ELECTRONICS

RESISTOR COLOUR CODE

The value of most resistors shown by a pattern of coloured rings. These are read starting from
the band closet to an end. The colours are internationally defined as listed below.
Colour Number
Black 0
Brown 1
Red 2
Orange 3
Yellow 4
Green 5
Blue 6
Violet 7
Grey 8
White 9

EXAMPLE

The first band on a resistor is interpreted as the FIRST DIGIT of the resistor value.

The second band gives the SECOND DIGIT.

The third band is called the multiplier and is not interpreted in quite the same way. The
multiplier tells you how many zeros you should write after the digits you already have.

The remaining band is called the TOLERANCE band. This indicates the percentage accuracy of
the resistor value. Most carbon film resistors have a gold-colour tolerance band, indicating that
the nominal value. Other tolerance colours are:

Tolerance ±1% ±2% ±5% ±10%

Colour Brown Red Gold Silver

When you want to read off a resistor value, look for the tolerance band, usually gold, and hold
the resistor with the tolerance band at its right hand end. Reading resistor values quickly and
accurately isn’t difficult, but it does take practice.

STEPS IN CACULATING RESISTOR COLOUR CODE

Example 1 blue – red – red – gold
1. To find the value of the resistor above, first find the tolerance band.
Starting from the other end, identify the first band – write down the number associated with
that colour, in this case blue is 6.
2. Now – ‘read’ the next colour, here it is red so write down a ‘2’ next to the six. (you
should have ‘62’ so far)
3. Now read the third or ‘multiplier exponent’ band and write down that as the number of
zero.
In this example, it is two so we get 6200, that is 6200Ω or 6.2kΩ.
4. If the ‘multiplier exponent’ band is black (for zero) don’t write any zero down.
5. If the ‘multiplier exponent’ band is gold move the decimal point one to the left. If the
‘multiplier exponent’ band is silver move the decimal point two places to the left. If the
resistor has one more band past the tolerance band it is a quality band.

ELECTRONICS is the science of freeing electrons from atoms of matter and controlling their flow
through vacuum or gas-filled tubes, conductors and semiconductors.

ATOM

Basically consists of nucleus and electrons moving around the nucleus. The nucleus consists of
neutrons and protons. Neutrons have no charge but proton have positive charge and electrons
have negative charge. The presence of protons makes the nucleus positive and so there is a
force of attraction between the nucleus and electrons. The closer the electrons are to the
nucleus, the stronger the force and vice versa. Hence electrons on the outermost orbit (or shell)
experience a weak attractive force and these electrons are said to be loosely bound. Such
electrons break away from their parent atoms by the slightest disturbance and move about
freely inside the body. These electrons are called free electrons or conduction electrons.

FREE ELECTRON is any electron that is not attached to an ion, atom or molecule and is free to
move under the influence of an applied or magnetic field.

PROPERTIES OF FREE ELECTRONS

1. Free are electrons that not attached to an atom

2. They have no attraction towards the nucleus of an atom
3. Not involved in chemical bonding
4. Responsible for the conduction of heat and electricity
5. The number of free electrons is a lattice property

HOLE: this is the absence of an electron in a particular place in an atom.

CHARGE CARRIERS
Charge carriers are particles within a material whose movement in a certain is responsible for
the conduction of electricity through the material.
a. Solid materials: free electrons as their charge carriers.
b. Fluids (liquid and gasses): ions as their charge carriers.

ENERGY BANDS IN SOLID

When groups of atoms are brought together to form a solid, the energy levels of the individual
atoms interact with each other to such an extent that the energy levels which were sharply
defined for the individual atoms become broadened to form what is known as energy band.
Thus, in an assembly of atoms that are closed together, energy bands replace energy levels of
the various atoms. After the establishment of the energy band, the electrons in the solid the
occupy energy Bands that correspond to their energy state.

Note the following points:

1. An energy band is a multitude of individual energy levels which are so closed top each
other.
2. An electron in a solid can only have an energy that falls within one of its energy bands.
3. The energy states of an electron can be determined from its mobility, how free it is to
move. The higher the its energy state. Thus an electron is in its lower energy state. Thus
an electron is in its lower energy state when it is almost stationary.

TYPES OF ENERGY BANDS IN SOLIDS

Depending upon the nature or the type of solid, we can distinguish between three types of
energy band. They are
1. Valence band
2. Conduction band
3. Forbidden band

1. VALENCE BAND: In this energy band, electrons are tightly bound to the individual parent
atoms and are strongly involved in bonding with one another. Consequently, they are
not free to move and are said to be in their lowest energy states. Thus, the valence band
in which electrons have almost zero mobility as a result of being tightly bound.
2. CONDUCTION BAND: In the conduction band, electrons are separated from their parent
atom s and are thus free to move throughout the solid. Since the electrons in this band
have the greatest mobility, they are said to be in the highest state. Thus conduction
band can be described as the highest energy band in which are tightly bound and very
mobile. Electrons in this band are called free electrons.
3. FORBIDDEN BAND: the gap between the valence band and the conduction band of a
pure semiconductor within which no electrons exist is called forbidden gap. In this
energy band, there are no electrons present. This means that electrons in solid do not
have energies corresponding to this energy band and are, in some way, forbidden to
occupy this band. This band usually occurs in a solid in which the valence band and the
conduction band do not overlap and gap which lies between them is what is referred to
 as the forbidden band. Thus, the forbidden band can be described as the electron free
band which lies between the valence and the conduction band.

Electrons are very mobile Conduction band

No electrons present forbidden band

Electrons are tightly bound valence band

Fig. Energy band diagram showing the three types of energy bands.

TYPES OF SOLIDS

Depending on their electrical conductivity, solid can be grouped into three main types. They are
conductors, semiconductors and insulators.

CONDUCTORS

A conductor is a solid whose

❖ Conduction and valence bands are completely filled

❖ Conduction band overlaps with its valence band and thus no forbidden band is present.
❖ Electrical conductivity is very high at normal temperature but decreases with increasing
temperature. Thus, electrical resistivity of a solid conductor increases with increasing
temperature.

Conduction band

Region of overlap

Valence band

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON CONDUCTORS

When the temperature of a conductor is increased, atoms within the conductor vibrate faster
at greater amplitude. As a result, there are more collisions between the vibrating electrons and
the free electrons. A greater number of free electrons are greatly reduced. The current flow are
also reduces accordingly and this increase the resistivity of the conductor. In summary, increase
in temperature of a conductor increases its resistivity and reduces its conductivity. Therefore, a
conductor is a material which has a high electrical conductivity and low electrical resistivity.

INSULATORS

An insulator is a material which has a high electrical resistivity anc low electrical conductivity.
For example, rubber, plastic, polythene.

An insulator is a solid with:

❖ Completely filled valence band but with a completely empty conduction band
❖ A wider forbidden band.
❖ Negligible electrical conductivity.

Completely empty Conduction band

Wide forbidden band

Completely filled valence band

NOTE:

The wider forbidden band present in an insulator does not permit moderate temperature to
cause valence electrons to be excited to the conduction band. However, if the temperature is
raised sufficiently high, valence electron can be excited to the conduction band and in this way
improves its conductivity. Thus no solid is said to be an insulator at extremely high
temperatures.

EFFECT OF TEMPERATUIRE ON INSULATORS

At ordinary temperatures an insulator has no free moving electrons and therefore has
negligible electrical conductivity. However, when the temperature is increased high enough,
Some electrons gain energy and break away from the influence of the nucleus becoming free
electrons. With the presence of these free electrons the insulation begins to conduct
Electricity. As the temperature is increased further more electrons break away becoming free
electrons and therefore the conductivity of the insulator is increased.

SEMICONDUCTOR
A semiconductor is a material whose electrical conductivity lies between a conductor and an
insulator.
Examples of semiconductor include silicon, germanium, indium etc. a semiconductor is a solid
with:
❖ Completely filled valence band but partially filled conduction band
❖ A narrow forbidden band
❖ Electrical conductivity which increase with increasing temperature and addition of foreign
atoms called impurities.

Partially filled conduction band

Narrow forbidden band

Completely filled valence band

FACTORS THAT CONTROL THE CONDUCTIVITY OF A SEMICONDUCTOR

1. TEMPERATURE: when the temperature of a semiconductor increases some covalent

rapture and more free electrons and holes are produced. With the increase in electrons,
the conductivity of semiconductor increase.
2. IMPURITIES: when the right amount of an impurity is introduced into a semiconductor
its electrical conductivity increases. The increase in conductivity is because the impurity
either increase the number of free electrons or the number of holes. If there are more
free electrons than holes, then electrons are majority charge carrier and holes are the
minority charge carriers and vice versa.

DOPING

Doping is the process of adding impurity or foreign material to a semiconductor in order to

improve its electrical conductivity.
Thus a semiconductor is said to be doped if a foreign material is introduced to it.

The impurity added to a semiconductor is said to be a donor impurity if it donates electrons

to a semiconductor. On the other hand, it is said to be acceptor impurity if it creates holes
in the semiconductor.

DONOR IMPURITY
This is an impurity which increases the number of electrons in the semiconductor.

ACCEPTOR IMPURITY
This is an impurity which increase the number of holes in the semiconductor.

PROPERTIES OF CONDUCTOR, SEMICONDUCTOR AND INSULATOR

NO. Property\ solid Conductor Semiconductor Insulator

1. Valence band Completely Completely Completely
filled filled filled
2. Conduction Completely Partially filled Completely
band filled empty
3. Forbidden Absent Present but Present but
band narrow wide
4. Conductivity at Very high but Low but Zero but
room decrease with improves with improves at
temperature increase increased in very high
temperature temperature temperature
5. Resistivity Nil High Very high
6. Effects of Resistivity Resistivity Resistivity
temperature increases with decreases with decreases with
on resistivity temperature temperature temperature
7. Effect of Conductivity Conductivity Conductivity
temperature decreases with increases with increases with
on conductivity temperature temperature temperature

INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
An intrinsic semiconductor is a semiconductor in its pure state without impurities and at
this state the number of free electrons is equal to the number of holes.
 EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
An extrinsic semiconductor is a semiconductor which has been doped with an impurity and
that there is unequal number of holes and free electrons.

There are two types of extrinsic semiconductor. They are:

➢ N-type conductor and
➢ P- type conductor

N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
This is an extrinsic semiconductor doped with a pentavalent impurity where free electrons are
the majority charge carrier and hole are the minority charge carrier.
Consider an extrinsic semiconductor such as silicon or germanium which is in group four (IV).
Silicon being a tetravalent element has four electrons on the outermost shell. One silicon atom
forms four covalent bonds with four nearby atoms in the crystal structure. Suppose a
pentavalent element such as arsenic or phosphorus is introduced as an impurity into the silicon
crystal structure, the phosphorus being pentavalent atom has five electrons on its valence shell.
Four of them enter into covalent bond with four nearby silicon atoms. The fifth electron
becomes free and wanders about in the silicon structure. The impurity in a way is donating free
electron to the semiconductor and such impurity is called donor impurity. Because of free
electrons than holes. This type of extrinsic semiconductor is called n-type semiconductor.

Fig.

P- TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
This is an extrinsic semiconductor which has been doped with a trivalent impurity where holes
are majority charge carriers and electrons are the minority charge carriers.
Fig.

Consider an extrinsic semiconductor such as silicon or germanium which is in group four (IV).
Silicon being a tetravalent element has four electrons on the outermost shell. One silicon atom
forms four covalent bonds with four nearby atoms in the crystal structure. Suppose a trivalent
element such as indium or boron is introduced as an impurity into the silicon crystal structure,
an atom of indium displaces silicon atom and occupy its position in the structure. The indium
being a trivalent atom has three electrons on its outermost shell. To complete the fourth
bonding the indium atom attracts an electron from a close silicon atom. When the electron
leaves the silicon atom a hole is created in the silicon crystal structure. The hole on the silicon
atom in turn accepts an electron from nearby silicon atom and thus a hole is created. Because
the impurity accepts electrons it is called acceptor impurity. The holes are therefore majority
charge carriers and the electrons are minority charge carriers. This type of extrinsic
semiconductor is called p-type semiconductor.

BAND THEORY ON N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

The forbidden gap which separates the valence band from the conduction band is narrow. The
donor impurity in the n-type semiconductor creates a new energy level just below the bottom
of the conduction band. This newly created energy is called donor level and is occupied by
electrons. A donor impurity is a pentavalent impurity atom which when introduced into a pure
semiconductor donates a free electron to the semiconductor.

Because the donor level is so close to the conduction band, electrons can easily jump into the
conduction band even at low temperatures. The donor level therefore increases the electrical
conductivity of the n-type semiconductor.
 Conduction band

Donor band

Forbidden band

Valence band

BAND THEORY ON P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

The forbidden gap which separate the valence band from the conduction band is
narrow. The acceptor impurity in the p-type semiconductor creates a new energy level
just above the top of the valence band. This newly created energy level is called
acceptor level. Acceptor impurity is a trivalent impurity atom which when introduced
into a pure semiconductor creates a hole and makes it capable of accepting electrons.
The acceptor level is occupied by electrons. The acceptor level reduces the width of the
forbidden band or gap so that electrons can jump into the conduction band with relative
ease at room temperature. The acceptor level also enhances the electrical conductivity
of the p-type semiconductor.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN N-TYPE AND P-TYPE

N-TYPE P-TYPE
The impurity is pentavalent element The impurity is a trivalent
The majority charge carriers are electrons The majority charge carriers Are holes
Impurity introduces a new energy level Impurity introduces a new energy level
called donor level just below the called acceptor level just above the
conduction band valence band
Electrical conductivity is much higher Electrical conductivity is high
Electrons contribute most to the Holes contribute most to the conductivity
conductivity

P-N JUNCTION
A p-n junction is a plane at which a p-type semiconductor meets an n-type
semiconductor by a special manufacturing process.
To form a p-n junction a single semiconductor such as germanium is doped in such a
way that half of it is p-type and the other half is n-type. The boundary that separate the
p-type from the n-type is called a p-n junction.
 n-type p-type

p-n junction
As soon as the junction is formed, holes which are majority charge carriers at the p-type
diffuse across the junction into the n-type region. At the same time, electrons which are
the majority charge carriers in the n-type also diffuse across the junction into the p-type
region. This movement produces current across the junction and it takes over a narrow
area known as depletion layer.

The depletion is about 10-3 mm on either side of the boundary. As more charges diffuse
from one region to the other, a state of equilibrium is eventually obtained when the
positive charge on the n-type becomes sufficient to prevent any movement of holes
from the p-region and the negative charge on the p-type also becomes sufficient to
prevent any further movement of electrons from the n-region. When diffusion of
charges ceases in this way, we say that a potential barrier has been formed in the
vicinity. The potential barrier is that further diffusion of charges across the junction. The
region in which the potential barrier exists at the junction is known as depletion layer.

DEPLETION LAYER
This is a narrow region across the p-n junction where electrons and holes recombine
and neutralize.
POTENTIAL BARRIER
This is defined as the opposing potential difference which turns to prevent the diffusion
of holes and electrons across the p-n junction.

BIASING A P-N JUNCTION

Biasing a p-n junction is the process of increasing or decreasing the opposition offered
to the flow of majority charge carrier by the potential barrier existing at the junction.
This is usually done by connecting a source of emf across the p-n junction.
FORWARD BIASED P-N JUNCTION
A p-n junction is said to be forward biased if the positive terminal of a source of emf is
connected to the p-type and the negative to the n-type semiconductor.

When connected this way, the source of emf breaks or decrease the potential barrier.
When the p-n junction is forward biased the applied emf of the battery pushes majority
charge carriers of both ends to diffuse across the junction. Holes from the p-type move
to the n-type semiconductor and electrons from the n-type move to the p-type. The
movement of holes and electrons reduces the width of the depletion layer and in turn
reduces the barrier potential. As a result, the resistivity of the p-n junction decreases
and conductivity increases. Current can then flow across the junction with ease and the
junction then behaves as a conductor. The current that flows across the p-n junction is
called forward biased current.

- -
P + + n

+ -

Battery

REVERSE BIASE P-N JUNCTION

A p-n junction is said to be reverse biased if the p-type region is connected to the
negative terminal of a battery and the n-type to the positive terminal.

- +
n - + p

+ -

Battery

When the p-n junction is reverse biased the applied emf of the battery pushes minority
charge carriers of both ends to diffuse across the junction. Holes from the n-type move
to the p-type semiconductor and electrons from the p-type move to n-type
semiconductor. This move increases the barrier potential, as a result, the conductivity of
the p-n junction decreases and the resistivity increases. Current that flows across the
junction becomes difficult and the junction behaves as an insulator. The small current
that flows across the junction is called reverse bias current or leakage current.
 DIODE
A diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts current in one direction
(so long as it is operating within as specified voltage level). An ideal diode will have zero
resistance in one direction and infinite resistance in the reverse direction.

Although in the real world, diodes cannot achieve zero or infinite resistance. Instead, a
diode will have negligible resistance in one direction (to allow current flow), and a very
high resistance in the reverse direction (to prevent current flow). A diode is effectively
like a valve for an electrical circuit.

Semiconductor diode are the most common type of diode. These diodes begin
conducting electricity only if a certain threshold voltage is present in the forward
direction (i.e. the “low resistance” direction). The diode is said to be “forward biased”
when conducting current in this direction. When connected within a circuit in the
reverse direction (i.e. the “high resistance” direction ), the diode is said be “reverse
biase”.

A diode only blocks current in the reverse direction (i.e. when it is reverse biase) while
the reverse voltage is within a specified range. Above this range, the reverse barrier
breaks. The voltage at which this breakdown occurs is called the “reverse breakdown
voltage”. When the voltage is the circuit is higher than the reverse breakdown voltage,
the diode is able to conduct electricity in the reverse direction (i.e. the “high resistance”
direction). This is why in practice we say diode have a high resistance in the reverse
direction – not a infinite resistance.

Diode Symbol
The symbol of a diode is shown below. The arrowhead points in the direction of conventional
current flow in the
forward biased condition. That means the anode is connected to the p- side and the cathode is
connected to the n-side.
 USES OR APPLICATION OF P-N JUNCTION DIODE
1. As a rectifier diode
2. Signal diodes
3. Light emitting diode (LED)
4. Zener diodes
5. Varactor diodes
6. Photodiodes

THE DIODE RECTIFIER

Rectification is the process of changing an alternating current to direct current. The two
types of rectification are half wave rectification and full wave rectification.

HALF WAVE RECTIFICATION

The half wave rectifier uses a single diode which conducts current during one half cycle
but is non-conducting during the other half cycle.

Fig.

The ac to be rectified is connected to the primary coil of the transformer and the
transformed ac is rectified by the diode connected in the circuit of the secondary coil of
 the cycle when A is positive relative to B is forward biased and conducts. On the second
half, when A is negative relative to B, the diode is reverse biased and does not conduct.

INPUT WAVE FORM

RESULTING WAVE FORM

If a capacitor is connected, it charges to the peak voltage when the diode is conducting and when
it is not, it discharges through the load.

Fig.

Fig.

NOTE: But the diode is only part of it – a complete half-wave rectifier circuit consists of 3 main
parts:

1. A transformer
2. A resistive load

3. A diode

DC Power Supply
There are many types of power supply. Most are designed to convert high voltage AC mains
electricity to a
suitable low voltage supply for electronics circuits and other devices. A power supply can by
broken down
into a series of blocks, each of which performs a particular function.

For example a 5V regulated supply:

Transformer - steps down high voltage AC mains to low voltage AC.

Rectifier - converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying.
Smoothing - smooths the DC from varying greatly to a small ripple.
Regulator - eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed voltage.
FULL WAVE RECTIFICATION

FULL WAVE RECTIFIERS

If rectifiers rectify both the positive and negative half cycles of an input alternating waveform,
the rectifiers are referred as full wave rectifiers. Alternatively, we can say, a rectifier is a device
that converts alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC). It does it by using a diode or a
group of diodes.

CENTER TAPPED FULL WAVE RECTIFIER The Center Tapped Full Wave Rectifier
employs a transformer with the secondary winding AB tapped at the centre point C. It converts
the AC input voltage into DC voltage The two diode D1, and D2 are connected in the circuit as
shown in the circuit diagram below.

Fig.

FULL WAVE BRIDGE RECTIFIER In Full Wave Bridge Rectifier, an ordinary transformer is
used in place of a center tapped transformer. The circuit forms a bridge connecting the four
diodes D1, D2, D3, and D4. The circuit diagram of Full Wave Bridge Rectifier is shown below.
STEPDOWN TRANSFORMER is used to convert high value of AC voltage to lower AC values.
Fig.

Advantages of Full Wave Rectifiers

Full wave rectifiers have higher rectifying efficiency than half-wave rectifiers. This means that
they convert AC to DC more efficiently.

They have low power loss because no voltage signal is wasted in the rectification process.

The output voltage of centre-tapped full wave rectifier has lower ripples than a half wave
rectifier.

Disadvantages of Full Wave Rectifiers

The centre-tapped rectifier is more expensive than half-wave rectifier and tends to occupy a
lot of space.

CAPACITOR-INPUT FILTER

A half-wave rectifier with a capacitor-input filter is shown in Figure below. The filter is simply a
capacitor connected from the rectifier output to ground. RL represents the equivalent resistance
of a load. We will use the half-wave rectifier to illustrate the basic principle and then expand the
concept to full-wave rectification. Both capacitor and load resistor are parallel. During the
positive first quarter-cycle of the input, the diode is forward biased, allowing the capacitor to
charge to within 0.7 V of the input peak, as illustrated in Figure (a). When the input begins to
decrease below its peak, as shown in part (b), the capacitor retains its charge and the diode
becomes reverse-biased because the cathode is more positive than the anode. During the
remaining part of the cycle, the capacitor can discharge only through the load resistance at a rate
determined by the RLC time constant, which is normally long compared to the period of the
input. The larger the time constant, the less the capacitor will discharge. During the first quarter
of the next cycle, as illustrated in part (c), the diode will again become forward-biased when the
input voltage exceeds the capacitor voltage by approximately 0.7 V(Si)
We know there are two types of signals, one is analog or continuous signal and the second one is
Digital or discrete
signal. So the science or field of research in the area of engineering is termed as Analog and
Digital Electronics
respectively. Now coming to the area of Digital Electronics, it is essential to understand wide
range of applications
from industrial electronics to the fields of communication, from micro embedded systems to
military equipment.
The main and perhaps the most revolutionary advantage of digital electronics is the decrease in
size and the
improvement in technology.

Advantages of digital signal

1. Carry more information per second than analogue signals
2. Maintain quality over long distances better than analogue signals.
3. They're automatic
4. Can be very immune to noise

Binary Digit and Logic Levels

There are two digits in binary system. 0 and 1 called bits. Bit is contraction of two words Binary
Digit.

Digital Waveforms
Digital waveform are voltages levels changing back and forth between HIGH and LOW levels or
states. Usually these waveforms are represented as timing diagrams used to represent wave
behavior relative to time,
Rise Time: Time required for pulse to go from its LOW level to HIGH is called rise time tr.
Fall Time: Time required for pulse to go from its HIGH level to LOW level is called fall time tf
Pulse Width: It is measure of duration between rise edge and fall edge of the pulse indicated as
tw.

Frequency ( f ) and Time Period T:

Frequency of a periodic (which repeats itself) waveform is the rate at which it repeats itself and
measured
in Hz. Whereas time period is duration after that signal or waveform repeats itself. Mathematical
interpretations
are given below in equation (i) and (ii) .

Decimal Number System

The number system that we use in our day-to-day life is the decimal number system. Decimal
number system
has base 10 as it uses 10 digits from 0 to 9. In decimal number system, the successive positions
to the left of the
decimal point represents units, tens, hundreds, thousands and so on.

Each position represents a specific power of the base (10). For example, the decimal number
1234 consists of
the digit 4 in the units position, 3 in the tens position, 2 in the hundreds position, and 1 in the
thousands position,
and its value can be written as

2 Binary Number System

Base 2. Digits used: 0, 1

3 Octal Number System

Base 8. Digits used: 0 to 7

4 Hexa Decimal Number System

Base 16. Digits used: 0 to 9, Letters used: A-
F

Binary to Decimal Conversion

Conversion of Integer Numbers
Just as you can convert any binary numbers to hexadecimal, or convert binary numbers to octal,
any number in
the binary number system can be converted into the hexadecimal number system.
This conversion is also very simple method. Let, a binary number be (11010)2 , where the weight
of the binary
digits from most significant bit are 24, 23, 22, 21, 20 respectively.

Now the bits are multiplied with their weights, and the sum of those products is the respective
decimal number.
Now let us follow the following steps mathematically:

(11010)2 = (1 x 24) + (1 x 23) + (0 x 22) + (1 x 21) + (0 x 20)

= 16 + 8 + 0 + 2 + 0
= (26)10
(11010)2 = (26)10
Hence, (26)10 is the required decimal number. This is how binary to decimal conversion is
performed.
As another example, we convert the binary number (1110)2 to a decimal number:

(1110)2 = (1 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (1 x 21) + (0 x 20) = (14)10

Convert Binary Number to Decimal Number

Conversion of Decimal Point Number to Decimal

This can also be done in the same way, however after the decimal point the number should be
multiplied with 2-1
2-2 etc.
For example,