Drakulić 2022 IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 1271 012009

IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering
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IX International Congress Motor Vehicles and Motors (MVM 2022) IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1271 (2022) 012009 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1271/1/012009
Development of mathematical model for design of vehicle

steering system
Momir Drakulić1*, Lazar Stojnić1, Ivan Blagojević2, Aleksandar Đurić1, Sreten

Perić1
1
Military Academy, University of Defence, Generala Pavla Jurišića Šturma 33, 11000
Belgrade, Serbia
2
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Belgrade, Kraljice Marije 16,
11000 Belgrade
*
drakulic.momir@gmail.com
Abstract. The vehicle steering system is one of the most important systems on the vehicle, both
in terms of safety and performance. Based on the geometry of the steering trapezoid, the
geometry of the suspension system, the alignment angles of the wheels, as well as the
characteristics of the tires, a mathematical model for the design of the formula student vehicle
"Road Arrow" steering system was developed. Based on the dynamic state of the vehicle, the
mathematical model provides information on the stress of the steering system, the torque on the
steering wheel and the slip angles of the steered wheels. The mathematical model was developed
using the MATLAB software, and validation of the results was performed by comparing the
results with the ones obtained by simulations in MSC ADAMS. Analysing the obtained results,
it is possible to conclude that the average value of relative error of the stress is approximately
15%, for slip angles of the steered wheels is approximately 7%, and the error for torque on the
steering wheel is approximately 6%.
1. Introduction
The experiences gained in the design of the control system for the formula student vehicle in the "Road
Arrow" project, led to the idea of developing a mathematical model for the calculation of the system
that would be applied in some software environment and thus increase the quality and speed of the
design process. It must be noted that many software packages have been developed for vehicle design
purposes, such as: MATLAB, MSC ADAMS, Lotus Shark and others. All of them provide the necessary
conditions for quality design process, while requiring a complete simulation model of the vehicle,
experience in use and are often complicated and hard to overcome.
The development of the mathematical model is divided into two sections. The first section presents
a mathematical model of the steering system, that refers to the influence of the geometry of the system
itself (position of the kingpin axis, geometry of the trapezoidal steering linkage, etc.) on its
characteristics. In the second section, the influence of tires on the steering system is described based on
Pacejka's "magic formula" [3].
The development of a mathematical model also implies the introduction of certain limitations, where
the size of the error that may occur, must be taken into account. The reason for introducing restrictions
is to simplify mathematical models that can be too complex. The restrictions that have been introduced
are:
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Published under licence by IOP Publishing Ltd 1
• the lateral force acts in the direction of the Y axis,

• turning is performed only to the right side of vehicle and returns to the initial position,
• the value of kingpin and castor angles must be positive,
• the change of the angle between the steering arm and the Y-axis during the vertical travel of the
wheel is ignored and
• all elements that affect the transfer of forces are massless and absolutely rigid.
2. Mathematical model of the geometry of the steering trapezoid

The mathematical model of the geometry of the steering trapezoid enables the dependence of the left
and right wheel rotation to be displayed. In practice, the elements of the steering trapezoid are located
in three-dimensional space, but in the mathematical model, their base projections are used, that is, the
XY - plane.
2.1. Mathematical model of the rear steering trapezoid

Figure 1 shows two arbitrary positions of the rear steering trapezoid, with initial parameters marked,
where:
• 𝑏0 – is front axle width,
• h – is rack length,
• d – is the distance between the rack and the front axle of the vehicle,
• γ – is the angle between the steering arm of the wheel hub and the longitudinal axis of the
vehicle,
• p – is the length of the steering arm of the wheel hub and
• ls, x, c, α, β – derived auxiliary parameters that were used for calculations.
Figure 1. Two arbitrary positions of the rear steering trapezoid.

Using the sine and cosine theorem, the following mathematical equations of the rear steering
trapezoid are defined:
2
𝑏0 ℎ
𝑙𝑠 = √[ − − 𝑝 ∙ sin(𝛾)] + [𝑑 − 𝑝 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜑)]2 (1)
2 2
𝑑 − 𝑝 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛾 − 𝜑)
𝛼 = arcsin ( ) (2)
𝑙𝑠
2
𝑥 = 𝑏0 − 𝑝 ∙ sin(𝛾 − 𝜑) − 𝑙𝑠 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 − ℎ (3)

𝑐 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑑2 (4)
𝑑
𝛽 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 (5)
𝑥
𝑐 2 + 𝑝2 − 𝑙𝑠 2
𝛿 = arccos ( ) (6)
2∙𝑐∙𝑝
Based on the presented system of equations, the dependence of rotation of the outer and inner wheel
can be easily obtained:
𝜓 = 90 − 𝛽 − 𝛿 − 𝛾 (7)
where:
• 𝜑 – is turning angle of the outer wheel and
• 𝜓 – is turning angle of the inner wheel.
2.2. Mathematical model of the front steering trapezoid

Figure 2 shows two arbitrary positions of the front steering trapezoid, where the parameters marking is
identical to that of the rear steering trapezoid. Using the sine and cosine theorem, the following
mathematical equations were defined:
Figure 2. Two arbitrary positions of the front steering trapezoid.
2
𝑏0 ℎ
𝑙𝑠 = √[ − + 𝑝 ∙ sin(𝛾)] + [𝑑 − 𝑝 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜑)]2 (8)
2 2
𝑑 − 𝑝 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(−𝛾 + 𝜑)
𝛼 = arcsin ( ) (9)
𝑙𝑠
𝑥 = 𝑏0 − 𝑝 ∙ sin(−𝛾 + 𝜑) − 𝑙𝑠 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 − ℎ (10)
𝑐 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑑2 (11)
𝑑
𝛽 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 (12)
𝑥
2
𝑐 2 + 𝑝2 − 𝑙𝑠
𝛿 = arccos ( ) (13)
2∙𝑐∙𝑝
Based on the presented system of equations, the dependence of rotation of the outer and inner wheel
is:
𝜓 = 𝛽 + 𝛿 − 𝛾 − 90 (14)
3
where:
• 𝜑 – is turning angle of the outer wheel and
• 𝜓 – is turning angle of the inner wheel.
It should be emphasized that the size 𝑏0 represents the distance between the two penetration points
of the kingpin axis and base, that is the XY plane, as shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3. Width of the front axle used in the mathematical model.
3. Mathematical model for calculating the torque about the z axis of the wheels
The analysis of the load transfer from the wheel to the vehicle begins with the adoption of a coordinate
system. The adopted coordinate systems are shown in Figure 4, where different coordinate systems are
used for the left and right wheel. A coordinate system is set for each wheel in its contact with the ground.
The input data for the calculations are the forces that occur in contact between the tire and the ground.
Figure 4. Adopted coordinate systems.

The forces that occur in the contact between the tire and the ground act in the direction of the axes
of the shown coordinate systems. The mathematical model was formed so that as a solution it gives the
value of the 𝑀𝑧 , torque around the vertical axis, which passes through the point of intersection of the
kingpin axis and the base (Figure 3.). The specified torque is transmitted to the steering wheel via the
elements of the steering trapezoid, and is therefore very important when designing the steering system.
The development of a mathematical model for the calculation of the 𝑀𝑧 torque is divided into several
parts, so that the influence of the position of the kingpin axis and each force is considered separately.
The influence of tire deformation on the 𝑀𝑧 torque is described using Pacejka's "magic formula".
4
3.1. Mathematical model of the influence of the position of the kingpin axis on the 𝑀𝑧 torque
The point on which all forces acting on the wheel is determined by the contact between the tire and the
ground, while the position of the point around which the 𝑀𝑧 torque (the point around which the wheel
rotates) is defined by the position of the kingpin axis.
The first step in the development of the mathematical model is to determine the position of the
penetration point of the kingpin axis through the base plane (XY - plane). The position of the point is
determined by the distance to the coordinate origin 𝑙𝑀 , and the angle between the Y-axis and the line
that passes through the coordinate system origin and the point of penetration of the kingpin axis - 𝛼𝑀 ,
which is shown in figures from 5 to 12, for both wheels, where:
• 𝑟 – static wheel radius,
• 𝜆 – kingpin inclination angle,
• 𝜐 – caster angle,
• 𝑑𝑥 – distance between the center of the wheel and the Z axis along the X axis,
• 𝑑𝑦 – distance between the center of the wheel and the Z axis along the Y axis and
• dpd, bpd, dpl, bpl – derived auxiliary parameters that were used for calculations
Figure 5. Right wheel kingpin axis Figure 6. Right wheel kingpin axis
position isometric view. projection on the ZY plane.
5
Figure 7. Right wheel kingpin axis Figure 8. Right wheel kingpin axis
projection on the ZX plane. projection on the XY plane.
Figure 9. Left wheel kingpin axis Figure 10. Left wheel kingpin axis
position isometric view. projection on the ZY plane.
6
Figure 11. Left wheel kingpin axis Figure 12. Left wheel kingpin axis
projection on the ZX plane. projection on the XY plane.
The mathematical model was developed so that all forces are projected normal to the plane formed
by the kingpin axis and the 𝑙𝑀 arm. In order to project the forces normal to the specified plane, it is
necessary to determine the angle between the plane and the Z axis at the point of force action, which
can be determined by solving the following equations:
𝑟 ∙ 𝑡𝑔(𝜐) + 𝑑𝑥
𝛼𝑀 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑔 [ ] (15)
𝑑𝑦 − 𝑟 ∙ 𝑡𝑔(𝜆)
2
𝑙𝑀 = √(𝑟 ∙ 𝑡𝑔(𝜐) + 𝑑𝑥 )2 + (𝑑𝑦 − 𝑟 ∙ 𝑡𝑔(𝜆)) (16)
𝑙𝑀 ∙ sin(𝛼𝑀 + 𝜓)
𝑑𝑝𝑑 = (17)
𝑡𝑔(𝜐)
𝑏𝑝𝑑 = 𝑙𝑀 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛼𝑀 + 𝜓) + 𝑑𝑝𝑑 ∙ 𝑡𝑔(𝜆) (18)
𝑑𝑝𝑑
𝜃𝑀𝑑 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑔 [ ] (19)
𝑏𝑝𝑑 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛼𝑀 + 𝜓)
𝑙𝑀 ∙ sin(𝛼𝑀 − 𝜑)
𝑑𝑝𝑙 = (20)
𝑡𝑔(𝜐)
𝑏𝑝𝑙 = 𝑙𝑀 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛼𝑀 − 𝜑) + 𝑑𝑝𝑙 ∙ 𝑡𝑔(𝜆) (21)
𝑑𝑝𝑙
𝜃𝑀𝑙 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑔 [ ] (22)
𝑏𝑝𝑙 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛼𝑀 − 𝜑)
𝛽𝑍𝑖𝐾𝑃 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑔√𝑡𝑔(𝜐)2 + 𝑡𝑔(𝜆)2 (23)
where:
• 𝜃𝑀𝑑 – is the angle between the Z-axis and the plane formed by the kingpin axis and the 𝑙𝑀 arm
on the right wheel,
• 𝜃𝑀𝑙 – is the angle between the Z-axis and the plane formed by the kingpin axis and the 𝑙𝑀 arm
on the left wheel and
• 𝛽𝑍𝑖𝐾𝑃 − is the angle between the Z and kingpin axis.
7
3.2. Mathematical model for 𝑀𝑧 torque due to influence of vertical forces

The intensity of the vertical force on the right and left wheels are different and are changing during the
turning of the vehicle, and they depend on the lateral acceleration, weight of the vehicle and the position
of the center of gravity. Right wheel torque about the Z axis has a positive direction, while for the left
wheel, sign of the value 𝑏𝑝𝑙 must be considered for torque direction. The calculation is divided into left
and right wheel, and the following equations are formed:
𝐹𝑍𝑛𝑑 = 𝐹𝑍𝑑 ∙ cos (𝜃𝑀𝑑 ) (24)
𝑀𝑉𝐾𝑃𝑑 = 𝐹𝑍𝑛𝑑 ∙ 𝑙𝑀 (25)
𝑀𝑉𝑑 = 𝑀𝑉𝐾𝑃𝑑 ∙ cos (𝛽𝑍𝑖𝐾𝑃 ) (26)
𝐹𝑍𝑛𝑙 = −𝐹𝑍𝑙 ∙ 𝑐𝑜 𝑠(𝜃𝑀𝑙 ) , 𝑏𝑝𝑙 >0
(27)
𝐹𝑍𝑛𝑙 = 𝐹𝑍𝑙 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜃𝑀𝑙 ) , 𝑏𝑝𝑙 <0
𝑀𝑉𝐾𝑃𝑙 = 𝐹𝑍𝑛𝑙 ∙ 𝑙𝑀 (28)
𝑀𝑉𝑙 = 𝑀𝑉𝐾𝑃𝑙 ∙ cos (𝛽𝑍𝑖𝐾𝑃 ) (29)
where:
• 𝐹𝑍𝑑 – is vertical force on the right wheel,
• 𝐹𝑍𝑛𝑑 – is projection of the 𝐹𝑍𝑑 vertical force, normal to the plane formed by the kingpin axis
and the 𝑙𝑀 arm on the right wheel,
• 𝑀𝑉𝐾𝑃𝑑 – is torque about the kingpin axis of the right wheel, formed by the vertical force,
• 𝑀𝑉𝑑 – is torque about the Z-axis on the right wheel, formed by the vertical force,
• 𝐹𝑍𝑙 – is vertical force on the left wheel,
• 𝐹𝑍𝑛𝑙 – is projection of the 𝐹𝑍𝑙 vertical force, normal to the plane formed by the kingpin axis and
the 𝑙𝑀 arm on the left wheel,
• 𝑀𝑉𝐾𝑃𝑙 – is torque about the kingpin axis of the left wheel, formed by the vertical force and
• 𝑀𝑉𝑙 – is torque about the Z-axis on the left wheel, formed by the vertical force.
3.3. Mathematical model for 𝑀𝑧 torque due to influence of traction/braking forces

Traction and braking forces on the right and left wheels should be of similar intensity, and this depends
directly on the design of the drivetrain and braking system.
In motorsport world, front-wheel drive racing vehicles are very rare. Most often, they have rear-wheel
or all-wheel drive.
The input data for this part of the calculation are the traction and braking force values. In the case of
traction force, 𝐹𝑡 (longitudinal force) sign is positive, while otherwise it is negative. In the case of
traction forces, the torque about the Z-axis for the right wheel has a positive direction, while for the left
wheel it has a negative direction and vice versa. Taking above mentioned into account, the following
equations were formed:
𝐹𝑡𝑛𝑋𝑌𝑑 = 𝐹𝑡𝑑 ∙ cos (𝛼𝑀 + 𝜓) (30)
𝐹𝑡𝑛𝑑 = 𝐹𝑡𝑛𝑋𝑌𝑑 ∙ cos (90 − 𝜃𝑀𝑑 ) (31)
𝑀𝑡𝐾𝑃𝑑 = 𝐹𝑡𝑛𝑑 ∙ 𝑙𝑀 (32)
𝑀𝑡𝑑 = 𝑀𝑡𝐾𝑃𝑑 ∙ cos (𝛽𝑍𝑖𝐾𝑃 ) (33)
𝐹𝑡𝑛𝑋𝑌𝑙 = 𝐹𝑡𝑙 ∙ cos (𝛼𝑀 − 𝜑) (34)
𝐹𝑡𝑛𝑙 = −𝐹𝑡𝑛𝑋𝑌𝑙 ∙ cos (90 − 𝜃𝑀𝑙 ) (35)
𝑀𝑡𝐾𝑃𝑙 = 𝐹𝑡𝑛𝑙 ∙ 𝑙𝑀 (36)
𝑀𝑡𝑙 = 𝑀𝑡𝐾𝑃𝑙 ∙ cos (𝛽𝑍𝑖𝐾𝑃 ) (37)
where:
• 𝐹𝑡𝑑 – is longitudinal force (traction/braking) on the right wheel,
• 𝐹𝑡𝑛𝑋𝑌𝑑 – is projection of the 𝐹𝑡𝑑 longitudinal force (in the XY plane), normal to the plane formed
by the kingpin axis and the 𝑙𝑀 arm on the right wheel,
8
• 𝐹𝑡𝑛𝑑 – is projection of the 𝐹𝑡𝑛𝑋𝑌𝑑 longitudinal force, normal to the plane formed by the kingpin
axis and the 𝑙𝑀 arm on the right wheel,
• 𝑀𝑡𝐾𝑃𝑑 – is torque about the kingpin axis of the right wheel, formed by the longitudinal force,
• 𝑀𝑡𝑑 – is torque about the Z-axis on the right wheel, formed by the longitudinal force,
• 𝐹𝑡𝑙 – is longitudinal force (traction/braking) on the left wheel,
• 𝐹𝑡𝑛𝑋𝑌𝑙 – is projection of the 𝐹𝑡𝑙 longitudinal force (in the XY plane), normal to the plane formed
by the kingpin axis and the 𝑙𝑀 arm on the left wheel,
• 𝐹𝑡𝑛𝑙 – is projection of the 𝐹𝑡𝑛𝑋𝑌𝑙 longitudinal force, normal to the plane formed by the kingpin
axis and the 𝑙𝑀 arm on the left wheel,
• 𝑀𝑡𝐾𝑃𝑙 – is torque about the kingpin axis of the left wheel, formed by the longitudinal force and
• 𝑀𝑡𝑙 – is torque about the Z-axis on the left wheel, formed by the longitudinal force.
3.4. Mathematical model for 𝑀𝑧 torque due to influence of lateral forces

Lateral force on the right and left wheel is not of the same intensity, and it depends directly on the
vertical force, lateral acceleration and the characteristics of the tires (adhesion coefficient). The input
data for this part of the calculation is lateral force values. Torque about the Z-axis for both wheels has
the same direction, and it has the greatest influence on the turning resistance of the vehicle. Taking
above mentioned into account, the following equations were formed:
𝐹𝑙𝑛𝑋𝑌𝑑 = 𝐹𝑙𝑑 ∙ sin (𝛼𝑀 + 𝜓) (38)
𝐹𝑙𝑛𝑑 = 𝐹𝑙𝑛𝑋𝑌𝑑 ∙ cos (90 − 𝜃𝑀𝑑 ) (39)
𝑀𝑙𝐾𝑃𝑑 = 𝐹𝑙𝑛𝑑 ∙ 𝑙𝑀 (40)
𝑀𝑙𝑑 = 𝑀𝑙𝐾𝑃𝑑 ∙ cos (𝛽𝑍𝑖𝐾𝑃 ) (41)
𝐹𝑙𝑛𝑋𝑌𝑙 = 𝐹𝑙𝑙 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝛼𝑀 − 𝜑) (42)
𝐹𝑙𝑛𝑙 = 𝐹𝑙𝑛𝑋𝑌𝑙 ∙ cos (90 − 𝜃𝑀𝑙 ) (43)
𝑀𝑙𝐾𝑃𝑙 = 𝐹𝑙𝑛𝑙 ∙ 𝑙𝑀 (44)
𝑀𝑙𝑙 = 𝑀𝑙𝐾𝑃𝑙 ∙ cos (𝛽𝑍𝑖𝐾𝑃 ) (45)
where:
• 𝐹𝑙𝑑 – is lateral force on the right wheel,
• 𝐹𝑙𝑛𝑋𝑌𝑑 – is projection of the 𝐹𝑙𝑑 lateral force (in the XY plane), normal to the plane formed
by the kingpin axis and the 𝑙𝑀 arm on the right wheel,
• 𝐹𝑙𝑛𝑑 – is projection of the 𝐹𝑙𝑛𝑋𝑌𝑑 lateral force, normal to the plane formed by the kingpin axis
and the 𝑙𝑀 arm on the right wheel,
• 𝑀𝑙𝐾𝑃𝑑 – is torque about the kingpin axis of the right wheel, formed by the lateral force,
• 𝑀𝑙𝑑 – is torque about the Z-axis on the right wheel, formed by the lateral force,
• 𝐹𝑙𝑙 – is lateral force on the left wheel,
• 𝐹𝑙𝑛𝑋𝑌𝑙 – is projection of the 𝐹𝑙𝑙 lateral force (in the XY plane), normal to the plane formed by
the kingpin axis and the 𝑙𝑀 arm on the left wheel,
• 𝐹𝑙𝑛𝑙 – is projection of the 𝐹𝑙𝑛𝑋𝑌𝑙 lateral force, normal to the plane formed by the kingpin axis
and the 𝑙𝑀 arm on the left wheel,
• 𝑀𝑙𝐾𝑃𝑙 – is torque about the kingpin axis of the left wheel, formed by the lateral force and
• 𝑀𝑙𝑙 – is torque about the Z-axis on the left wheel, formed by the lateral force.
3.5. Mathematical model for 𝑀𝑧 torque due to influence of tire deformations

A mathematical model that represents the influence of tires on the forces transfer, was obtained using
the "magic formula", developed by Hans Bastiaan Pacejka. The paper presents a general "magic
formula", but it should be emphasized that in the mathematical model it is adjusted independently for
left and right tire. The deviation exists due to the difference in vertical and lateral forces on the left and
right wheels, as well as the lateral camber of the wheel. For the calculation, part of the "magic formula"
9
was used, which describes the characteristic of the tire in pure lateral sliding to simplify the model. The
model gives data on the maximum lateral force that the tire can transmit depending on the vertical force.
This type of model is not realistic in all situations, but in this case it is acceptable considering that it is
a racing vehicle that tends to use the maximum performance of the tires.
𝐹 ′ 𝑧0 = 𝐹𝑧0 ∙ λ𝐹𝑍0 (46)
′
𝐹𝑍 − 𝐹 𝑧0
𝑑𝑓𝑍 = (47)
𝐹 ′ 𝑧0
𝛾𝑦 = 𝛾 ∙ λ𝛾𝑦
𝑆𝐻𝑦 = (𝑃𝐻𝑦1 + 𝑃𝐻𝑦2 ∙ 𝑑𝑓𝑍 ) ∙ λ𝐻𝑦 + 𝑃𝐻𝑦3 ∙ 𝛾𝑦 (48)
𝑆𝑉𝑦 = 𝐹𝑍 ∙ {(𝑃𝑉𝑦1 + 𝑃𝑉𝑦2 ∙ 𝑑𝑓𝑍 ) ∙ λ𝑉𝑦 + (𝑃𝑉𝑦3 + 𝑃𝑉𝑦4 ∙ 𝑑𝑓𝑍 ) ∙ 𝛾𝑦 } ∙ λ𝑉𝑦 (49)
𝛼𝑦 = 𝛼 + 𝑆𝐻𝑦 (50)
𝐶𝑦 = 𝑃𝐶𝑦1 ∙ λ𝐶𝑦 (51)
𝐹𝑍
𝐾𝑦 = 𝑃𝐾𝑦1 ∙ 𝐹𝑧0 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 [2 ∙ 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑔 { }] ∙ (1 − 𝑃𝐾𝑦3 ∙ |𝛾𝑦 |) ∙ λ𝐹𝑧0 ∙ λ𝐾𝑦 (52)
𝑃𝐾𝑦2 ∙ 𝐹𝑧0 ∙ λ𝐹𝑧0
𝜇𝑦 = (𝑃𝐷𝑦1 + 𝑃𝐷𝑦2 ∙ 𝑑𝑓𝑍 ) ∙ (1 − 𝑃𝐷𝑦3 ∙ 𝛾𝑦 2 ) ∙ λ𝜇𝑦 (53)
𝐷𝑦 = 𝜇𝑦 ∙ 𝐹𝑍 (54)
𝐾𝑦
𝐵𝑦 = (55)
𝐶𝑦 ∙ 𝐷𝑦
𝐸𝑦 = (𝑃𝐸𝑦1 + 𝑃𝐸𝑦2 ∙ 𝑑𝑓𝑍 ) ∙ {1 − (𝑃𝐸𝑦3 + 𝑃𝐸𝑦4 ∙ 𝛾𝑦 ) ∙ 𝑠𝑔𝑛(𝛼𝑦 )} ∙ λ𝐸𝑦 (56)
𝐹𝑦0 = 𝐷𝑦 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 [𝐶𝑦 ∙ 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑔 {𝐵𝑦 ∙ 𝛼𝑦 − 𝐸𝑦 ∙ (𝐵𝑦 ∙ 𝛼𝑦 − 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑔(𝐵𝑦 ∙ 𝛼𝑦 ))}] + 𝑆𝑉𝑦 (57)
𝛾𝑧 = 𝛾 ∙ λ𝛾𝑧 (58)
𝐶𝑡 = 𝑞𝐶𝑧1 (59)
𝑆𝐻𝑡 = 𝑞𝐻𝑧1 + 𝑞𝐻𝑧2 ∙ 𝑑𝑓𝑍 + (𝑞𝐻𝑧3 + 𝑞𝐻𝑧4 ∙ 𝑑𝑓𝑍 ) ∙ 𝛾𝑧 (60)
𝑆𝑉𝑦
𝑆𝐻𝑟 = 𝑆𝐻𝑦 + (61)
𝐾𝑦
𝛼𝑟 = 𝛼 + 𝑆𝐻𝑟 (62)
𝛼𝑡 = 𝛼 + 𝑆𝐻𝑡 (63)
λ𝐾𝑦
𝐵𝑡 = (𝑞𝐵𝑧1 + 𝑞𝐵𝑧2 ∙ 𝑑𝑓𝑍 + 𝑞𝐵𝑧3 ∙ 𝑑𝑓𝑍 2 ) ∙ (1 + 𝑞𝐵𝑧4 ∙ 𝛾𝑧 + 𝑞𝐵𝑧5 ∙ |𝛾𝑧 |) ∙ (64)
λ𝜇𝑦
λ𝐾𝑦
𝐵𝑟 = 𝑞𝐵𝑧9 ∙ + 𝑞𝐵𝑧10 ∙ 𝐵𝑦 ∙ 𝐶𝑦 (65)
λ𝜇𝑦
𝑟
𝐷𝑡 =𝐹𝑍 ∙ (𝑞𝐷𝑧1 + 𝑞𝐷𝑧2 ∙ 𝑑𝑓𝑍 ) ∙ (1 + 𝑞𝐷𝑧3 ∙ 𝛾𝑧 + 𝑞𝐷𝑧4 ∙ 𝛾𝑧 2 ) ∙ (𝐹 ) ∙ λ𝑡 (66)
𝑧0
𝐷𝑟 = 𝐹𝑍 ∙ ((𝑞𝐷𝑧6 + 𝑞𝐷𝑧7 ∙ 𝑑𝑓𝑍 ) ∙ λ𝑟 + (𝑞𝐷𝑧8 + 𝑞𝐷𝑧9 ∙ 𝑑𝑓𝑍 ) ∙ 𝛾𝑧 ) ∙ 𝑟 ∙ λ𝜇𝑦 (67)
2
𝐸𝑡 = (𝑞𝐸𝑧1 + 𝑞𝐸𝑧2 ∙ 𝑑𝑓𝑍 + 𝑞𝐸𝑧3 ∙ 𝑑𝑓𝑍 2 ) ∙ {1 + (𝑞𝐸𝑧4 + 𝑞𝐸𝑧5 ∙ 𝛾𝑧 ) ∙ ∙ 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑔(𝐵𝑡 ∙ 𝐶𝑡 ∙ 𝛼𝑡 )} (68)
𝜋
𝑀𝑧𝑟 (𝛼𝑟 ) = 𝐷𝑟 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠[𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑔(𝐵𝑟 ∙ 𝛼𝑟 )] ∙ cos (𝛼) (69)
𝑡(𝛼𝑡 ) = 𝐷𝑡 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠[𝐶𝑡 ∙ 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑔{𝐵𝑡 ∙ 𝛼𝑡 − 𝐸𝑡 ∙ (𝐵𝑡 ∙ 𝛼𝑡 − 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑔(𝐵𝑡 ∙ 𝛼𝑡 ))}] ∙ cos (𝛼) (70)
𝑀𝑧0 = −𝑡 ∙ 𝐹𝑦0 + 𝑀𝑧𝑟 (71)
where:
• 𝐹𝑧0 – is nominal value of vertical force,
• 𝐹𝑧 – is value of the vertical force,
• 𝑟 – is radius of the unloaded tire,
• 𝛼– is sideslip angle,
• 𝛾– is camber angle,
• 𝐹𝑦0 – the value of the lateral force and
10
• 𝑀𝑧 – value of the aligning torque (returning the wheels to the initial position).
Other parameter values are given in tabular form, and are obtained by testing tires. [12]
3.6. Mathematical model for calculation of the torque on the steering wheel
The input data for the calculation of the torque on the steering wheel are the aforementioned torques
around the Z axis, for both wheels, which are:
𝑀𝑧𝑑 = 𝑀𝑉𝑑 + 𝑀𝑡𝑑 + 𝑀𝑣𝑑 + 𝑀𝑧0𝑑 (72)
𝑀𝑧𝑙 = 𝑀𝑉𝑙 + 𝑀𝑡𝑙 + 𝑀𝑣𝑙 + 𝑀𝑧0𝑙 (73)
where:
• 𝑀𝑧𝑑 – is total torque about the Z-axis on the right wheel,
• М𝑧𝑙 – is total torque about the Z-axis on the left wheel,
• 𝑀𝑧0𝑑 – total torque around the Z-axis on the right wheel, due to tire deformation and
• 𝑀𝑧0𝑙 – total torque around the Z-axis on the left wheel, due to tire deformation.
As the total torque on the steering wheel is transmitted from the wheels via the steering trapezoid, it
is concluded that the load transfer depends significantly on the geometry of the steering trapezoid. For
the rear steering trapezoid, the torque on the steering wheel is:
(𝑑 − 𝑝 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛾 + 𝜓))
𝛼𝑠𝑑 = arcsin ( ) (74)
𝑙𝑠
𝑀𝑧𝑑
𝐹𝑠𝑑 = (75)
)
𝑝 ∙ (cos(𝛼𝑠𝑑 ∙ cos(𝛾 + 𝜓) + sin (𝛼𝑠𝑑 ) ∙ sin(𝛾 + 𝜓))
𝐹𝑧𝑙𝑑 = 𝐹𝑠𝑑 ∙ cos(𝛼𝑠𝑑 ) (76)
(𝑑 − 𝑝 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛾 − 𝜑))
𝛼𝑠𝑙 = arcsin ( ) (77)
𝑙𝑠
𝑀𝑧𝑙 (78)
𝐹𝑠𝑙 =
𝑝 ∙ (cos(𝛼𝑠𝑙 ) ∙ cos(𝛾 − 𝜑) + sin (𝛼𝑠𝑙 ) ∙ sin(𝛾 − 𝜑))
𝐹𝑧𝑙𝑙 = 𝐹𝑠𝑙 ∙ cos(𝛼𝑠𝑙 ) (79)
𝐹𝑧𝑙 = 𝐹𝑧𝑙𝑑 + 𝐹𝑧𝑙𝑙 (80)
𝐷𝑧𝑧𝑙 (81)
𝑀𝑡𝑢 = 𝐹𝑧𝑙 ∙
2
where:
• 𝛼𝑠𝑑 – is angle between right steering arm and Y-axis,
• 𝐹𝑠𝑑 – is force in the right steering arm,
• 𝐹𝑧𝑙𝑑 – force in the rack, coming from the right wheel,
• 𝛼𝑠𝑙 – is angle between left steering arm and Y-axis,
• 𝐹𝑠𝑙 – is force in the left steering arm,
• 𝐹𝑧𝑙𝑙 – is force in the rack, coming from the left wheel
• 𝐹𝑧𝑙 – is total force in the rack,
• 𝑀𝑡𝑢 – steering wheel torque and
• 𝐷𝑧𝑧𝑙 − pinion gear diameter.
For the front steering trapezoid, the mathematical model for calculating the torque on the steering
wheel is described by the following equations:
(𝑑 − 𝑝 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛾 + 𝜓))
𝛼𝑠𝑑 = arcsin ( ) (82)
𝑙𝑠
𝑀𝑧𝑑
𝐹𝑠𝑑 = (83)
𝑝 ∙ (cos(𝛼𝑠𝑑 ) ∙ cos(𝛾 + 𝜓) + sin (𝛼𝑠𝑑 ) ∙ sin(𝛾 + 𝜓))
𝐹𝑧𝑙𝑑 = 𝐹𝑠𝑑 ∙ cos(𝛼𝑠𝑑 ) (84)
11
(𝑑 − 𝑝 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(−𝛾 + 𝜑)) (85)

𝛼𝑠𝑙 = arcsin ( )
𝑙𝑠
𝑀𝑧𝑙 (86)
𝐹𝑠𝑙 =
𝑝 ∙ (cos(𝛼𝑠𝑙 ) ∙ cos(−𝛾 + 𝜑) + sin (𝛼𝑠𝑙 ) ∙ sin(−𝛾 + 𝜑))
𝐹𝑧𝑙𝑙 = 𝐹𝑠𝑙 ∙ cos(𝛼𝑠𝑙 ) (87)
𝐹𝑧𝑙 = 𝐹𝑧𝑙𝑑 + 𝐹𝑧𝑙𝑙 (88)
𝐷𝑧𝑧𝑙 (89)
𝑀𝑡𝑢 = 𝐹𝑧𝑙 ∙
2
where:
• 𝛼𝑠𝑑 – is angle between right steering arm and Y-axis,
• 𝐹𝑠𝑑 – is force in the right steering arm,
• 𝐹𝑧𝑙𝑑 – force in the rack, coming from the right wheel,
• 𝛼𝑠𝑙 – is angle between left steering arm and Y-axis,
• 𝐹𝑠𝑙 – is force in the left steering arm,
• 𝐹𝑧𝑙𝑙 – is force in the rack, coming from the left wheel
• 𝐹𝑧𝑙 – is total force in the rack,
• 𝑀𝑡𝑢 – steering wheel torque and
• 𝐷𝑧𝑧𝑙 − pinion gear diameter.
4. Mathematical model validation

The last portion in the development of a mathematical model is validation. The best form of
mathematical validation would be an experimental load test of the steering system. Due to the limiting
circumstances, no experimental measurements were performed on the vehicle, but the obtained results
of the mathematical model were compared with the results obtained in the ADAMS Car software
package.
A vehicle motion simulation was performed in the ADAMS Car software package, where the vehicle
moves in a straight line at a speed of 50 𝑘𝑚⁄ℎ, when the steering wheel starts turning to the right up to
70°, after which it returns to the initial position. Figure 13 shows the change in the angle of rotation of
the steering wheel during the simulation.
Figure 13. Steering wheel angle during the simulation in the ADAMS Car software package.
The first part of the analysis refers to the mathematical model of the tire, that is the "Magic Formula.".
Figure 14 shows a comparison of the tire characteristics obtained in the ADAMS Car software package
and the mathematical model for the calculation of the steering system for different values of the vertical
force. Figure is showing the change in aligning torque that occurs as a result of tire deformation. This
analysis has two goals, the first goal is to check whether the same tire is used (due to the large influence
on results) in the simulation and the mathematical model, while the second goal is to check how much
12
the results obtained by the mathematical model deviate from the results obtained in the ADAMS Car
software package.
Figure 14. Change in the intensity of the aligning torque due to tire deformation.
Further analysis, also represents a check of the mathematical model of the tire, and is related to the
sideslip angle. The results shown in Figures 15 and 16 represent a comparative view of the change in
the sideslip angle.
Figure 15. Right tire sideslip angle.
Figure 16. Left tire sideslip angle.

The second part of the analysis refers to the load transfer from the wheel to the rack and further to
the steering wheel. Figures 17 and 18 show the change in force intensity in the rack from both the right
and left wheel.
13
Figure 17. Change in force intensity in the rack produced by the right wheel.
Figure 18. Change in force intensity in the rack produced by the left wheel.
The last part of the analysis relates to the torque on the steering wheel. This is the most important
analysis, because the value of this torque is extremely important when designing a steering system.
Figure 19. Change in the intensity of the torque on the steering wheel.
The analysis of the obtained results leads to the conclusion that the average value of the relative load
error of the elements of the steering system is 15%, the error of the steering wheel angles is 7%, and the
torque error on the steering wheel is 6%, which is shown in Figures 20 to 24.
14
Figure 20. Relative tire sideslip angle error – right tire.
Figure 21. Relative tire sideslip angle error – left tire.
Figure 22. Relative load error of steering system elements – right wheel.
Figure 23. Relative load error of steering system elements – left wheel.
15
Figure 24. Relative steering wheel torque error.
5. Conclusion
By comparing the obtained results, it was determined that the results obtained using the software
package are within 10% relative error for torque on steering wheel. There are deviations in relation to
the results obtained in the ADAMS Car software package, but they are the result of adopted
simplifications. Also, deviations in the character of the change of the obtained results in a time interval
of about 1.8 seconds are a consequence of one of the limitations of the mathematical model. According
to Figure 13, in that time interval the steering wheel turns to the left side, while the mathematical model
allows calculation only for turning the steering wheel to the right side, which is why the deviation
occurred.
It is concluded that the developed mathematical model met the set requirements, and as such it can
be used to evaluate the operation of the steering system, that is, it can be used for the calculation and
design of the steering system for the formula student vehicle. The mathematical model can be expanded
so that calculations can also be made in the case of turning the vehicle to the left. Also, by using the
MATLAB software package, a sophisticated application can be created with the help of which
calculations and optimization of the formula student vehicle steering system would be done relatively
quickly and in a simple way.
References
[1] Milliken W and Milliken D 2003 Race Car Vehicle Dynamics (Warrendale: SAE International)
[2] Smith C 1978 Tune to Win (Fallbrock: Aero Publishers)
[3] Pacejka H 2012 Tire and Vehicle Dynamics (Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann)
[4] Trzesniowski M 2008 Rennwagentechnik (Graz: Springer Vieweg Wiesbaden)
[5] Rajamani R 2005 Vehicle Dynamics and Control (Minnesota: Springer)
[6] Gillespie T 1992 Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics (Warrendale: SAE International).
[7] Jazar R 2008 Vehicle Dynamics, Theory and Application (New York: Springer)
[8] Popovic Z 2007 Teorija kretanja motornih vozila (Beograd: Vojna akademija)
[9] MATLAB 2018 9.7.0.1190202 (R2019b) (Natick: MathWorks Inc.)
[10] Jonson A and Olsson E 2016 A Metodology for indentification od Magic Formula Tire Model
Parameters from In-Vehicle Measurements (Gothenburg: Chalmers University of
Technology)
[11] Harsh D 2018 Full Vehicle Model of a formula student car (Delft: Delft University of Technilogy)
[12] Continental 2016 Competition Tire 2016 (C16) – Documentation (Hanover: Continental)
[13] Ojbouboh I 2012 Data algorithm for vehicle dynamics and tire modeling (Boulder: University of
Colorado)
16

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This content was downloaded from IP address 39.34.177.58 on 04/11/2023 at 19:57

Development of mathematical model for design of vehicle

Momir Drakulić1*, Lazar Stojnić1, Ivan Blagojević2, Aleksandar Đurić1, Sreten

• the lateral force acts in the direction of the Y axis,

2. Mathematical model of the geometry of the steering trapezoid

2.1. Mathematical model of the rear steering trapezoid

Figure 1. Two arbitrary positions of the rear steering trapezoid.

𝑥 = 𝑏0 − 𝑝 ∙ sin(𝛾 − 𝜑) − 𝑙𝑠 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 − ℎ (3)

2.2. Mathematical model of the front steering trapezoid

Figure 2. Two arbitrary positions of the front steering trapezoid.

Figure 3. Width of the front axle used in the mathematical model.

Figure 4. Adopted coordinate systems.

3.2. Mathematical model for 𝑀𝑧 torque due to influence of vertical forces

3.3. Mathematical model for 𝑀𝑧 torque due to influence of traction/braking forces

3.4. Mathematical model for 𝑀𝑧 torque due to influence of lateral forces

3.5. Mathematical model for 𝑀𝑧 torque due to influence of tire deformations

(𝑑 − 𝑝 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(−𝛾 + 𝜑)) (85)

4. Mathematical model validation

Figure 15. Right tire sideslip angle.

Figure 16. Left tire sideslip angle.

Figure 20. Relative tire sideslip angle error – right tire.

Figure 21. Relative tire sideslip angle error – left tire.

Figure 24. Relative steering wheel torque error.

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