the main bearing gallery and dumps end. the The filters and valves are all accessible from the
surplus oil unfiltered back in the pan. A small partial
front end of the engine. A wire-mesh filter of 80
flow is split off after the main filter and fed through micromm and a paper-fine filter of 25 micromm are
a second full-flow fine filter to the exhaust turbo- arranged in series, thus preventing the paper-fine
chargers and the fuel injection pumps. filter from being loaded with particles of a size
The piston cooling oil circuit is separated from the greater than 80 micromm. The wire-mesh filter feeds
main lubricating system for three reasons: the main oil galleries while the paper filter feeds the
1 . To reduce the oil filter size by preventing cool- turbochargers and injection pumps. Both filters are
ing oil from flowing through the filters. supplemented by bypass valves for appropriate pres-
2. To reduce undue power loss by means of by- sure levels. With this arrangement, the filter size and
passing the cooling oil, if cold. maintenance requirements were minimized. In case
3. To divide the oil flow in view of the high totalthat replacement paper filters are not available, the
of nearly 70 gpm. engine is still protected by the wire-mesh filter, which
The piston cooling pump picks the oil up fromcan be easily cleaned.
the open end of the pan at an appropriate level and Fuel Injection System: The two fuel injection
delivers the oil at a rate of 20 gpm to oil jets. Thesepumps are located in the engine "V" between the fan
are located on the bottom of each cylinder and pro-towers (Fig. 15). This arrangement results in easy
vide a continuous oil spray to the inside of the piston. accessibility from the top as well as in engine com-
A thermostat-controlled bypass valve opens at an oilpactness.
temperature below 140 F and dumps the oil flow of Conventional in-line, 6-cyl American Bosch APE
the piston cooling pump directly back to the sump, 6BB injection pumps with 12-mm plungers were
thus preventing unnecessary power loss at otherchosen and produce desirable injection characteristics
than high-load condition. from 600 to 2600 engine rpm. Uniform and short in-

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jection lines were possible as a result of the central
location of the injection pumps, a considerable asset
on a high-speed engine.
A special nozzle holder has been developed, but
contains a standard American Bosch A DB type noz-
zle with eight holes of 0.3-mm holes.
The fuel delivery pump is of the positive displace-
ment type and is mounted on top of the gear drive
for the generator. It delivers fuel at a pressure of 25
psi and at a rate of 200 gal per hr to the injection
pumps. This rather high pressure and delivery rate
has been chosen in view of preventing vapor forma-
tion when the engine is operated on JP-4 or kerosene.
The automatic timing unit is located ahead of the
two injection pumps. A hydraulic vane type is under
development. However, where the torque varies as the
square of the speed as in a torque converter transmis-
sion, a timing change with load will probably satisfy
the engine. This can be obtained with a upper helix
plunger.
Exhaust Turbochargers: Dual turbochargers are
provided because of space and package limitations.
They are located outboard of the engine at the fly-
wheel end, one on each side. This is appropriate for
simple duct connections in all directions in the mili-
tary vehicle, but other arrangements can be readily
provided. The turbochargers are aircooled and spe-
cially developed for the purpose. Low rotating inertia
of the rotating assembly, good component efficiency,
light weight, and simple low-cost design were the
considerations used in the selection.
1. Anticipate probable troubles by separating
Manifolds: The exhaust manifold system is di- items which have little or no background of knowl-
vided in four groups of 3 cyl each leading to corre-
sponding nozzle divisions in the turbines. By this
arrangement the scavenge process is improved and
interference between the cylinders prevented.
The intake manifold is of the spider type with
individual manifolds of nearly the same length and of
appropriate diameter, leading from a junction box
to each cylinder. This arrangement assures an even
distribution to all cylinders, thus permitting maximum
utilization of the combustion air. It may be men-
tioned that by this arrangement together with the
constant- velocity stiff injection pump drive already
described, the exhaust temperatures of the 1 2 cyl can
be maintained within a tolerance of 50 F.
Accessories: Starting is performed with an electric
starter of 18 hp at 24 v. The ratio between engine
and starter is 1/12, and the obtained starting speed
at room temperature is 150 rpm. The starter pinion
is manually shifted to assure trouble-free cold start.
A standard generator of 300-amp capacity at 24 v
is driven at a ratio of 1/2.6 from the engine.
Fuel filters are of the conventional type.
Development and Performance
Development Plan - The multitude of new design
features and uncertainties made it necessary to fol-
low a development policy of separation of problems
from the whole in order to obtain certain critical
experiences early enough to influence the end product.
The salient objectives were:

ENGINE C POLTRI TRAN» MI- ION COOLERS

I SSïïZ - -J L- ËBH
Hi I '' MMA I THERMO» TATIC tq FAN THERMOSTATIC TO TO CAUlHArT
J I MMA 1 BYPA3S VALVE tq ļ FAN RÝPÁ- VALVE

,,
FILTER
^ ]
i - 1
1 1
/11- i
• -
Lļ•

cooler1! ¿i riLł* "ŁT" rhnuT««: r-i !

Fig. 16- Lubricating oil
system
cooler1! - B I ¿i riLł* "ŁT" rhnuT««: B
: . - . THERMOSTATIC ¡
1| i « I. _ BYPASS
_ i VALV
SCAVENGE PRESSURE 1 W !

H
( • ~ 1 fvļ »PISTON
:

PRESSURE PUMP COMPARTMENT l~r COMPARTMENT COMPARTMENT >

TRANSVERSE VIEW

Volume 65, 1957 649

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 2400 RPM

51 IN. HG. ABS.MAN. PRESS. |

200-°F MAN. TEMP.
46 IN.HG. ABS. EXH.PR. inno EXH.
EXH.TEMPr^Tl^ TE
.05

.04

fuel/air fuel/air-* -
.03

.02

NUMBER

O. 35

■SFC 0.30- Mil

LB/IHR-HR IND. SP. FUElCONSr^^j^i ļ

120 MO 160 ISO 200
I M EP- PSI

Fig. 1 8- Single-cylinder performance at 2400 rpm

1 600 RPM
40 IN. HG. ABS.MAN.PRESS.
145 F MANIFOLD TEMP.

36 IN. HG. ABS. EX H. PRESS.

EXH.TEMP.-^4^^-l

.OsL^^rT I

Fig. 17- CUE single-cylinder test installation

.04

.03
FUE

Table 1 - Engine Development Problems .02 _

Single-Cylinder Test Engines Combustion, injection system, aircooling,
piston oil cooling, piston and rings, breath-
ing, cylinder structure, connecting rod and 0.35

bearings, valves and valve gear, basic

durability, basic performance, high output
exploration ,SFC 0.30
LB/IHP-HR IND.SP.FUEL CONS.-^^*

025 - i i I I 1 I
V-Twin-Cylinder Test Engine Main bearings, crankcase structure, cam-
shaft drive, injection system drive, timing
device, endurance qualification
120 Ī40 160 ISO 200
Components on Bench Test Injection system performance and endur- I MEP-PSI
ance, oil pump performance, oil system at
high tilt angles, cooling fans, cylinder-head Fig. 19- Single-cylinder performance at 1600 rpm
models and actual heads, stress analysis
of crankshaft, crankcase, connecting rod,
pistons, piston fatigue testing

12-Cylinder Engine Overall performance and endurance, mani-

folds, exhaust turbocharger adjustment, versal Engines (CUE) are used for single-cylinder
cooling airflow distribution, crankshaft
torsional vibration, heat rejection, oil testing as shown in Fig. 17. It was possible to dupli-
system functioning, injection distribution,
accessory drives cate multicylinder test conditions to within a few per
cent by estimates of friction and by prior knowledge
of usual turbosupercharger performance on an en-
edge from ones for which a background of knowledgegine. Testing is based upon indicated performance,
exists. thus eliminating the peculiarities of the test engine.
2. Isolate problems from the whole by running Typical performance curves versus load at the con-
components independently of and prior to testing ofstant speed of 2400 rpm are shown in Fig. 18 and
the whole engine. at 1600 rpm in Fig. 19. An abbreviated plan is used
3. Concentrate the multicylinder engine develop-wherein the full-load manifold pressure and tempera-
ment only upon problems which are peculiar to itture and back pressure for a given speed are used
and cannot be separately investigated. for all testing at that speed. Strict conformity with the
To accomplish the development in this manner,multicylinder operation at part load was found un-
provision was made for two single-cylinder engines,necessary. A paper-filter-type smokemeter was used
a V-twin test engine, numerous bench-test setups,throughout the program and is considered essential
static and dynamic strain measurements, and fatigue
for performance evaluation.
test apparatus. Few if any injection system components or sys-
Important problems to be solved were divided astems were run on the test engine without prior test-
shown in Table 1. bench research. The extreme dependence of the en-
Single-Cylinder Performance - Cooperative Uni- gine upon detail injection system performance is
650 SAE Transactions

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well-known and cannot be overemphasized. Fig. 20 on the V-12 engine. Some examples of this wo
shows the performance of the injection system now be mentioned as a matter of interest.
in use on the V-12 engine. The V-twin test engine of Fig. 24 was used to
Adequate cooling is high on the list of important evaluate main bearing conditions and accessory
problems solved on the test engine. Fig. 21 shows drives.
typical temperatures measured on the cylinder as- The complicated lubricating oil system was set up
sembly at full power. The result is notable for the on a test bench and tilted 30 deg in all directions in
low temperatures as well as for the uniformity of the full operation. Many potential V-12 oil system faults
temperature distribution over the cylinder head. were corrected in advance.
Another important item to be investigated was the A careful evaluation of the cylinder dome was
piston cooling. The piston cooling jet flowing 1.5 made in view of the high loads to be carried. Models
gpm per cyl reduced the temperature at the top ring
over 100 F from an uncooled piston. The full power
temperatures with cooled pistons are shown in Fig.
22. These were measured by means of an aluminum
hardness survey of the piston after a 50-hr steady
full-load test run. Fig. 23 shows a photograph of a
piston after over 500 hr of cyclical endurance testing.
Routine testing is conducted at 30 to 40% in
excess of current rated power. This not only permits
accelerated component evaluation but also proved
the already mentioned overload capacity of the
turbocharged diesel engine. INTAKE f X EXHAUST
Component Testing - Extensive component devel- SIDE SIDE

opment successfully shortened the testing program (MAJOR

THRUST)

J
3 5o

Fig. 22- Piston temperature at 750 hp of 1790 diesel

2Š - -

<« - I LINE
£ 2o

Z u -PSI

1 2oo 16oo 2ooo 24oo

ENGINE SPEED-RPM

Fig. 20- Injection system characteristics

750- HP MODEL WITHOUT FINS

34o

CYLINDER

^^^^^jEWPERATURES

200
va ''''v^'
4 5 6
ISO

COOL
IN. WATER

Fig. 21- Cylinder cooling of 1790 diesel

Fig. 23- Piston after 500-hr operation

v Volume 65, 1957 651

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as well as cylinders were used in stress-coat and strain
gage analysis (Fig. 25).
Similar development was performed on the con-
necting rod which must handle heavy reciprocating
loads at high speed (Fig. 26). The question of con-
necting-rod bolt strength was resolved by means of
a strain gage installation. Fig. 27 shows how optimum
bolt torque was established by plotting bolt stress
range on a modified Goodman diagram to compare
with experimentally determined allowable stress
ranges. Optimum bolt stretch was determined and
adequate margin below failure stress was shown.
For a final ćheck, the connecting rod was run at 40%
overload in tension on a fatigue machine without
encountering failure.
Multicylinder Performance - The first V-12 engine
Fig. 24- Twin-cylinder test engine
Fig. 25- Cylinder-head stress analysis
652 SAE Transactions
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produced its rated performance within a week after
completion of its green run. All performance expec-
tations have been met or exceeded. A full-load power
curve is shown in Fig. 28, and a fuel consumption
map in Fig. 29.
The well-known "lugging" problem on turbo-
charged diesel engines could be satisfactorily solved
on the AVDS-1790 diesel. A bmep of 145 can be
obtained at 1600 rpm (65% of rated speed) without
smoke, which meets the requirements of the lock-up
transmission of the planned installation.
Evaluation
The complete powerplant performance is closely
related to the installation and cooling condition in a
specific vehicle. There is some difficulty in separating
the bare engine specifications from the complete pack-
age, and the table of data must be viewed with this
in mind. An attractive specific weight and bulk has
been achieved with 5.0-lb per hp bare engine and
10.0 gross hp per cu ft of installed unit-cooled power
package.
Furthermore, it should be mentioned that the
750-hp bare engine rating provides the same net in-
stalled power as the 825-hp unsupercharged gasoline
engine by virtue of three items:
1 . The diesel-engine heat rejection is less than the
gasoline engine, and the cooling power is thus smaller.
2. The turbocharged engine requires no exhaust
muffler and has no loss from this source.
3. The turbocharged-engine power is not primar-
ily affected by induction air cleaner losses as the tur-
Fig. 26- Connecting-rod stresses
 t Table 2 - Installed Engine Performance Analysis Table 3 - Data on AVDS-1790 Aircooled Diesel Engine
Diesel Gasoline Type Four«stroke turbocharged 90 deg V
Bare Engine Bare Engine Diesel Gasoline 12-cýf aircooled diesel engine
(Uncorrected) (Corrected) Net Installed Net Installed
Bore and stroke 5.75 in. x 5.75 in.
Gross Horsepower 750 825
Power Losses Displacement 1790 cu in.
Exhaust Muffler 25
Air Cleaner 30 Rated power gross 750 bhp at 2400 rpm
Generator 10 io
Cooling Fan» 110 135 Peak torque gross 1740 Ib-ft at 1600 rpm

120 200 Bmep gross 147 psi at 1600-rpm peak torque

Net Installed 139 psi at 2400-rpm rated power
Horsepower 630 625
Fuel consumption gross 0.38 lbs per bhp-hr at full power
» Cooling fans are for unit-cooled 0.35 lbs per bhp-hr minimum
installation, cool
transmission oil on a 125 F ambient 7-lb per hr idling at 700 rpmwhile
day, insta

Engine weight 3800-lb bare engine

4200-lb fully equipped as unit-
cooled package
THREAD ROOT STRESS SHOWN ..
ON A MODIFIED GOODMAN DIAGRAM. M ' Specific weight 5.0-lb per bhp gross (bare engine)
i FOR 155,000 PS I. TTS T -
Engine size 66 in. long
41 in. high
55-in. basic width with turbochargers
i >oo protruding locally

i 90 ' I T,ON p
Induction airflow 2000 cfm

Z 80 - Cooling airflow 22,000 cfm for the unit-cooled package

iA I A from gage TGVnt=Í/
Starter 18-hp 24-v electric starter or
z 70-yZ- hydraulic starter

" i «, Generator 300 amp, 24 v

" 8 "/"I1! '/ STRAIN GAGE
- ~~40z ,n50 - 'Vf'ÁY~ 8 No-' ( - bslT^
I f i / / STRAIN GAGE ^Ł=f= V
40 ,n y'J&y I f i / / / / / STRAIN no.2 (- GAGE
īooo-ļ

£ 30 30^_BOLT_ J '/'

- 30 30^_BOLT_ STRETCH ^ J '/' l

a 2° - y - /
BOO

^ 10 ^444 y - -Á / £

u ty' /i
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 600

PRELOAD STRESS IN TENSION X1000-PSI

Fig. 27- Determination of optimum connecting-rod bolt

stretch
-150-400| I I I BMEPX tToRQu£
-145

--1700S":
bocharger merely operates at a slightly higher pres-
im140

5 im140
sure ratio. a135

Table 2 gives the pertinent data of the AVDS-1790 « :1ft

aircooled diesel engine compared with the gasoline
engine. Table 3 gives full data on the engine. * t 1 I i I 1 1 i
MOO 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600
R.P.M.

Acknowledgment Fig. 28- Full-load performance

The interest and support of the Department of

Ordnance, U.S. Army, and particularly of the Detroit
Arsenal is gratefully acknowledged. The enthusiasm
of the Continental Aviation and Engineering Corp.
management as well as that of the fine development
team of engineers was equally necessary to the suc-
cess of this project.

DISCUSSION

Discusses Features
Of Aircooled Diesel Engine 25- °' '
-P. H. Schweitzer
^LB/BHP-HR
Pennsylvania State University
o-l

1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400

ENGINE SPEED- RPM
THIStechnical
technical paper accomplishment. is interesting as It It
accomplishment. it is is
is thethe
a report first time
first on an that
time thatoutstanding a diesel
a diesel
engine of this size has been aircooled, and its reported perform- Fig. 29- Full consumption map
ance is way above the average. A specific output of 0.42 hp per

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cu in. and 139-psi bmep would be creditable performance for a
of joint surfaces and bearing backs. The roundness of the Conti-
water-cooled turbocharged engine with intercooler. In fuel con-
nental connecting-rod big end was said to be proved over a wide
range of load. Was this proved by a bench test with axial loading
sumption, weight, and size, it excels any engine of its class which
the writer knows about. only or by an engine test? A 9000-lb horizontal component of
load
Noteworthy features are the structural stiffness of the can be deduced from the bearing load diagram in Fig. 11.
crank-
case, the overhead camshafts and absence of pushrods, theAsuc-peak unit load of 5393 psi is shown also in Fig. 11. This
tion-type cooling fans and cowling assuring adequate aircooling
load at 2500 rpm is a firing load greatly reduced by connecting-
rod inertia. Can the authors tell us the peak load at 1600 rpm
of a 5% -in. bore engine, and the unique dry-sump lubrication
system. when the inertia force is less effective?
Additional information would be welcome on compression The authors state that the spider-type inlet manifolding insures
and firing pressures, rate of pressure rise, and other combustion an even distribution to each cylinder. Was a simple manifold
characteristics of the "quiescent" combustion chamber which tried and found to give uneven distribution?
has seldom been used so far successfully in engines of such It is common on our diesel engines to heat the inlet air by
speed. passing the exhaust of the gasoline-starting engine through a tube
in the inlet manifold. The bellows used to compensate for expan-
Questions Performance sion in an early design gave us considerable trouble. Have the
bellows used in the exhaust manifolds of the Continental engine
Features of Aircooled Engine given good service?
-A. F. Underwood The design of the piston-pin inserts shown in Fig. 13 is not
General Motors Corp. obvious from the picture. Are these a close fit in the pin, and are
they intended to add strength to the pin?
The cold-starting performance described is very good. What
THISengine
engineneed
PAPER
not need notand
be large hasheavy.
be many
Evenlarge
withinteresting and heavy. points. Even It with shows aircooling that a diesel and
aircooling and compression ratio was used, and what special design, if any, was
a moderate bmep, the engine is quite comparable to the gasoline involved in starting at -25 F without external aid?
engine which it can replace. Also if the piston shown in Fig. 23 The fuel injection lines appear in Fig. 15 to be rather long
is typical of the endurance results, one would expect that the for a high-speed engine. Has their length or the location of the
endurance life is quite satisfactory for an engine which has been pumps and lines next to the exhaust manifold caused trouble?
developed so recently. We are quite envious of the low specific fuel consumption of
The authors do not give the compression ratio, and it would this engine. What equipment was on the engine when the fuel
be interesting to know what the mechanical compression ratio consumption was determined?
actually is. If it is in the usual range of values, it again illustrates No mention is made in the paper of the turbocharger per-
the fact that the design of a modern diesel is not very different formance other than 2000-cfm induction airflow, presumably at
from the design of a modern high-compression-ratio gasoline 2400-rpm rated load. Could you give us the pressure ratio and
engine. Both are approaching the same firing pressures and rate exhaust temperature at 2400- and 1600-rpm rated loads and the
of pressure rise. It would be interesting to know what fuel is to airflow at 1600-rpm rated load?
be used in the engine; for instance, are JP-4, JP-5, and No. 2 fuel One last question - what grade and weight of lubricating oil
oil satisfactory. How much of the improvement shown in the is specified for this engine?
upper part of Fig. 1 is due to the increased number of Btu's per
gal in diesel fuel compared to gasoline. Is the fuel consumption Discusses Features
shown in the lower part of Fig. 1 based on gross horsepower or
net horsepower; that is to say, is it figured on the basis of includ-Of High-Output Diesel
ing the fan horsepower? - R. E. Taylor
While it has become modern practice to call such engines "air- Utica-Bend Corp.
cooled," it would seem that half of the combustion chamber is
now liquid cooled by oil. It would be interesting to know the
relative proportion of the heat rejection through the cooling oil THEwork
workinPackard
the fieldin ofthefine
fieldengines
Motorforofaircraft
Car fineandCo.marine
enginesuse.has for for years aircraft been and known marine for use. its
and directly from the cylinder heads to the air. We presume thatThis work is now continuing with the same engineering personnel
it is difficult to determine how much of the heat from the coolingunder the Utica-Bend Corp.
oil is dissipated through the engine case to the air and, therefore, In 1950, we started on the design of a family of high-output
does not have to be taken care of by the oil coolers. diesel engines for the Navy minesweepers and have built many
It is noticed that the connecting rods are designed for a maxi-of these engines since. The engines are rated for continuous duty
mum load of 5400 psi. What type of bearing material is em- at 142 bmep with mean piston velocity of approximately 2000
ployed? fpm, or very close in these two respects to the new Continental
In Table 2 it is indicated that no air cleaner is used. How is engines. Our engines weigh between 5 and 6 lb per hp which is
the dirt removed from the combustion air? also close to the Continental.
At the present time, we have over 1,000,000 hr of service use
Wants Reasons for on these engines and so have an appreciation of durability prob-
lems associated with high-output diesels. In the years to come,
Final Design Choice wè expect to see many diesel engines with high specific outputs.
-W. J. McCulla The following comments are made with this in mind, since I know
Caterpillar Tractor Co.many of you have similar problems before you at the present
time, or will have in the near future.
Dr. Haas and Mr. Klinge point out that because of the
DR well-written
well-writtenHAAS
paper AND MR. the
describing describing
successfulKLINGE the ofarea successful to be commended attainment for of a a
attainment particular space requirements, with which they were faced, the
difficult design objective. Their "divide and conquer" method of aircooled engine appeared more feasible then the liquid cooled.
attack is certainly the most effective way to produce a new In many instances, however, the engine size itself aside from the
engine with minimum operating difficulties. Components sepa- space occupied by radiators or coolers, is the critical factor in
rately tested and developed on bench setups yield valuable which case a liquid-cooled engine would be considerably smaller.
The Continental engine has a 5^4 -in. bore with a 9-in. cylinder-
preliminary information. They still, of course, require final-proof
testing in an engine. Parts developed in the single- or twin- spacing in order to provide adequate space between cylinders for
cooling fins. The liquid-cooled Packard engine has a 5% -in. bore
cylinder engine must be further tested in the multicylinder engine.
The connecting-rod development outside the engine is a verywith a 7-in. cylinder-spacing resulting in a considerable saving in
logical approach. It is subject only to the danger of assuming overall engine length when comparing the liquid-cooled with the
that it yields all the answers. Although we have used the same aircooled engine. It would seem to me almost impossible to use
a precombustion chamber in an aircooled head and still get
technique, we have had to guard against a false sense of security.
We know, for instance, that an otherwise sound rod can experi- proper cooling. This fact, undoubtedly, entered into Continental's
ence big end distortion under engine load, leading to fretting decision to use direct injection. The peak pressures associated

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with direct injection of 1600 to 1800 psi, therefore, might be sion ring exposed to the combustion gases is probably responsible
said to be a necessary part of an aircooled diesel. The Packard for the high operating temperatures indicated in Fig. 22. Brinell
engines using a precombustion chamber obtain 142 bmep with hardness surveys made on our pistons show temperatures 50-75
peak pressures of 1000 psi and have operated at 200 bmep with F less than those of the Continental piston after operation at
peak pressures less than 1200 psi; in this sense then, the aircooling 200 bmep. To those of you who use aluminum pistons and are
imposes additional loading on many parts of the engine. acquainted with the extreme loss of physical properties in the
The spherical or domed cylinder head used by Continental neighborhood of 600 F this 50-75 F margin represents consider-
would also seem to be dictated by the aircooling. This presents a able additional strength in the piston. The rather thin edges
less favorable form of combustion space for compression igni- resulting at the contouring of the Continental piston crown appear
tion and also results in considerable increase of piston crown to be susceptible to thermal cracking.
being exposed to the combustion gases.
While aircooling has displaced liquid cooling for most aircraft Intake Valves
applications, it is of interest to note that this preference is asso-
ciated almost entirely with the radial engine. For in-line engines, Packard has had a similar experience with intake valves in
as associated with most recent airplanes employing piston engines,regard to seating on dry surfaces. The use of stellite on the valve
liquid copling has been used resulting in minimum space andseat has reduced the scalloping to a point where it is no longer
weight. objectionable. A number of engines have been operated with
valve rotators which seem to cure this problem completely.
Crankcase

The aluminum crankcase design appears to be excellent. We Lube Oil System

have used the rabbeted, main bearing cap with lateral through
bolts for many years with excellent results. We are also using Dr. Haas and Mr. Klinge have pointed out in their discussion
the same aluminum alloy as Continental with a T-71 treatment of the lubricating system that the Bosch APE-BB pumps are
and would be interested in learning what treatment is used on operated with lubricating oil from the engine pressure system.
the Continental 355 aluminum crankcase. In order to obtain We have used this pump on all of our diesel engines and can
optimum roundness of bearing bores, our cases have appreciate
been ma-the desirability of flowing lube oil through the pump
chined with the cap studs tightened to their final assembly in order to avoid eventual pump lubrication by fuel oil. This
stretch
and the lateral bolts tightened to their final assembly system means, however, that fuel leakage within the pump eventu-
angular
position. Although these two methods of controlling ally winds
bolt up in the engine crankcase with resultant dilution of
loads,
that is, the measurement of bolt stretch and the measurement the engine ofoil. The Bosch people have offered a sealed-plunger
angle through which the nut has been turned, are excellent, design -which greatly reduces the amount of internal leakage in
they are expensive and time-consuming. I think we would all be the pump although it is not completely eliminated. I should like
interested in learning whether Continental has found this neces-to ask Dr. Haas and Mr. Klinge if they are using the sealed
sary or whether they have been able to get by with the use of plunger and if they expect difficulty from crankcase oil dilution
a torque wrench. with its attendant possibility of crankcase fires.
Several questions come up in connection with the oil-cooling
Crankshaft and Bearings jets. Using unfiltered oil to cool the pistons definitely reduces
the filter requirements but would seem to introduce the danger
We feel that Continental has made an excellent choice in the of plugging the cooling jet. This has happened to us on a test
use of nitrided crankshafts. It has been our experience that engine, and we now filter our cooling oil.
nitrided journals and pins show virtually no wear after many From an engine performance standpoint, it would certainly
hours of service. The extremely high surface endurance limit of seem advisable to cut off the piston cooling oil when operating
the nitrided shaft allows the use of stress risers in the form of at low loads and speeds. When this cut-off is controlled by lube
oil holes and fillets which otherwise might cause trouble in oil these
temperature it would seem to expose the piston to dangerously
high-output diesel engines. We are very much interested in lowtheclearance conditions when fully loading a partially warmed
heavy-wall main bearing used by Continental, since it isup ofengine.
the Obviously, this is not a recommended procedure, but
same thickness as our own. We have stayed with heavy-walled these things do happen.
bearings more because of their successful history than because of
any shortcomings with the thin wall strip type bearing. The strip Intake Manifold
bearings offer such a decided advantage from a cost standpoint
that we are seriously considering their use in future engines Theanduse of a spider-type intake manifold appears to be
would be interested in finding out whether they have been tried
superfluous on an engine operating at 50 in. of Hg absolute intake
in the Continental tank engine prior to the use of the heavy wall We have obtained excellent exhaust temperature control
pressure.
bearing. with the use of a header-type manifold providing the injection
pumps and nozzles are in proper calibration. The branched mani-
Connecting Rod folds would offer some advantage in idle and low-speed operation
or if the engine were ever used as a naturally aspirated engine
Dr. Haas and Mr. Klinge point out that the rod weight has
rather than a supercharged engine.
been kept to a minimum through the extensive use of stress-coat,
No two engine builders, given the same engine requirements,
strain gages, and fatigue tests. This is a method familiar to most
will come up with the same design. We all have our favorite way
of you and one that generally gives excellent results. In light of
of doing things which are based to a large extent upon our past
a recent experience of ours, I would like to point out that con-
experience. Through excellent papers such as Dr. Haas' and
sideration should also be given to the torsional stresses in con-
Mr. Klinge's these methods and experiences are presented to all
necting rods. In one of our nonmagnetic engines using K-Monel
for rod material, we encountered a rod failure in the "I" section of us for our broader education. I have tried to point out some
of the differences between our thinking and that of Continental.
of the rod which had all the appearances of a torsional fatigue.
In searching for possible sources of torsional stress, it was found
that the natural torsional frequency of the piston and rod system
corresponded very closely to the natural torsional frequency ofAuthors' Closure
the crankshaft!
We have not proven experimentally as yet that the rod and To Discussion
piston are excited torsionally by the crankshaft but, it is a point
worth keeping in mind when designing connecting rods.
THE sented
sented authorsby
by Messrs.
Messrs.appreciateTaylor,
Taylor, the McCulla, fine discussions
McCulla, andandUnderwood,
Underwood, of our paperand
and pre-
areare
Piston happy to answer their questions as informatively as possible. We
will answer Mr. Taylor first.
The unusual configuration of the Continental piston raises With a regard to cylinder bore spacing, it is recognized that an
number of questions. The large surface area above the compres- aircooled engine must have a somewhat larger bore spacing than

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 even when using MIL-O-2014B low detergent oil. No thermal
cracks on the piston crown occurred.
Table A - Turbocharger Performance Numbers
We also use the sealed plunger design of American Bosch, and
2400 rpm 1600 rpm for ¡us this design has stopped plunger leakage. Our experience is
Airflow 8100 Ib/hr 4300 lb/hr limited, however, and we appreciate the point taken regarding
Pi/Pi 1.90 1.42
Exhaust Temperature 1160 F 1190 F potential leakage into the crankcase.
With regard to intake manifolds on a supercharged engine,
there can be many discussions. We have found the branched type
induction manifold sufficiently better at lower and higher speeds
Table B - Recommended Viscosities
than a straight runner manifold.
We would like to thank Mr. Taylor again for his stimulating
Oil Temperature Range, F and informative questions. Now to answer Mr. McCulla.
SAE 30 +20 to +120 We appreciate the problem of a false sense of security from
SAE 10 -10 to +20
Arctic -50 to 0 component testing. Extensive engine testing of the connecting
rod has corroborated the bench results to a large degree.
Peak connecting rod bearing loads at 1600 rpm are about 10%
higher than at top speed. The reduction in inertia load at lower
a comparable speed liquid-cooled
is partially compensated by a concurrent reduction in peak eng
mounted on the gas loads. cylinder head.
frequently influenced
The bellows in the exhaust manifold cover by the
a slip joint which
crank checks supports and counterweig
the pipe. Trouble-free operation has resulted.
bearing structure, The piston-pin plugs are anda free fit in thethe bor
pin and float at all
the aircooled engine,
times. No piston-pin support results.with However, considerable at- all c
than the comparable liquid-cool
tention has been given to a rigid piston and piston-pin structure.
system with radiator
The information on cold starting isand somewhat incomplete fan.in
engine is especially the paper. The engine willsignificant
start readily at -25 F with starting
space at high ambient
fluid. The use of external aid in the form temperat
of heaters and special
ditions the effectiveequipment is not necessary. Starting differenti
fluid is required below +15
the coolant in F whenakeroseneradiator is
is used. The compression ratio is 14.5/1. red
than the differential The injection pumps and lines nestled temperat
about the exhaust mani-
cooled cylinder fold have causedhead. As
no trouble at all due to the a
tremendous volume resu
and air ducting grow considerably in size and create the well- of cooling air passing over this part of the engine. Their length
known difficulties of liquid-cooled engines installed in armored is 30 in.
vehicles which operate in the desert. The fuel consumptions of Figs. 28 and 29 are shown for an
We are happy to agree that the open combustion chamber engine without cooling fans. Net installed figures are not shown
chosen was important in achieving an excellently-cooled cylinder.for an engine without cooling fans. Net installed figures are not
That a precombustion chamber could not have been used in the shown because they vary considerably with the various instal-
aircooled cylinder is open to question in view of the engines lations.
which have been built this way. We refer in particular to the air- The turbocharger performance numbers requested by Mr.
cooled Deutz engines, the Caterpillar 9-cylinder radial, 500-hp, McCulla are about as shown in Table A.
aircooled diesel, and an Austrian Simmering-Graz-Pauker, 700- Lubricating oil conforming to a low detergent level of MIL-O-
hp, aircooled diesel (another successful tank engine development 2104B has been satisfactory throughout. Viscosities recom-
during the war). It is a matter of fact that the open combustionmended are as shown in Table B.
chamber entails a somewhat higher peak combustion pressure We thank Mr. McCulla for his comments, and turn to Mr.
than the precombustion chamber. The magnitude of the differ- Underwood's discussion.
ence is not correctly stated, possibly because of no direct data Mr. Underwood states that he believes that the modern diesel-
on this matter in the paper. At comparable output, the open-engine design is very similar to the modern gasoline engine. We
chamber will have a 15 to 20% higher peak pressure than the would like to point out again that the subject diesel engine is not
precombustion chamber. a conversion of its gasoline-engine counterpart but a complete
With respect to the domed cylinder head, we have had excel- new design. We do not believe that a spark-ignition engine can
lent results and consider it as a way to obtain large valves, high-be converted to a high-performance diesel engine and still obtain
speed breathing capacity, and a sound head structure. the same power in the same space.
The crankcase is 355 aluminum with a T-71 heat-treatment. The present engine has shown the ability to use Nos. 1 or 2
We are not aware of a problem in this regard. The main bearing diesel fuel, or JP-4. Extensive service experience may show some
studs are currently stretched and we do not know at this time limitations, but we are not aware of them at the moment.
whether a less expensive procedure can be substituted. The upper curve of Fig. 1 showing fuel consumption gain of
The spark-ignition tank engine has used thin wall strip bear- the diesel engine over the gasoline engine, is shown in miles per
ings for main bearings for many years with excellent results.gallon, An which includes about 15% difference in fuel heating value
occasional difficulty has been encountered in "wrinkling" the per shellgallon. The lower part of Fig. 1 shows the data in weight
under arctic conditions when the aluminum crankcase crushes flow, so that one may use whatever ratio is best suited to the
in from differential thermal expansion. The diesel is using heavy situation. The lower fuel consumption curves are based upon
wall shells partly to avoid this crushing trouble, partly to keep gross horsepower, without cooling. Similar curves based upon
bearing clearances when very cold, and partly because of antici- net installed power with all cooling included, show even larger
pated trouble in stabilizing thin wall shells with the diesel's verygains for the diesel engine.
high loads. In regard to heat rejection, about 20% of the total measured
We appreciate the warning from Mr. Taylor on connecting-rod heat rejection comes from the lubricating oil coolers. At the mo-
torsional failures. Static twisting of the connecting rod in the ment, we are not in possession of a more detailed breakdown of
laboratory is commonly tried, but we have had no way to evalu- the total heat rejection.
ate this kind of test as yet. The connecting-rod bearings are plated copper lead bearings,
No doubt the distribution of heat in the piston Mr. Taylor type F77, from Cleveland Graphite.
mentioned is quite different than in ours. The high temperature Mr. Underwood has mistakenly concluded that since no air
of the protruding parts of our piston dome did concern us, but cleaner power loss is shown, no cleaner is used. Conventional air
the fact that these are unstressed areas has probably permitted cleaning practices must be followed, except that the flow loss
running without any difficulty of any kind, even at 200 bmep. through the air cleaner does not reflect proportionally into power
We would like to point out that our ring belt is quite reasonable loss. The turbosuperchargers can be readjusted to provide the
in temperature, as is the under-dome temperature. The piston required airflow at a somewhat increased pressure ratio, and the
runs without lacquer formation except above the second ring, engine suffers only slightly in the process.

^56 SAE Transactions

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