MINI -PROJECT REPORT

on

“Conceptual Design for a Fixed Wing

Gasoline Powered Hybrid Engine
VTOL UAV.”

is submitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the VI Semester of
Bachelor of Technology (Aerospace Engineering)
2022-2023
GUIDED BY
(Prof. Vijaykumar Gorfad)

Submitted by:
1. Samarth Shetty (MITU20BTAE0051)
2. Ishaa PandeyAhir (MITU20BTAE0030)

DEPARTMENT OF AEROSPACE ENGINEERING MIT SCHOOL

OF ENGINEERING MIT ART, DESIGN AND TECHNOLOGY,
UNIVERSITY PUNE-412201

1
 CERTIFICATE
It is to certify that the mini-project report entitled,

Conceptual Design for a Fixed Wing

Gasoline Powered Hybrid Engine
VTOL UAV.

is a bonafide work done by the following students

1. Samarth Shetty 2201032

2. Ishaa PandeyAhir 2201019

This mini-project report is submitted to “MIT ART, DESIGN

AND TECHNOLOGY, UNIVERSITY, PUNE” In partial
fulfillment of the requirement for the VI Semester of Bachelor
of Technology (Aerospace Engineering).

2022-2023

GUIDED BY: Prof. Vijaykumar Gorfad.

The viva–voice examination of the above mentioned projects,

has been held at MIT ADT University on Dated

Signature of Guide Signature Of Expert Signature Of MP Coordinator

Signature of Head of Department

2
 ABSTRACT

The evolution in the missions’ complexity of both military aircraft and Unmanned
Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) and the increase in civilian air-traffic, with limited runways,
have led to the development of a new category of aircraft called Transitional
Aircraft (TA). The goal of TA is to take advantage of both the characteristics of
fixed-wing aircraft, like high speed, range and endurance, and of rotorcraft such
as hovering, low-speed flight and Vertical Take-off and Landing (VTOL).
The conceptual design report for a fixed-wing gasoline-powered UAV is an
essential step in the development of a successful unmanned aerial vehicle. The
design should focus on optimizing the UAV's performance, endurance, and
cost-effectiveness.
The design should include a detailed analysis of the UAV's flight mechanics,
including its aerodynamics, propulsion system, and control mechanisms. The
report should also consider the UAV's payload capacity, range, and endurance, as
well as its ability to operate in various weather conditions.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Certificate

Abstract 3

CHAPTER 1: Introduction 6

1.1. Application 7
1.2. Primary Functions of Aircraft Components 8
1.3. Wing configuration 9
1.4. Tail configuration 11
1.5. Propulsion System Configuration 11
1.6. Landing Gear Configuration 12

CHAPTER 2: Literature Review 14

2.1. Literature survey

2.2 Research gap 18
2.3. Objective 19

CHAPTER 3: Methodology 20

3.1. Weight estimation

3.2. Power required 25

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 3.3 Aircraft design parameter 29
● Wing design
● Tail design
● Fuselage design

3.4 Airfoil selection 31

3.5. Landing Gear Design 35

CHAPTER 4: Result and Discussion 37

4.1. Conceptual Assembly design

CHAPTER 5: Scope of future study 40

Conclusion 41

References 42

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 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

An aircraft type that combines the advantages of both electric and gasoline-powered
engines is the fixed-wing VTOL (Vertical Take-Off and Landing) electric hybrid aircraft.

The aircraft's fixed-wing configuration enables it to cruise at higher speeds and have a
greater range than other VTOLs, and its electric and gasoline-powered engines offer
dependable propulsion throughout takeoff, landing, and cruising.

During takeoff and landing, the engine's electric component provides effective, noiseless,
and low-emission power, while the gasoline-powered engine offers high power output for
cruising at high speeds and over longer distances.

This aircraft's hybrid design enables it to operate more economically and efficiently than
conventional aircraft because it can use electric power for shorter trips or when
operating in areas with noise and emission restrictions while using the gasoline-powered
engine for longer trips and when higher speeds are needed.

The fixed-wing VTOL electric hybrid gasoline-powered engine aircraft is an inventive

solution that, by fusing the finest features of both worlds, enables reliable and efficient
air transportation in a range of settings.

6
1.1 Application

Agriculture & Farming

VTOL fixed-wing drones can provide highly efficient coverage and data collection for large
farms, allowing farmers to quickly gain insights into crop health and other indicators
and thus reducing costs of pesticides and fertilizer. A thermal camera payload will help
detect well-watered field regions as well as dryer patches.

Infrastructure
VTOL fixed-wing drones can be used to provide real-time, accurate 3D comparable data,
which is essential to effective infrastructure planning and helps detect deteriorating
conditions and underdeveloped areas of infrastructure.

Mapping & Land Surveying

Land surveyors can rapidly deploy VTOL fixed-wing drones in even the most remote and
inaccessible areas, providing them with remotely-sensed, real-time geospatial data.

Mining
VTOL fixed-wing drones can be deployed to safely and efficiently to survey mining
areas, allowing for increased productivity and further expansion.

Surveillance & Security

VTOL fixed-wing drones can provide real-time intelligence to decision-makers,
allowing better pre-planning, greater control and more efficient resolution of emergency
situations without putting human operators in harm’s way.

1.2. Primary Functions of Aircraft Components

An aircraft comprises several major components. It mainly includes the wing,
horizontal tail, vertical tail (VT), fuselage, propulsion system, landing gear, and

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 control surfaces. In order to make a decision about the configuration of each
aircraft component, the designer must be fully aware of the function of each
component. Each aircraft component has interrelationships with other
components and interferes with the functions of other components.

1. Wing- The main function of the wing is to generate the aerodynamic force of lift to keep
the aircraft airborne. The wing tends to generate two other unwanted aerodynamic
productions: an aerodynamic drag force plus an aerodynamic pitching moment.
Furthermore, the wing is an essential component in providing the aircraft lateral stability,
which is fundamentally significant for flight safety. In almost all aircraft, the aileron is
arranged so as to be at the trailing edge of the outboard section. Hence, the wing is
largely influential in providing the aircraft lateral control.
2. Fuselage- The primary function of the fuselage is to accommodate the payload which
includes passengers, cargo, luggage, and other useful loads. The fuselage is often a home
for the pilot and crew members, and most of the time fuel tanks and engine(s). Since the
fuselage provides a moment arm to the horizontal and VT, it plays an influential role in
longitudinal and directional stability and control. If the fuselage is decided to be short, a
boom must be provided to allow for the tails to have sufficient arms.

3. Horizontal tail- The horizontal tail’s primary function is to generate an aerodynamic force
to longitudinally trim the aircraft. Furthermore, the VT is an essential component of
providing the aircraft longitudinal stability, which is a fundamental requirement for flight
safety. In the majority of aircraft, the elevator is a movable part of the horizontal tail, so
longitudinal control and maneuverability are applied through the horizontal tail.

4. Vertical tail- The VT’s primary function is to generate an aerodynamic force to

directionally trim the aircraft. Furthermore, the VT is an essential component in providing
the aircraft directional stability, which is a fundamental requirement for flight safety. In
the majority of aircraft, the rudder is a movable part of the VT, so directional control and
maneuverability are applied through the VT.

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5. Engine- The engine is the main component in the aircraft propulsion system to generate
power and/or thrust. The aircraft requires a thrust force to move forward (as in any other
vehicle), so the engine’s primary function is to generate the thrust. The fuel is considered
to be a necessary item of the propulsion system and it sometimes constitutes a large part
of the aircraft weight. An aircraft without an engine is not able to take off independently,
but is capable of gliding and landing, as performed by sailplanes and gliders. Sailplanes
and gliders take off with the help of other aircraft or outside devices (such as a winch),
and climb with the help of wind and thermal currents.

6. Landing gear. The primary function of the landing gear is to facilitate take-off and landing
operations. During take-off and landing operations, the fuselage, wing, tail, and aircraft
components are kept away from the ground through the landing gear. The wheels of the
landing gear in land-based and ship-based aircraft also play a crucial role in safe
acceleration and deceleration of the aircraft. Rolling wheels as part of the landing gear
allow the aircraft to accelerate without spending a considerable amount of thrust to
overcome friction.

1.3. Wing Configuration

In general, the wing configuration alternatives from seven different aspects are as
follows:
1. Number of wings
a. Monoplane
b. Biplane
c. Triplane

2. Wing location
a. High wing
b. Mid-wing
c. Low wing
d. Parasol wing
3. Wing type
a. Rectangular

9
 b. Delta
c. Swept back
d. Swept forward
e. Elliptical
f. Tapered
4. High-lift device
a. Plain flap
b. Split flap
c. Slotted flap
d. Kruger flap
e. Double-slotted flap
f. Triple-slotted flap
g. Leading edge flap
h. Leading edge slot

5. Sweep configuration
a. Fixed wing
b. Variable sweep

6. Shape
a. Fixed shape
b. Morphing wing

7. Structural configuration
a. Cantilever
b. Strut-braced
i. Faired
ii. Unfaired.

1.4. Tail Configuration

In general, the tail configuration alternatives from three different aspects are as
follows:
1. Aft or forward

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 a. Aft conventional tail
b. Canard (foreplane)
c. Three surfaces

2. Horizontal and vertical tail

a. Conventional
b. V-tail
c. T-tail
d. H-tail
e. Inverted U

3. Attachment
a. Fixed tail
b. Moving tail
c. Adjustable tail.

1.5. Propulsion System Configuration

In general, the propulsion system configuration alternatives from four different aspects
are as follows:
1. Engine type
a. Human-powered
b. Solar-powered
c. Piston prop
d. Turboprop
e. Turbofan
f. Turbojet
g. Rocket
2. Engine and the aircraft center of gravity
a. Pusher
b. Tractor
3. Number of engines

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 a. Single-engine
b. Twin-engine 56 Aircraft Design
c. Tri-engine
d. Four-engine
e. Multi-engine
4. Engine location
a. In front of nose (inside)
b. Inside fuselage mid-section
c. Inside wing
d. Top of wing
e. Under wing
f. Inside vertical tail
g. Side of fuselage at aft section
h. Top of fuselage.

1.6. Landing Gear Configuration

In general, the landing gear configuration alternatives from three different aspects are
as follows:

1. Landing gear mechanism

a. Fixed ((i) faired and (ii) unfaired)
b. Retractable
c. Partially retractable

2. Landing gear type

a. Tricycle (or nose gear)
b. Tail gear (tail dragger or skid)
c. Bicycle (tandem)
d. Multi-wheel
e. Bicycle (tandem)

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f. Float-equipped
g. Removable landing gear

13
 CHAPTER 2: Literature review

2.1 Literature survey

Initial Design Process according to [1]:
1.During the initial design phase to ensure that it is capable of carrying the necessary
payload, the empty weight of the UAV must be determined.
2.Based on the goals of the mission, the design should strike a balance between
stability and maneuverability. Prioritizing controllability is important to ensure accurate
outputs. 3.During the design phase, the maximum take-off weight and mission time
should be taken into account.
4.The power requirements should be taken into account when designing the propulsion
system.
5.To make sure the UAV satisfies the mission criteria, its total performance, including its
linear stability and aerodynamics, should be assessed.

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 6.Using CFD, the different parts of the UAV under the required conditions must be
evaluated.
The paper [11] includes the design of a hybrid VTOL UAV TURAC. The design process
includes critical sizing and design selections associated with structures, aerodynamics,
power systems, and avionics system design. The TURAC VTOL UAV is a civilian UAV
system that can take off and land like a helicopter, but also has high cruise speeds. It has
been designed to be efficient and cost-effective, with features such as easy payload
conversion for different applications.

Design and Systems:

The TURAC UAV uses two tilt rotors and one main rotor for propulsion, and has a tailless
blended wing design with attachable wings and winglets for stability and
maneuverability. The complete system consists of a ground station with a laptop, radio
command, and dual transceivers, and an air vehicle with a flight control computer,
sensors, actuators, and radio transceivers. The air vehicle and ground station are
equipped with computers and transceivers for communication and control.
Structure and Materials:
The vehicle is made from composite materials with honeycomb structures and carbon
fibre tubes for support. A detailed finite element network is used to ensure structural
sufficiency for maximum loads. Motor, battery, and electronic parts are modelled for
examining their effect on the aircraft's dynamic behavior. The material layout is selected
by testing it using a structural analysis model which determines maximum loads that
can be endured by the layout.
Analysis:
Flight tests have been conducted to verify the concept and structural calculations. The
TURAC VTOL UAV has advantages over CTOL UAVs, including higher endurance,
productivity, portability, as well as VTOL and transition capabilities and has a superior
target performance compared to other VTOL UAVs in its class.

Selection of Materials:
The selection of materials for VTOLs or drones depends on a number of factors
mentioned in [3] such as:
1. Weight:

15
 The weight of the aircraft is a critical factor in its performance, particularly for drones or
VTOLs that rely on battery power. Therefore, the materials selected must be lightweight
but also strong enough to support the required loads. Carbon fibre composites,
aluminium alloys, and titanium alloys are commonly used due to their high
strength-to-weight ratios.
2. Strength:
The materials used for critical components such as the airframe, rotor blades, and
landing gear must be able to withstand the stresses and loads imposed during flight.
Titanium, aluminium, and high-strength composites are often used for these
components. 3. Durability:
The materials must be able to withstand the environmental conditions and wear and
tear associated with flight, like exposure to UV radiation, moisture, and temperature
extremes. Epoxy-based composites, aluminium alloys, and stainless steel are often used
due to their durability.
4. Cost:
The cost of materials is an important consideration, particularly for commercial
applications where cost-effectiveness is critical. Fiberglass composites and aluminium
alloys are often preferred due to their low cost.
5.Manufacturing:
The materials selected must be amenable to the manufacturing processes used to
produce the aircraft. Materials such as carbon fibre composites and aluminium alloys
are often preferred due to their ease of manufacturing.

Rotor Selection:
In the design of fixed wing VTOL UAV as seen in [1], all the rotors can be driven by a
single motor: The Fixed-Wing VTOL UAV's design can be made simpler and lighter by
employing a single motor to drive all of the rotors.
Additionally, synchronous rotation of all rotors can be arranged. The Fixed-Wing VTOL
UAV design can use synchronous transmission systems between each rotor and the
motor, enabling accurate and simple control of the rotors during take-off and landing.
Synchronous Design of Specialized Fixed Wing VTOL UAV: A Review 3 | P a g e rotation
may also aid in lowering high-frequency vibration and enhancing overall flight stability.

16
Propulsion:
Mode of Propulsion:
Gasoline-Powered Hybrid Electric Engine has been selected in [5] to satisfy the
Propulsion requirements. Gasoline-powered engines for VTOL fixed-wing UAVs are able
to achieve the stability and maximum endurance time but it can be further improved
with integrating the system with an electric system. Gasoline powered engines when
integrated with electric motors and batteries are able to achieve more performance and
efficiency and stability.

Benefits of Gasoline Powered Engine (according to [6])

1. Longer Flight Times: Gasoline engines typically have a longer flight time than electric
engines, which allows the UAV to cover more distance and stay in the air longer without
needing to refuel or recharge.
2.Greater Payload Capacity: Gasoline engines can provide more power to the UAV,
which allows it to carry a larger payload, including heavier sensors, cameras, and other
equipment.
3.High Altitude Operation: Gasoline powered UAVs can operate at higher altitudes than
electric UAVs, which can be advantageous for certain applications, such as surveillance
or mapping.
4.Reliability: Gasoline engines are generally more reliable than electric motors, which
are more prone to overheating and other mechanical issues.
5.Fuel Availability: Gasoline is widely available in most parts of the world, which makes
it easier to refuel a gasoline-powered UAV when it is operating in remote or inaccessible
areas.

Reference UAV using a Similar Mode of Propulsion:

As seen in [7] The GT-W1 uses a two-stroke gasoline engine to power four propellers
mounted on the wings. The authors performed experiments to test the flight
performance of the GT-W1, including its take-off and landing characteristics, stability
and control, and endurance.
The experimental results showed that the GT-W1 was able to achieve stable flight and
hover, with a maximum endurance of 40 minutes. Further research is needed to
improve its performance and explore its potential applications.

17
2.2. Research gap
1. This aircraft's hybrid design enables it to operate more economically and efficiently
than conventional aircraft because it can use electric power for shorter trips or when
operating in areas with noise and emission restrictions while using the
gasoline-powered engine for longer trips and when higher speeds are needed.

2. The fixed-wing VTOL electric hybrid gasoline-powered engine aircraft is an inventive

solution that, by fusing the finest features of both worlds, enables reliable and efficient
air transportation in a range of settings.

3. Integration of avionics and control systems: To regulate the various propulsion systems
used by hybrid UAVs, extensive avionics and control system integration is needed. To
ensure a smooth and secure operation, more research might concentrate on creating
cutting-edge avionics and control systems for hybrid UAVs.

4. Additional research is required to better understand the safety and dependability of

hybrid UAVs, particularly when switching between electric and petrol engines. To
ensure safe operation in the event of engine failure, this entails establishing fail-safe
devices.

2.3. Objective
1. Long endurance and range: One of a hybrid UAV's primary goals is to develop long
endurance and range capabilities, which let the UAV cover a lot of ground and carry out
lengthy missions.

2. Hybrid UAVs can operate in a variety of situations and conditions, including those that
are challenging or impossible for standard UAVs to access. Consequently, achieving the
flexibility necessary to function in such environments is a top priority.

18
3. Low noise and emissions: Hybrid UAVs seek to minimize noise and emissions, which is
crucial for applications including environmental monitoring, animal surveys, and
noise-restricted urban locations
4. Cost-effectiveness: By maximizing fuel consumption, lowering maintenance costs, and
raising general efficiency, hybrid UAVs seek to be economical.

5. Greater payload capacity: The hybrid engine system enables the UAV to carry heavier
payloads than conventional UAVs, which is advantageous for tasks like aerial surveying,
search and rescue missions, and the transportation of cargo.

6. Hybrid UAVs use redundant propulsion systems and sophisticated fail-safe mechanisms
to reduce the risk of accidents and guarantee mission success in order to increase safety
and reliability.

7. Higher speeds, more agility, and enhanced stability are among the performance
improvements hybrid UAVs seek to make over regular UAVs. As a result, the UAV may be
able to carry out more difficult missions and activities.

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 CHAPTER 3: Methodology

3.1 Maximum Take-Off Weight Estimation

Weight estimation The UAV maximum take-off weight and empty weight are estimated
based on the weight build up method.31 In order to calculate the empty weight
fraction, a quick survey to similar fixed-wing UAVs (with a similar payload weight) was
conducted and the results are presented in For the proposed aircraft configuration, the
maximum take-off weight (for both VTOL and fixed-wing mode), WTO, is found to be
15.351 kg with an empty weight, WEmpty, of 13.051kg

The General Technique

The purpose of this section is to introduce a technique to obtain the first estimate of
the MTOW (or all-up weight) for an aircraft before it is designed and built.
Weight Build-up
The MTOW is broken into four elements:
1. Payload weight (WPL).
2. Crew weight (WC).
3. Fuel weight (Wf).
4. Empty weight (WE)
WTO = WPL + WC + WF + WE
𝑊𝑇𝑂 = 𝑊𝑃𝐿 + 𝑊𝐶 + (𝑊𝑓/ 𝑊𝑇𝑂)𝑊𝑇𝑂 + (𝑊𝐸/ 𝑊𝑇𝑂) 𝑊𝑇𝑂

This can be solved for WTO as follows:

𝑊𝑇𝑂 − (𝑊𝑓/ 𝑊𝑇𝑂) 𝑊𝑇𝑂 − (𝑊𝐸/ 𝑊𝑇𝑂) 𝑊𝑇𝑂 = 𝑊𝑃𝐿 + 𝑊𝐶

The take-off weight can be factored out:

𝑊𝑇𝑂 (1 − 𝑊𝑓/ 𝑊𝑇𝑂) − (𝑊𝐸/ 𝑊𝑇𝑂) = 𝑊𝑃𝐿 + 𝑊𝐶
Thus,

20
 𝑊𝑇𝑂 = (𝑊𝑃𝐿 + 𝑊𝐶 ) / (1 − [(𝑊𝑓/ 𝑊𝑇𝑂 − 𝑊𝐸 /𝑊𝑇𝑂)]

In order to find WTO, one needs to determine the four variables of WPL, WC, Wf/ WTO,
and WE/ WTO

Payload Weight
Payload weight is estimated or determined by the mission requirement , or by the
customer.In our case it turns out to be 4-5kg

Fuel weight
During each segment, the fuel is burnt and the aircraft loses weight. If an aircraft has a
mission to drop load or parachute, the technique must be applied with a slight
correction. The aircraft weight at the end of a segment divided by its weight at the
beginning of that segment is called the segment weight fraction. For instance, W4/W3
in the flight mission of(a) is the fuel fraction during the cruise segment. This will make a
basis for estimating the required fuel weight and fuel fraction during a flight operation.
The difference between the aircraft weight at the end of the flight (i.e., landing) and the
aircraft weight at the beginning of the flight (i.e., take-off) is
exactly equal to the fuel weight:𝑤𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑓
The intended airport is closed, so the aircraft has to land at another nearby airport. FAA
regulation requires a transport aircraft to carry 20% more fuel than needed on a flight
of 45 minutes to observe airworthiness standards. The extra fuel required for safety
purposes is almost 5% of the aircraft total weight, so it is applied as follows:

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 𝑊𝑇𝑂 − 𝑊𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑊𝑓
Thus, in a regular flight mission, the ratio between the aircraft weight at the end of the
flight to the aircraft weight at the beginning of the flight is:

𝑊𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑊𝑇𝑂 = 𝑊𝑇𝑂 − 𝑊𝑓/ 𝑊𝑇𝑂

Therefore, for the case of a mission with five segments as shown in Figure 4.2(a), the
fuel weight fraction is obtained as follows:
𝑊𝑓 /𝑊𝑇𝑂 = 1 − 𝑊6/ 𝑊
where W6 /W1 can be written as:
𝑊6 𝑊1 = 𝑊2/𝑊1 𝑊3/𝑊2 𝑊4/𝑊3 𝑊5/𝑊4 𝑊6/𝑊5

FAA regulation requires a transport aircraft to carry 20% more fuel than needed on a
flight of 45 minutes to observe airworthiness standards. The extra fuel required for
safety purposes is almost 5% of the aircraft total weight, so it is applied as follows:
𝑊𝑓/ 𝑊𝑇𝑂 = 1. 05 (1 − 𝑊6/ 𝑊1)

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 Individual weight of component

Device Quantity Weight (kg)

Battery 2 1.5 * 2

Lifting motors 4 1-1.5 *4

ESC’s for lifting motor 4 0.011*4

Engine 1 4-5

Propeller 4 0.025*4

Airframe 1 2.5

Fuel weight - 2-3

TOTAL - 16Kg (approx)

(Table no.1)
Stall Speed

One of the aircraft performance requirements is a limit to the minimum allowable

speed. Only helicopters and VTOL aircraft (or rotary wing aircraft) are able to fly (i.e.,
hover) with a zero forward airspeed. From the lift equation, as the aircraft speed is
decreased, the aircraft lift coefficient must be increased, until the aircraft stalls. Hence,
the minimum speed that an aircraft can fly with is referred to as the stall speed (Vs). In a
cruising flight with the stall speed, the aircraft weight must be balanced with the lift (L).
The minimum flight speed is defined as the stall speed of UAV.

Vmin= Vs= 2𝑔𝑚/𝑆/ ρClmax

The average stall speed of a uaUAV is between 20-40 km/h

23
 Figure 1. The stall speed for UAV at different altitudes

The minimum power required for a propeller-driven aircraft (PRMin) occurs

when (Cl^3/2)/Cd is maximum

3
2𝑊 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 3/2
𝑃𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ρ∞𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑓
{𝐶𝑙 /𝐶𝑑}𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
3
2𝑊 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 3/2 2
ρ∞𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑓
{𝐶𝑙 /𝐶𝑑0 + 𝐾𝐶𝑙 }𝑚𝑎𝑥

Power:

The power loading (W/P) is a non-linear function of the wing loading (W/S) in terms
of maximum speed, and may be simplified as:

24
 W/P = ηP / [(aV^3)/(W/S)]+ [(b/V)/(W/S)

Figure.2 Figure. 3

Figure 2. The power required for UAV under different flight speeds at a certain altitude was calculated
through formula and plotted on graph.

Figure 3. Variations of the output power with altitudes.

[Citation: Rui-lin Liu, Zhong-jie Zhang, Yu-fei Jiao, Chun-hao Yang, Wen-jian Zhang, "Study on Flight
Performance of Propeller-Driven UAV", International Journal of Aerospace Engineering, vol. 2019,
Article ID 6282451, 11 pages, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/6282451]

Energy Consumption:

Lithium Polymer (Li-Po) battery provides the energy needed for power requirements in
every flight condition. The calculated required power quantities are valid for one hour
of usage. However, flight times in all different conditions are limited to minutes. The
take-off time of VTOL-FW UAV to 300 m altitude is 1.5 min, the climbing time is 30

25
 seconds and the landing time is 50 seconds. The energy consumption to be withdrawn
from the battery will increase as the take-off time will increase for higher altitude
flights. The required power values for different flight conditions can be converted into
electrical energy (Wh) considering the flight times by taking subsystem efficiency into
account. System thrust causing energy consumption in VTOL-FW UAV. The propulsion
components consist of propeller, rotor, motor, and electronic speed control (ESC) unit.
All propulsion system components take their energy from the battery in direct
proportion to the time they use it. However, there are losses in the transmission of
energy from the battery due to cables and mechanical reasons. The essential element
causing the propulsion is the propeller, but until the power transmission reaches the
propeller, it passes many elements.

Propeller efficiency is generally accepted as 0.8 according to several studies. ESC

efficiency is affected by resistive losses in electronics due to duty cycle. At normal
operation condition as cruise which often set the throttle level around 40% to 60%,
within this range the efficiency is drop from nearly 1 to 100% duty cycle to 0.85–0.9 .
Therefore, the efficiency can be chosen 0.85 for ESC . Finally, motor is assumed to be
0.9 efficiency. The selected battery has 20,000 mAh 22.2 V with 6 cells that leads to 444
Wh consumable energy.

Power required for cruise

Power required for cruise can be found from multiplication of cruise speed and thrust
required. Thrust required is directly equal to the drag at cruise conditions and given in
Eq.

𝑃𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑒 = 𝑉𝑇𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑒

𝑇𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑒 = 𝐷 = 𝑞∞𝑆𝐶𝑑

Power required for take-off

26
 The power required of rotorcraft can be derived based on momentum theory on rotor
disk. In order to realize vertical take-off and landing the ratio of thrust to weight KT
needs to be greater than one. The maximum design power and thrust required of the
VTOL-FW UAV can be written as

𝑇𝑡𝑜𝑉𝑡𝑜 2𝑇𝑡𝑜
𝑃𝑡𝑜 = 2
[ 1+ 2 ]
ρ∞* 𝑉𝑡𝑜 * 𝐴𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝

𝑇𝑡𝑜 = 𝐾𝑡 * 𝑊𝑡𝑜

Power required for climbing

While thrust in cruise is simply given by the correspondent drag, for climb it is
determined using the constant rate of climb, defined as a specific mission requirement.
The required power at the moment of climbing is found by multiplying the sum of the
vertical component, whose weight depends on the angle of climb, and the drag force,
by the speed of the climb. u is the climb angle and power required for climb is given
simply in Eq.

Pclimb= [Wsin(Ø)+ Cd*qinfinity*Swing]* Vclimb

Vclimb= 1.2 (2𝑊/ 𝑆𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 * ρ𝑆𝐿 * 𝐶𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥)

Power required for landing

Being subjected to structural constraints and landing quality requirements, the landing
velocity of a VTOL-FW UAV should be strictly restricted. In axial descend case, axial climb
model is not valid anymore since the rotor disk works in vortex ring state that exist for
the case of descent velocity is less than two times of hover induced velocity.
Consequently, landing required power must be lower than power required for take-off

27
 𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟
Vh= 2ρ𝑆𝐿* 𝐴𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝

Vi = ( K- 1.125x - 1.372x^2 - 1.718x^3 - 0.655x^4) Vh

Where the thrust required for hovering is calculated to be 49.05N.

In landing all aerodynamic effects on the wing are ignored due to lack of cruise flight.
The power required of each propeller at such low rate of descent can be expressed as:

Planding = KWto ( Vi - Vdes)

3.3 Aircraft design parameter

The ratio of the wing span to wing root chord should be 5 or 6:

Example: If the wing root cord is 6" then the entire wing span should be 30" - 36" long

28
The wing thickness should be 12% to 14% of the wing root chord:

Example: If the wing root chord is 6" then the widest part of the wing should be 3/4"
thick

The aileron surface area should be 10% - 12% of half of the wing surface:

• Example: If half a wing is 6" x 18" then the wing surface is 108 sq inches. The aileron
shape should equal 11 - 13 square inches of surface area

The fuselage length should be 70% - 75% of the wing span:

• Example: If the wing is 36" long, then the fuselage should be 25" - 27" long.

The distance from the leading edge of the wing to the back of the prop should be 15% of
the wingspan:

• Example: If the wingspan is 36" then the distance from the back of the prop to the
leading edge of the wing should be 5.4".

The leading edge of the wing to the stabilizer should be 3 times the wing root chord:

•Example: If the wing chord is 6" then leading edge of the wing to the stabilizer should
be 18".

The horizontal stabilizer should be 25% of the wing area:

• Example: If the wing is a rectangle, 36"L x 6"W, it has a wing area of 216 sq inches.
25% of 216 = 54 sq inches. The shape of your horizontal stabilizer should equal 54 sq
inches.

The elevator (attached to the horizontal stabilizer) should be 25% of the horizontal
stabilizer surface area:

• Example: If the Horizontal Stabilizer is 54 sq inches then the elevator surface area
should equal 13.5 sq inches.

The vertical stabilizer should be 10% of the wing area:

29
 • Example: If the wing is a rectangular 36" x 6" shape it has a surface area of 216 sq
inches. 10% of 216 = 21.6 sq inches. The shape of your horizontal stabilizer should
equal 21.6 sq inches of surface.

The rudder (attached to the vertical stabilizer) should be 25% of the vertical stabilizer
surface area:

• Example: If the vertical stabilizer is 21.6 sq inches then the rudder surface area
should equal 5.4 sq inches.

The plane should balance at 25% - 33% of the wing root chord:

• Example: If the wing root chord is 6" from the leading edge to the trailing edge of
the wing then the Center of Gravity (COG) should be located 1.5" - 2" from the leading
edge of the wing.

3.4 AIRFOIL SELECTION

NACA 0012: This airfoil is a symmetric, low-drag airfoil that provides good lift characteristics for
general-purpose UAVs.

Eppler 423: This airfoil is an asymmetric airfoil that provides high lift and low drag
characteristics, making it suitable for high-performance UAVs.
Clark Y: This airfoil is a classic airfoil that provides good lift and stability characteristics, making it
a popular choice for general-purpose UAVs.

Selig S1223: This airfoil is an asymmetric airfoil that provides high lift and low drag
characteristics, making it suitable for high-performance UAVs.

NACA64212: It is a classic shape that has and still used for low speed applications, e.g. gliders

Eppler374: Eppler E374 low Reynolds number airfoil. Max thickness 10.9% at 34.3% chord. Max
camber 2% at 38.9% chord
NACA0010: The ultimate objective of an aerofoil is to obtain the lift necessary to keep an
airplane in the air.

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 SR.NO Cd_min Cm_0 Cl/Cd max AOA Stall Quality

1 NACA0012 0.0012 65 15.5 soft

2 Eppler423 -0.2438 124 12 soft

3 Clark Y -0.0815 98.5 15.8 soft

4 SeligS1223 -0.27 98.6 138 Drastic

change
(Table no 2)

31
With the help of XFLR5 we can say that Eppler423 proves to be more efficient for wing
configuration

32
Airfoil selection for tail
SR.NO Cd_min Cm_0 Cl/Cd max AOA Stall Quality

1 NACA0012 0 64 17 soft

2 Eppler423 -0.24 124 13 soft

3 NACA0010 0 57.5 12.5 Drastic

change

4 NACA64212 0 58.5 10.4 Drastic

change

5 Eppler374 -0.423 102 11 Drastic

change

(Table no.3)
With the help of XFLR5 we can say that NACA0012 proves to be more efficient for tail
configuration

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3.5 Landing Gear Design
Introduction
Another aircraft major component that needs to be designed is the landing gear
(undercarriage). The landing gear is the structure that supports an aircraft on the
ground and allows it to taxi, take off, and land.
1. type (e.g., nose gear (tricycle), tail gear, bicycle);
2. fixed (faired, or un-faired), or retractable, partially retractable;
3. height;
4. wheel base;
5. wheel track;
6. distance between main gear and aircraft center of gravity (cg);
7. strut diameter;
8. tire sizing (diameter, width);
9. landing gear compartment if retracted;
10. load on each strut.

34
 In case of a vertical take-off and landing aircraft such as a helicopter, wheels may be
replaced with skids.

In general, the landing gear weight is about 3–5% of the aircraft take-off weight

The primary functions of the landing gear are as follows:

1. to keep the aircraft stable on the ground and during loading, unloading, and taxi;
2.to provide a safe distance between other aircraft components such as the wing and
fuselage while the aircraft is on the ground to prevent any damage by the ground
contact;
3. to absorb the landing shocks during landing operations;

Some vertical take-off and landing aircraft and helicopters do not need to taxi on the
ground, so they are equipped with a beam-type structure referred to as skids instead of
regular landing gear. The configuration of skids mainly comprises three or four fixed
cantilever beams which are deflected outward when a load (i.e., aircraft weight) is
applied. The deflection of skids plays the role of a shock absorber during landing
operations. However, due to the nature of the beams, they are not as efficient as oleo
shock absorbers. The design of skids compared with regular landing gear equipped with
wheels is much simpler. Basic equations for beam deflection and bending stress might
be employed in the design and analysis of skids (Fig

35
 5)

Chapter 4: Result and discussion

4.1Conceptual design

Wing:The main function of the wing is to generate the aerodynamic force of lift to keep the
aircraft airborne. The wing tends to generate two other unwanted aerodynamic productions: an

aerodynamic drag force plus an aerodynamic pitching moment.

36
Fuselage- The primary function of the fuselage is to accommodate the payload which
includes passengers, cargo, luggage, and other useful loads. The fuselage is often a home
for the pilot and crew members, and most of the time fuel tanks and engine(s)

Horizontal tail- The horizontal tail’s primary function is to generate an aerodynamic

force to longitudinally trim the aircraft. Furthermore, the VT is an essential component
of providing the aircraft longitudinal stability, which is a fundamental requirement for
flight safety.

37
 Propeller Supporting spars

Conceptual design assembly

38
 Chapter 5: Scope of future work

1. Performance optimization:
Future research might concentrate on enhancing Fixed Wing VTOL UAVs' endurance,
speed, cargo capacity, and other performance metrics.
2. Environmental sustainability:
Due to growing environmental sustainability concerns, environmentally friendly UAVs
must be developed. Future research could concentrate on creating Fixed Wing VTOL UAVs
with little environmental impact and renewable energy sources.
3. Hybrid power systems:
By combining different energy sources, such as batteries and fuel cells, hybrid power
systems have the potential to increase the endurance and range of Fixed Wing VTOL UAVs.
Future research might concentrate on creating and evaluating these hybrid power systems
for these UAVs.
4. Autonomy:
Fixed Wing VTOL UAVs are frequently utilized in search and rescue operations and
other scenarios when human pilots are either not possible or too unsafe to operate. Future
research could concentrate on enhancing these UAVs' autonomy and decision making ability
to increase their usefulness in such situations.

39
 Conclusion

VTOL-FW UAV that is accomplished to design have an ability to do vertical take-off

and landing with its four vertical and one horizontal engines. It has 20kg total
take-off weight, 2 meters longwing span and is able to fly at necessary conditions
In conclusion, a fixed-wing VTOL UAV's initial design method involves calculating
its empty weight, weighing stability and maneuverability, accounting for the
maximum take-off weight and mission duration, and developing the propulsion
system in accordance with power requirements. Moreover, CFD evaluation of
various components under prescribed conditions is required to guarantee that the
UAV satisfies mission requirements. Weight, strength, durability, pricing,
manufacturing, and availability must all be taken into account while choosing
materials. The specific mission requirements must also be taken into
consideration when designing the rotor selection and propulsion system. Due to
its longer flying periods, better payload capacity, high altitude operation,
dependability, and fuel accessibility, a gasoline-powered hybrid electric engine is
recommended. Potential control systems that could be utilized to keep the UAV
stable during hovering and in transition modes include PID, MPC, and adaptive
control. Fixed-wing VTOL UAVs are the subject of current research to enhance
performance and investigate potential applications. To ensure the UAV can
execute a safe take-off, cruise, and landing while carrying the maximum payload,
the fixed-wing UAV needs to go through a number of design processes, including
conceptual design and preliminary design. A conventional tail, a high wing for
stability, a zero-drag body for efficiency, and a conventional tail are all aspects of
the design. Ultimately, it is crucial to strike a balance between weight,
aerodynamics, and energy consumption for UAVs to perform at their best.

40
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