Data Communication and Computer Networks

Data Communication and Computer
Networks Module December 25, 2022
Chapter one
Introduction to Data Communication
1.1. Introduction
Data communications is the transmission of this digital data between two or more computers and a
computer network or data network is a telecommunications network that allows computers to exchange
data. The physical connection between networked computing devices is established using either cable
media or wireless media. The best-known computer network is the Internet. The word data refers to facts,
concepts, and instructions presented in whatever form is agreed upon by the parties creating and using the
data. In the context of computer information systems, data are represented by binary information units (or
bits) produced and consumed in the form of 0s and 1s. Data communication is considered local if the
communicating devices are in the same building or a similarly restricted geographical area,
For data communication to occur, the communicating devices must be part of a communication system
made up of a combination of hardware and software. The effectiveness of a data communication system
depends on three fundamental characteristics:
– Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received by the
intended device or user and only by that device or user.
– Accuracy. The system must deliver data accurately. Data that have been altered in .transmission
and left uncorrected are unusable.
– Timeliness. The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are useless, In
the ease of video, audio, and voice data, timely delivery means delivering data as they are
produced, in the same order that they are produced, and without significant delay. This kind of
delivery is called real-time transmission.
1.2. Data communications Components

A data communication system is made up of five components
+ Message. The message is the information (data) to be communicated. It can consists of text,
numbers, pictures, sound, or video or any combination of these.
+ Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
+ Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, television, and so on.
+ Medium. The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels from sender to
receiver. It can consist of twisted pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, laser, or radio waves
(terrestrial or satellite microwave).
+ Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communication. It represents an agreement
between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but not
communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot be understood by a person who speaks only
Japanese.
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1.3. Transmission Mode

The term transmission mode is used to define the direction of signal flow between two linked devices.
Transmission Mode
Simplex Half-duplex Full-duplex
1.3.1. Simplex
In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way Street. Only one of the two stations
on a link can transmit; the other can only receive
1.3.2. Half- Duplex
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time. When one
device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa.
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1.3.3. Full-Duplex
In full-duplex mode (also called duplex), both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously.
Data
Transmission
1.4. Digital Data Transmission
Of primary concern when considering the transmission of data from one device to another is the wiring.
And of primary concern when considering the wiring is the data stream. Do we send one bit at a time, or do
we group bits into larger groups and, if so, how? The transmission of binary data across a link can be
accomplished either in parallel mode or serial mode. In parallel mode, multiple bits are sent with each
clock pulse. In serial mode, one bit is sent with each clock pulse. While there is only one way to send
parallel data, there are two subclasses of serial transmission: synchronous and asynchronous.
1.4.1. Parallel Transmission
Binary data, consisting of I s and Os, may be organized into groups of n bits each, computers produce and
consume data in groups of bits much as we conceive of and use sp ken language in the form of words rather
than letters. By grouping, we can send data bits at a time instead of one. This is called parallel transmission.
The advantage of parallel transmission is speed. All else being equal, parallel transmission can increase
the transfer speed by a factor of n over serial transmission) But there is a significant disadvantage: cost.
Parallel transmission requires n communication lines (wires in the example) just to transmit the data
stream. Because this is expensive, parallel transmission is usually limited to short distances, up to a
maximum of say 25 feet.
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Asynchronous
Serial Par Synchronous

alle
l
1.4.2. Serial Transmission
In serial transmission one bit follows another, so we need only one communication channel rather than n to
transmit data between two communicating devices.
Receiv The eight bits 0

er are sent together
We need eight lines Sender
Two ways of Serial transmissions

– Asynchronous Transmission
– Synchronous Transmission
1.4.2.1. Asynchronous Transmission
Asynchronous transmission is so named because the timing of a signal is unimportant. Instead, information
is received and translated by agreed-upon patterns. As long as those patterns are followed, the receiving
device can retrieve the information without regard to the rhythm in which it is sent. Patterns are based on
grouping the bit stream into bytes. Each group, usually eight bits, is sent along the link as a unit. The
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sending system handles each group independently, relaying it to the link whenever ready, without regard
to a timer.
Without a synchronizing pulse, the receiver cannot use timing to predict when the next group will arrive.
To alert the receiver to the arrival of a new group, therefore, an extra bit is added to the beginning of each
byte. This bit, usually a 0, is called the start bit. To let the receiver know that the byte is finished, one or
more additional bits are appended to the end of the byte. These bits, usually is, are called stop hits. By this
method, each byte is increased in size to at least 10 bits, of which 8 are information and 2 or more are
signals to the receiver. In addition, the transmission of each byte may then be followed by a gap of varying
duration. This gap can be represented either by an idle channel or by a stream of additional stop bits.
In asynchronous transmission we send one start bit (0) at the beginning and one or more stop bits (1s) at the
end of each byte. There may be a gap between each byte.
The start and stop bits and the gap alert the receiver to the beginning and end of each byte and allow it to
synchronize with the data stream. This mechanism is called asynchronous because, at the byte level,
sender and receiver do not have to be synchronized. But within each byte, the receiver must still be
synchronized with the incoming bit stream. That is, some synchronization is required, but only for the
duration of a single byte. The receiving device resynchronizes at the onset of each new byte. When the
receiver detects a start bit, it sets a timer and begins counting bits as they come in. After n bits the receiver
looks for a stop bit. As soon as it detects the stop bit, it ignores any received pulses until it detects the next
start bit.
Figure belowis a schematic illustration of asynchronous transmission. In this example, the start bits are 0s,
the stop bits are 1s, and the gap is represented by an idle line rather than by additional stop bits.
01101
0
0 1
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Receiver of SG Sender
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The addition of stop and start bits and e thell bit stream make asynchronous
t 0
transmission slower than forms of transmission 0
that can operate without
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information. But it is cheap and effective, two advantages that make n it an /
l attractive choice for situations
i
like low-speed communication. For example, the connection of a terminal / to a computer is a natural
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application for asynchronous transmission. A user types only one character at a time, types extremely
slowly in data processing terms, and leaves unpredictable gaps of time between each character.
1.4.2.2. Synchronous Transmission
In synchronous transmission, the bit stream is combined into longer ―frames,‖ which may contain multiple
bytes. Each byte, however, is introduced onto the transmission link without a gap between it and the next
one. It is left to the receiver to separate the bit stream into bytes for decoding purposes. In other words, data
are transmitted as an unbroken string of 1s and 0s, and the receiver separates that string into the bytes, or
characters, it needs to reconstruct the information. In synchronous transmission we send bits one after
another without start/stop bits or gaps. It is the responsibility of the receiver to group the bits. Figure
below gives a schematic illustration of synchronous transmission. We have drawn in the divisions between
bytes. In reality, those divisions do not exist; the sender puts its data onto the line as one long string. If the
sender wishes to send data in separate bursts, the gaps between bursts must be filled with a special
sequence of 0s and 1s that means idle. The receiver counts the bits as they arrive and groups them in eight-
bit units.
0 111110 1
11
Without gaps and start/stop bits, there is no built-in mechanism to help the receiving device adjust its bit
synchronization in midstream. Timing becomes very important, therefore, because the accuracy of the
received information is completely dependent on the ability of the receiving device to keep an accurate
count of the bits as they come in. The advantage of synchronous transmission is speed. With no extra bits or
gaps to introduce at the sending end and remove at the receiving end and, by extension, with fewer bits to
move across the link, synchronous transmission is faster than asynchronous transmission. For this reason, it is
more useful for high-speed applications like the transmission of data from one computer to another, Byte
synchronization is accom-plished in the data link layer.
1.5. Modulation Scheme

Modulation is about how the bits are transmitted via the physical medium.
1. Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
2. Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
3. Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
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1.5.1. Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

Vary the amplitude of the carrier signal to send the bit 0 and the bit 1.
D 1
R 1 0 a 1 R D
e t1 110
1 1
c 1
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aA Se i
s 0 1 1 0 ec r
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1.5.2. Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) 0
ev t
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Vary the frequency of the 0carrier signal
1 re i
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o to1send
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1.5.3. Phase Shift Keying (FSK)m wt
i send the bit 0 andu the bit 1.
Vary the phase of the carrier signal to
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1.6. Baseband u and Broadband Transmissions
d
Baseband: These
e transmissions use the entire media bandwidth for a single channel. Baseband is
commonly used-for digital signaling, although it can also be used for analog signals. Most LANs use base-
band signaling.
Broadband: These transmissions provide the ability to divide the entire media bandwidth into multiple
channels. Since each channel can carry a different analog signal, broadband networks support multiple
simultaneous conversations over a single transmission.
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1.7. Categories of Networks

 Local Area Networks (LANs)
+ Short distances
+ Designed to provide local interconnectivity
 Wide Area Networks (WANs)
+ Long distances
+ Provide connectivity over large areas
 Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)
+ Provide connectivity over areas such as a city, a campus
Example of LAN
LANS can be connected by hubs or by switches.
Figure 1.10 An isolated LAN connecting 12 computers to a hub in a closet

Example of WAN
WANS
Can be switched WANS connected via multiple switches.
Point to point WANS connected via routers
Figure 1.11 WANs: a WAN and a point-to-point WAN
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Example of WAN
Protocols
A protocol is synonymous with rule. It consists of a set of rules that govern data communications. It
determines what is communicated, how it is communicated and when it is communicated. The key
elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics and timings.
A protocol has three aspects
1. Syntaxe
2. Semantics
3. Timing
Elements of a Protocol
 Syntax
+ Structure or format of the data
+ Indicates how to read the bits - field delineation
 Semantics
+ Interprets the meaning of the bits
+ Knows which fields define what action
 Timing
+ When data should be sent and what
+ Speed at which data should be sent or speed at which it is being received.
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Chapter Two
Networks
2.1. Networks
A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by media links. A node can be a
computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by other nodes
on the network. The links connecting the devices are often called communication channels.
Distributed Processing
Networks use distributed processing, in which a task is divided among multiple computers. Instead of a
single large machine being responsible for all aspects of a process, each separate computer (usually a
personal computer or workstation) handles a subset,
Advantages of distributed processing include the following:
– Security/encapsulation. A system designer can limit the kinds of interactions that a given user
can have with the entire system. For example, a hank can allow users access to their own accounts
through an automated teller machine (ATM) without allowing them access to the hank‘s entire
database.
– Distributed databases. No one system needs to provide storage capacity for the entire database,
For example, the World Wide Web gives users access to information that may he actually stored
and manipulated anywhere on the Internet.
– Faster problem solving. Multiple computers working on parts of a problem concurrently can often
solve the problem faster than a single machine working alone. For example, networks of PCs have
broken encryption codes that were presumed to be unbreakable because of the amount of time it
would take a single computer to crack them.
– Security through redundancy. Multiple computers running the same program at the same time
can provide security through redundancy. For example, in the space shuttle, three computers run
the same program so that if one has a hardware error, the other two can override it.
– Collaborative processing. Both multiple computers and multiple users may interact on a task. For
example, in multi-user network games the actions of each player are visible to and affect all the
others.
2.2. Network Criteria
To be considered effective and efficient, a network must meet a number of criteria. The most important of
these are performance, reliability, and security (see Figure below).
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Performance
Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and response time. Transit time is the
amount of time required for a message to travel from one device to another. Response time is the elapsed
time between an inquiry and a response.
The performance of a network depends on a number of factors, including the number of users, the type of
transmission medium, the capabilities of the connected hardware, and the efficiency of the software.
– Number of users. Having a large number of concurrent users can slow response time in a network
not designed to coordinate heavy traffic loads. The design of a given network is based on an
assessment of the average number of users that will be communicating at any one time. In peak
toad periods, however, the actual number of users can exceed the average and thereby decrease
performance. How a network responds to loading is a measure of its performance.
– Type of transmission medium. The medium defines the speed at which data can travel through a
connection (the data rate). Today‘s networks are moving to faster and faster transmission media,
such as fiber optic cabling. A medium that can carry data at 100 megabits per second is ten times
more powerful than a medium that can carry data at only 10 megabits per second. however, the
speed of light imposes an upper bound on the data rate.
– Hardware. The types of hardware included in a network affect both the speed and capacity of
transmission. A higher speed computer with greater storage capacity provides better
performance.
– Software. The software used to process data at the sender, receiver, and intermediate nodes also
affects network performance. Moving a message from node to node through a network requires
processing to transform the raw data into transmittable signals, to route these signals to the proper
destination, to ensure error-free delivery, and to recast the signals into a form the receiver can use.
The software that provides these services affects both the speed and the reliability of a network
link. Well-designed software can speed the process and make transmission more effective and
efficient.
Reliability
In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by frequency of failure, the time it
takes a link to recover from a failure, and the network‘s robustness in a catastrophe.
– Frequency of failure. All networks fail occasionally. A network that fails often, however, is of little
value to a user.
– Recovery time of a network after a failure. How long does it take to restore service? A network
that recovers quickly is more useful than one that does not.
– Catastrophe. Networks must be protected from catastrophic events such as fire, earthquake, or
theft. One protection against unforeseen damage is a reliable system to back up network software.
Security
Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access and viruses.
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Unauthorized access. For a network to be useful, Performance can be measured in many ways, including
transit sensitive data must be protected from unauthorized access. Protection can be accomplished at a
number of levels. At the lowest level are user identification codes and passwords. At a higher level are
encryption techniques. In these mechanisms, data are systematically altered in such a way that if they are
intercepted by an unauthorized user, they will be unintelligible.
Viruses. Because a network is accessible from many points, it can be susceptible to computer viruses~ A
virus is an illicitly introduced code that damages the system. A good network is protected from viruses by
hardware and software designed specifically for that purpose.
2.3. Line Configuration
Line configuration refers to the way two or more communication devices attach to a link. A link is the
physical communication pathway that transfers data from one device to another. For the purposes of
visualization, it is simplest to imagine any link as a line drawn between two points. For communication to
occur, two devices must be connected in some way to the same link at the same time. There are two
possible line configurations: point-to- point and multipoint Line configuration defines the attachment of
communication devices to a link.
Point-to-Point
A point-to-point line configuration provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire capacity of
the channel is reserved for transmission between those two devices. Most point-to-point line
configurations use an actual length of wire or cable to connect the two ends, hut other options, such as
microwave or satellite links, are also possible (see below). When you change television channels by
infrared remote control, you are establishing a point-to-point line configuration between the remote
control and the television‘s control system.
Figure : Point-to-point line configuration
Multipoint
A multipoint (also called multidrop) line configuration is one in which more than two specific devices
share a single link (see Figure below). In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared,
either spatially or temporally. If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared
line configuration. If users must take turns, it is a time shared line configuration.
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Figure : Multipoint line configuration
2.4. Topology
The term topology refers to the way a network is laid out, either physically or logically. Two or more
devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology. The topology of a network is the geometric
representation of the relationship of all the links and linking devices (usually called nodes) to each other.
There are five basic topologies possible: mesh, star, tree, bus, and ring .Topology defines the physical or
logical arrangement of links in a network.
These five labels describe how the devices in a network are interconnected rather than their physical
arrangement. For example, having a star topology does not mean that all of the computers in the network
must be placed physically around a hub in a star shape. A consideration when choosing a topology is the
relative status of the devices to be linked. Two relationships are possible: peer-to-peer, where the devices
share the link equally, and primary—secondary, where one device controls traffic and the others must
transmit through it. Ring and mesh topologies are more convenient for peer-to peer transmission, while
star and tree are more convenient for primary—secondary. A bus topology is equally convenient for
either.
2.5. LAN Topology
Topology defines the structure of the network. There are two parts to the topology definition: the physical
topology, which is the actual layout of the wire (media), and the logical topology, which defines how the
media is accessed by the hosts. The physical topologies that are commonly used are the Bus, Ring, Star,
Extended Star, Hierarchical, and Mesh. These are shown in the graphic.
– A bus topology uses a single backbone segment (length of cable) that all the hosts connect to
directly.
– A ring topology connects one host to the next and the last host to the first. This creates a
physical ring of cable.
– A star topology connects all cables to a central point of concentration. This point is usually a
hub or switch, which will be described later in the chapter.
– An extended star topology uses the star topology to be created. It links individual stars
together by linking the hubs/switches. This, as you will learn later in the chapter, will extend
the length and size of the network.
– A hierarchical topology is created similar to an extended star but instead of linking the
hubs/switches together, the system is linked to a computer that controls the traffic on the
topology.
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– A mesh topology is used when there can be absolutely no break in communications, for
example the control systems of a nuclear power plant. So as you can see in the graphic, each
host has its own connections to all other hosts. This also reflects the design of the Internet,
which has multiple paths to any one location.
– The logical topology of a network is how the hosts communicate across the medium. The two
most common types of logical topologies are Broadcast and Token-passing.
– Broadcast topology simply means that each host sends its data to all other hosts on the
network medium. There is no order the stations follow to use the network, it is first come, first
serve. This is the way that Ethernet works.
The second type is token-passing. Token-passing controls network access by passing an electronic token
sequentially to each host. When a host receives the token, that means that that host can send data on the
network. If the host has no data to send, it passes the token to the next host and the process repeats itself.
Physical Topologies
2.6. Standards Organizations

Standards are developed by cooperation among standards creation committees, forums, and government
regulatory agencies.
Standards Creation Committees
While many organizations are dedicated to the establishment of standards, data and telecommunications
in North America rely primarily on those published by the following:
– The International Standards Organization (ISO)
– The International Telecommunications Union (ITU-T, formerly the CCITT)
– The American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
– The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
– The Electronic Industries Association (EIA)
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The International Standards Organization (ISO; also referred to as the International Organization for
Standardization) is a multinational body whose membership is drawn mainly from the standards creation
committees of various governments throughout the world. Created in 1947, the ISO is an entirely
voluntary organization dedicated to worldwide agreement on international standards. With a
membership that currently includes representative bodies from 82 industrialized nations, it aims to
facilitate the international exchange of goods and services by providing models for compatibility,
improved quality, increased productivity, and decreased prices. The ISO is active in developing
cooperation in the realms of scientific, technological, and economic activity. Of primary concern to this
book are the ISO‘s efforts in the field of information technology, which have resulted in the creation of the
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model for network communications. The United States is represented
in the ISO by ANSI. The ISO is an organization dedicated to worldwide agreement on international
standards in a variety of fields.
ITU-T
By the early l970s a number of countries were defining national standards for telecommunications, but
there was still little international compatibility. The United Nations responded by forming, as part of its
International Telecommunications Union (ITU), a committee, the Consultative Committee for
International Telegraphy and Telephony (CCITT). This committee was devoted to the research and
establishment of standards for telecommunications in general and phone and data systems in particular.
On March 1, 1993, the name of this committee was changed to the International Telecommunications
Union— Telecommunication Standards Sector (ITU-T).
The ITU-T is divided into study groups, each devoted to a different aspect of the industry. National
committees (such as ANSI in the United States and the CEPT in Europe) submit proposals to these study
groups. If the study group agrees, the proposal is ratified and becomes part of the ITU-T standard, issued
every four years.
The best-known ITU-T standards are the V series (V.32, V.33, V.42), which define data transmission over
phone lines; the X series (X.25, X.400, X.500), which define transmission over public digital networks; e-
mail and directory services; and the Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN), which includes parts of
the other series and defines the emerging international digital network. Current projects include an
extension of ISDN called Broadband ISDN, popularly known as the Information Superhighway. ITU-T is
an international standards organization related to the United Nations that develops standards for
telecommunications. Two popular standards developed by ITU-T are the V series and the X series.
ANSI
Despite its name, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) is a completely private nonprofit
corporation not affiliated with the U.S. federal government. However, all ANSI activities are undertaken
with the welfare of the United States and its citizens occupying primary importance. ANSI‘s expressed
aims include serving as the national coordinating institution for voluntary standardization in the United
States, furthering the adoption of standards as a way of advancing the U.S. economy, and ensuring the
participation and protection of the public interests. ANSI members include professional societies, industry
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associations, governmental and regulatory bodies, and consumer groups. Current areas of discussion
include internetwork planning and engineering; ISDN services, signaling, and architecture; and optical
hierarchy (SONET). ANSI submits proposals to the ITU-T and is the designated voting member from the
United States to the ISO. Similar services are provided in the European Community by the Committee of
European Post, Telegraph, and Telephone (CEPT) and the European Telecommunications Standards
Institute (ETST). ANSI, a nonprofit organization, is the U.S. voting representative to both the ISO and the
ITU-T.
IEEE
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) is the largest professional engineering society
in the world. Intemational in scope, it aims to advance theory, creativity, and product quality in the fields
of electrical engineering, electronics, and radio as well as in all related branches of engineering. As one of
its goals, the IEEE oversees the development and adoption of international standards for computing and
communication. The IEEE has a special committee for local area networks (LANs), out of which has come
Project 802 (e.g., the 802.3, 802.4, and 802.5 standards).
The IEEE is the largest national professional group involved in developing standards for computing,
communication, electrical engineering, and electronics. It sponsored an important standard for local area
networks called Project 802.
EIA
Aligned with ANSI, the Electronic Industries Association (EM) is a nonprofit organization devoted to the
promotion of electronics manufacturing concerns. Its activities include public awareness education and
lobbying efforts in addition to standards development. In the field of information technology, the EIA
has made significant contributions by defining physical connection interfaces and electronic signaling
specifications for data communication. In particular, E1A-232-D, EIA-449, and EIA-530 define serial
transmission between two digital devices (e.g., computer to modem). EIA is an association of electronics
manufacturers in the United States. It is responsible for developing the EIA-232-D and EIA- 530
standards.
2.7. Open System Interconnection (OSI)

Overview
The early development of LANs, MANs, and WANs was chaotic in many ways. The early 1980's saw
tremendous increases in the numbers and sizes of networks. As companies realized the money they could
save and the productivity they could gain by using networking technology, they added networks and
expanded existing networks almost as rapidly as new network technologies and products could be
introduced.
By the mid-1980's, these companies began to experience growing pains from all the expansions they had
made. It became harder for networks that used different specifications and implementations to
communicate with each other. They realized that they needed to move away from proprietary networking
systems.
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Proprietary systems are privately developed, owned, and controlled. In the computer industry, proprietary
is the opposite of open.
Proprietary means that one or a small group of companies controls all usage of the technology. Open
means that free usage of the technology is available to the public. To address the problem of networks
being incompatible and unable to communicate with each other, the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) researched network schemes like DECNET, SNA, and TCP/IP in order to find a set
of rules. As a result of this research, the ISO created a network model that would help vendors create
networks that would be compatible with, and operate with, other networks.
The process of breaking down complex communications into smaller discrete tasks could be compared to
the process of building an automobile. When taken as a whole, the design, manufacture, and assembly of
an automobile is a highly complex process. It‘s unlikely that one single person would know how to perform
all the required tasks to build a car from scratch. This is why mechanical engineers design the car,
manufacturing engineers design the molds to make the parts, and assembly technicians each assemble a
part of the car.
The OSI reference model (Note: Do not confuse with ISO.), released in 1984, was the descriptive scheme
they created. It provided vendors with a set of standards that ensured greater compatibility and
interoperability between the various types of network technologies that were produced by the many
companies around the world.
Purpose of the OSI reference model
The OSI reference model is the primary model for network communications. Although there are other
models in existence, most network vendors, today, relate their products to the OSI reference model,
especially when they want to educate users on the use of their products. They consider it the best tool
available for teaching people about sending and receiving data on a network. The OSI reference model
allows you to view the network functions that occur at each layer. More importantly, the OSI reference
model is a framework that you can use to understand how information travels throughout a network. In
addition, you can use the OSI reference model to visualize how information, or data packets, travels from
application programs (e.g. spreadsheets, documents, etc.), through a network medium (e.g. wires, etc.), to
another application program that is located in another computer on a network, even if the sender and
receiver have different types of network media. In the OSI reference model, there are seven numbered
layers, each of which illustrates a particular network function. This separation of networking functions is
called layering. Dividing the network into these seven layers provides the following advantages:
– It breaks network communication into smaller, simpler parts.
– It standardizes network components to allow multiple- vendor development and support.
– It allows different types of network hardware and software to communicate with each other.
– It prevents changes in one layer from affecting the other layers, so that they can develop more
quickly.
– It breaks network communication into smaller parts to make learning it easier to understand.
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The seven Layers of the OSI Reference Model

The problem of moving information between computers is divided into seven smaller and more
manageable problems in the OSI reference model. Each of the seven smaller problems is represented by its
own layer in the model. The seven layers of the OSI reference model are: Layer 7: The application layer
Layer 6: The presentation layer Layer 5: The session layer Layer 4: The transport layer Layer 3: The
network layer Layer 2: The data link layer Layer 1: The physical layer
During the course of this semester, you will start your studies with Layer 1 and work your way through the
OSI model, layer by layer. By working through the layers of the OSI reference model, you will understand
how data packets travel through a network and what devices operate at each layer as data packets travel
through them. As a result, you will understand how to troubleshoot network problems as they may occur
during data packet flow.
The Functions of each Layer
Each individual OSI layer has a set of functions that it must perform in order for data packets to travel
from a source to a destination on a network. Below is a brief description of each layer in the OSI reference
model as shown in the Figure.
Layer 7: The Application Layer
The application layer is the OSI layer that is closest to the user; it provides network services to the user‘s
applications. It differs from the other layers in that it does not provide services to any other OSI layer, but
rather, only to applications outside the OSI model. Examples of such applications are spreadsheet
programs, word processing programs, and bank terminal programs.
The application layer establishes the availability of intended communication partners, synchronizes and
establishes agreement on procedures for error recovery and control of data integrity. If you want to
remember Layer 7 in as few words as possible, think of browsers.
Layer 6: The Presentation Layer
The presentation layer ensures that the information that the application layer of one system sends out is
readable by the application layer of another system. If necessary, the presentation layer translates
between multiple data formats by using a common format. If you want to think of Layer 6 in as few words
as possible, think of a common data format.
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Layer 5: The Session Layer

As its name implies, the session layer establishes, manages, and terminates sessions between two
communicating hosts. The session layer provides its services to the presentation layer. It also synchronizes
dialogue between the two hosts' presentation layers and manages their data exchange. In addition to
session regulation, the session layer offers provisions for efficient data transfer, class of service, and
exception reporting of session layer, presentation layer, and application layer problems. If you want to
remember Layer 5 in as few words as possible, think of dialogues and conversations.
Layer 4: The Transport Layer
The transport layer segments data from the sending host's system and reassembles the data into a data
stream on the receiving host's system. The boundary between the transport layer and the session layer can
be thought of as the boundary between application protocols and data-flow protocols. Whereas the
application, presentation, and session layers are concerned with application issues, the lower four layers
are concerned with data transport issues.
The transport layer attempts to provide a data transport service that shields the upper layers from
transport implementation details. Specifically, issues such as how reliable transport between two hosts is
accomplished is the concern of the transport layer. In providing communication service, the transport
layer establishes, maintains, and properly terminates virtual circuits. In providing reliable service,
transport error detection- and-recovery and information flow control are used. If you want to remember
Layer 4 in as few words as possible, think of quality of service, and reliability.
Layer 3: The Network Layer
The network layer is a complex layer that provides connectivity and path selection between two host
systems that may be located on geographically separated networks. If you want to remember Layer 3 in as
few words as possible, think of path selection, routing, and addressing.
Layer 2: The Data Link Layer
The data link layer provides reliable transit of data across a physical link. In so doing, the data link layer is
concerned with physical (as opposed to logical) addressing, network topology, network access, error
notification, ordered delivery of frames, and flow control. If you want to remember Layer 2 in as few words
as possible, think of frames and media access control.
Layer 1: The Physical Layer
The physical layer defines the electrical, mechanical, procedural, and functional specifications for
activating, maintaining, and deactivating the physical link between end systems. Such characteristics as
voltage levels, timing of voltage changes, physical data rates, maximum transmission distances, physical
connectors, and other, similar, attributes are defined by physical layer specifications. If you want to
remember Layer 1 in as few words as possible, think of signals and media.
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Chapter Three
Transmission Media
3.1. Introduction
Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to another, include twisted-pair
cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic. A signal traveling along any of these media is directed and
contained by the physical limits of the medium. Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper)
conductors that accept and transport signals in the form of electrical current. Optical fiber is a glass or
plastic cable that accepts and transports signals in the form of light.
3.1.1. Types of Media
Shielded twisted-pair cable (STP)
Shielded twisted-pair cable (STP) combines the techniques of shielding, cancellation, and twisting of wires
. Each pair of wires is wrapped in metallic foil. The 4 pairs of wires are wrapped in an overall metallic braid
or foil. It is usually 150 Ohm cable. As specified for use in Ethernet network installations, STP reduces
electrical noise, both within the cable (pair to pair coupling, or crosstalk) and from outside the cable
(electromagnetic interference and radio frequency interference ). Shielded twisted- pair cable shares
many of the advantages and disadvantages of unshielded twisted-pair cable (UTP). STP affords greater
protection from all types of external interference, but is more expensive and difficult to install than UTP.A
new hybrid of UTP with traditional STP is Screened UTP (ScTP), also known as Foil Twisted Pair (FTP) . ScTP
is essentially UTP wrapped in a metallic foil shield, or "screen". It is usually 100 or 120 Ohm cable.
The metallic shielding materials in STP and ScTP need to be grounded at both ends. If improperly
grounded (or if there are any discontinuities in the entire length of the shielding material, for example due
to poor termination or installation), STP and ScTP become susceptible to major noise problems, because
they allow the shield to act like an antenna picking up unwanted signals. However, this effect works both
ways. Not only does the foil (shield, screen) prevent incoming electromagnetic waves from causing noise on
our data wires, but it minimizes the outgoing radiated electromagnetic waves, which could cause noise in
other devices. STP and ScTP cable cannot be run as far as other networking media (coaxial cable, optical
fiber) without the signal being repeated. More insulation and shielding combine to considerably increase
the size, weight, and cost of the cable. And the shielding materials make terminations more difficult and
susceptible to poor workmanship. However STP and ScTP still have their role, especially in Europe.
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Unshielded twisted-pair cable (UTP)

Unshielded twisted-pair cable (UTP) is a four-pair wire medium - composed of pairs of wires - used in a
variety of networks. Each of the 8 individual copper wires in the UTP cable is covered by insulating
material. In addition, each pair of wires are twisted around each other. This type of cable relies solely on
the cancellation effect, produced by the twisted wire pairs, to limit signal degradation caused by EMI and
RFI. To further reduce crosstalk between the pairs in UTP cable, the number of twists in the wire pairs
varies. Like STP cable, UTP cable must follow precise specifications as to how many twists or braids are
permitted per foot of cable.
When used as a networking medium, UTP cable has four pairs of either 22 or 24 gauge copper wire. UTP
used as a networking medium has an impedance of 100 ohms. This differentiates it from other types of
twisted-pair wiring such as that used for telephone wiring. Because UTP has an external diameter of
approximately .43 cm, its small size can be advantageous during installation. Since UTP can be used with
most of the major networking architectures, it continues to grow in popularity.
Unshielded twisted-pair cable has many advantages. It is easy to install and is less expensive than other
types of networking media. In fact, UTP costs less per meter than any other type of LAN cabling, however
its real advantage is its size. Since it has such a small external diameter, UTP does not fill up wiring ducts as
rapidly as other types of cable. This can be an extremely important factor to consider, particularly when
installing a network in an older building. Also, when UTP cable is installed using an RJ connector,
potential sources of network noise are greatly reduced, and a good solid connection is practically
guaranteed.
There are disadvantages in using twisted-pair cabling. UTP cable is more prone to electrical noise and
interference than other types of networking media, and the distance between signal boosts is shorter for
UTP than it is for coaxial and fiber optic cables. While UTP was once considered slower at transmitting
data than other types of cable. However, this is no longer true. In fact, today, UTP is considered the fastest
copper-based media.
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable consists of a hollow outer cylindrical conductor that surrounds a single inner wire made of
two conducting elements. One of these elements - located in the center of the cable - is a copper
conductor. Surrounding it is a layer of flexible insulation. Over this insulating material is a woven copper
braid or metallic foil that acts as the second wire in the circuit, and as a shield for the inner conductor. This
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second layer, or shield, can help reduce the amount of outside interference. Covering this shield is the
cable jacket.
For LANs, coaxial cable offers several advantages. It can be run, without as many boosts from repeaters, for
longer distances between network nodes than either STP or UTP cable. Repeaters regenerate the signals in
a network so that they can cover greater distances. Coaxial cable is less expensive than fiber-optic cable,
and the technology is well known. It has been used for many years for all types of data communication.
Can you think of another type of communication that utilizes coaxial cable?
When working with cable, it is important to consider its size. As the thickness, or diameter, of the cable
increases, so does the difficulty in working with it. You must remember that cable must be pulled through
existing conduits and troughs that are limited in size. Coaxial cable comes in a variety of sizes. The largest
diameter was specified for use as Ethernet backbone cable because it had historically a greater
transmission length and noise rejection characteristics. This type of coaxial cable is frequently referred to
as thicknet. As its nickname suggests, this type of cable, because of its thickness, can be too rigid to install
easily in some situations.
The rule of thumb is: "the more difficult the network media is to install, the more expensive it is to install."
Coaxial cable is more expensive to install than twisted-pair cable. Thicknet cable is almost never used
anymore, except for special purpose installations.
In the past, coaxial cable with an outside diameter of only .35 cm (sometimes referred to as thinnet) was
used in Ethernet networks. It was especially useful for cable installations that required the cable to make
many twists and turns. Since it was easier to install, it was also cheaper to install. This led some people to
refer to it as cheaper net. However, because the outer copper or metallic braid in coaxial cable comprises
half the electrical circuit, special care must be taken to ensure that it is properly grounded. This is done by
ensuring that there is a solid electrical connection at both ends of the cable. Frequently, installers fail to do
this. As a result, poor shield connection is one of the biggest sources of connection problems in the
installation of coaxial cable. Connection problems result in electrical noise that interferes with signal
transmittal on the networking media. It is for this reason that, despite its small diameter, thinnet is no
longer commonly used in Ethernet networks.
Optical fiber
Fiber-optic cable is a networking medium capable of conducting modulated light transmissions.
Compared to other networking media, it is more expensive; however, it is not susceptible to
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electromagnetic interference and is capable of higher data rates than any of the other types of networking
media discussed here. Fiber-optic cable does not carry electrical impulses, as other forms of networking
media that employ copper wire do. Instead, signals that represent bits are converted into beams of light.
Even though light is an electromagnetic wave, light in fibers is not considered wireless because the
electromagnetic waves are guided in the optical fiber. The term wireless is reserved for radiated, or
unguided, electromagnetic waves. Fiber-optic communication is rooted in a number of inventions made in
the 19th century. It was not until the 1960s, when solid-state laser light sources and high-quality
impurity-free glasses were introduced, that fiber-optic communication became practical. Its use on a
widespread basis was pioneered by telephone companies, who saw its benefits for long-distance
communication.
Fiber-optic cable used for networking consists of two fibers encased in separate sheaths. If viewed in cross
section, you would see that each optical fiber is surrounded by layers of protective buffer material, usually
a plastic such as Kevlar, and an outer jacket. The outer jacket provides protection for the entire cable.
Usually made of plastic, it conforms to appropriate fire and building codes. The purpose of the Kevlar is to
furnish additional cushioning and protection for the fragile hair-thin glass fibers. Wherever buried fiber-
optic cables are required by codes, a stainless steel wire is sometimes included for added strength.
The light-guiding parts of an optical fiber are called the core and the cladding. The core is usually very
pure glass with a high index of refraction. When the core glass is surrounded by a cladding layer of glass
or plastic with a low index of refraction, light can be trapped in the fiber core. This process is called total
internal reflection, and it allows the optical fiber to act like a light pipe, guiding light for tremendous
distances, even around bends.
3.2. Bandwidth and Length Limitations

Bandwidth varies depending upon the type of media as well as the LAN and WAN technologies used.
The physics of the media account for some of the difference. Signals travel through twisted- pair
copper wire, coaxial cable, optical fiber, and air. The physical differences in the ways signals travel
result in fundamental limitations on the information-carrying capacity of a given medium.
For example, current understanding of the physics of unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) copper cable puts
the theoretical bandwidth limit at over one gigabit per second (Gbps). However, in actual practice, the
bandwidth is determined by the use of 10BASE-T, 100BASE-TX, or 1000BASE-TX Ethernet. In other
words, the actual bandwidth is determined by the signaling methods, network interface cards (NICs),
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and other items of network equipment

The table below shows some common networking media types along with the limits on distance and
bandwidth when using the indicated networking technology.
Max. Max.
Media Type Theoretical Theoretical Distance
Bandwidth
50 ohm coaxial cable (Thin) 10 Mbps 200 meters
50 Ohm coaxial cable (Thick) 10 Mbps 500 meters
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)(10
Base-T 10 Mbps 100 meters
Ethernet)
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)(100 10 Mbps 100 meters

Base-
TX Ethernet)
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)(1000
Base-TX Ethernet) 1000 Mbps 100 meters
1000 Mbps 500 meters

Single mode Optical Fiber (1000 Base -
LX) Ethernet
Multi mode Optical Fiber (1000 Base -FX) 100 Mbps 2000 meters
Ethernet
2.9 Cable Specifications

Cables have different specifications and expectations pertaining to performance:
• What speeds for data transmission can be achieved using a particular type of cable? The speed of
bit transmission through the cable is extremely important. The speed of transmission is affected by the
kind of conduit used.
• What kind of transmission is being considered? Will the transmissions be digital or will they be
analog- based? Digital or baseband transmission and analog-based or broadband transmission are the
two choices.
• How far can a signal travel through a particular type of cable before attenuation of that signal
becomes a concern? In other words, will the signal become so degraded that the recipient device might not
be able to accurately receive and interpret the signal by the time the signal reaches that device? The
distance the signal travels through the cable directly affects attenuation of the signal. Degradation of the
signal is directly related to the distance the signal travels and the type of cable used.
Some examples of Ethernet specifications which relate to cable type include:
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• 10BASE-T
• 10BASE5
• 10BASE2
10BASE-T refers to the speed of transmission at 10 Mbps. The type of transmission is baseband, or digitally
interpreted. The T stands for twisted pair.
10BASE5 refers to the speed of transmission at 10 Mbps. The type of transmission is baseband, or digitally
interpreted. The 5 represents the capability of the cable to allow the signal to travel for approximately
500 meters before attenuation could disrupt the ability of the receiver to appropriately interpret the
signal being received. 10BASE5 is often referred to as Thicknet. Thicknet is actually a type of network,
while 10BASE5 is the cabling used in that network.
10BASE2 refers to the speed of transmission at 10 Mbps. The type of transmission is baseband, or digitally
interpreted. The 2, in 10BASE2, represents the capability of the cable to allow the signal to travel for
approximately 200 meters, before attenuation could disrupt the ability of the receiver to appropriately
interpret the signal being received. 10BASE2 is often referred to as Thinnet. Thinnet is actually a type of
network, while 10BASE2 is the cabling used in that network.
3.10. Wireless Media

 Radio, satellite transmissions, and infrared light are all different forms of electromagnetic waves
that are used to transmit data
 Technically speaking—in wireless transmissions, space is the medium
 Note in the following figure how each source occupies a different set of frequencies
Band Range Propagation Application
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VLF 3–30 KHz Ground Long-range radio navigation
LF 30–300 KHz Ground Radio beacons and

navigational locators
MF 300 KHz–3 MHz Sky AM radio
HF 3–30 MHz Sky Citizens band (CB),

ship/aircraft communication
VHF 30–300 MHz Sky and LOS VHF TV, FM radio
UHF 300 MHz–3 GHz Line-of-sight UHF TV, cellular phones,

paging, satellite
SHF 3–30 GHz Line-of-sight Satellite

communication
EHF 30–300 GHz Line-of-sight Long-range radio

navigation
Terrestrial Microwave Transmission

 Land-based, line-of-sight transmission
 Approximately 20-30 miles between towers
 Transmits data at hundreds of millions of bits per second
 Signals will not pass through solid objects
 Popular with telephone companies and business to business transmission
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Satellite Microwave Transmission

 Similar to terrestrial microwave except the signal travels from a ground station on earth to a
satellite and back to another ground station
 Can also transmit signals from one satellite to another
 Satellites can be classified by how far out into orbit each one is (LEO, MEO, GEO, and HEO).
 LEO (Low-Earth-Orbit)—100 to 1000 miles out

 Used for wireless e-mail, special mobile telephones, pagers, spying, videoconferencing
 MEO (Middle-Earth-Orbit)—1000 to 22,300 miles
 Used for GPS (global positioning systems) and government
 GEO (Geosynchronous-Earth-Orbit)—22,300 miles
– Always over the same position on earth (and always over the equator)
– Used for weather, television, government operations
 HEO (Highly Elliptical Earth orbit)—satellite follows an elliptical orbit
– Used by the military for spying and by scientific organizations for photographing celestial
bodies
 Satellite microwave can also be classified by its configuration:
– Bulk carrier configuration
– Multiplexed configuration
 Single-user earth station configuration (e.g. VSAT)
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Chapter Four
Ethernet LAN
 The LAN market has several technologies such as
+ Ethernet,
+ Token Ring,
+ Token Bus,
+ FDDI, and
+ ATM LAN.
 Some of these technologies survived for a while, but Ethernet is by far the dominant
technology.
 The term Ethernet refers to the family of local-area network (LAN) products covered by
the IEEE 802.3 standard that defines what is commonly known as the CSMA/CD
protocol.
 Ethernet runs on the data link and physical layer of the OSI reference model.
+ Ethernet in the LLC handles framing, flow control, and error control.
+ The MAC defines the frame format and the mac addressing
Data link layer

+ From the network layer the data link layer will get packets and encapsulates the packet into
frame.
+ The frame format is shown below
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 Preamble. The first field of the 802.3 frame contains 7 bytes (56 bits) of alternating Os and 1s that
alerts the receiving system to the coming frame and enables it to synchronize its input timing. The
pattern provides only an alert and a timing pulse. The 56-bit pattern allows the stations to miss
some bits at the beginning of the frame. The preamble is actually added at the physical layer and
is not (formally) part of the frame.
 Start frame delimiter (SFD). The second field (l byte: 10101011) signals the beginning of the frame.
+ The SFD warns the station or stations that this is the last chance for synchronization. The
last 2 bits is 11 and alerts the receiver that the next field is the destination address.
 Destination MAC address (DA). The DA field is 6 bytes and contains the physical address of the
destination station or stations to receive the packet. We will discuss addressing shortly.
 Source MAC address (SA). The SA field is also 6 bytes and contains the physical address of the
sender of the packet. We will discuss addressing shortly.
 Length or type. This field is defined as a type field or length field. The original Ethernet used this
field as the type field to define the upper-layer protocol using the MAC frame. The IEEE standard
used it as the length field to define the number of bytes in the data field. Both uses are common
today.
 Data. This field carries data encapsulated from the upper-layer protocols. It is a minimum of 46
and a maximum of 1500 bytes, as we will see later. CRC. The last field contains error detection
information, in this case a CRC-32
 CRC. The last field contains error detection information, in this case a CRC-32
Frame length: Minimum: 64 bytes (512 bits) Maximum: 1518 bytes (12,144 bits)
Mac Address
+ Network Addressing
(a) MAC address: in the data link layer
(b) IP address: in the network layer
 MAC
+ is a 6 byte long address.
+ MAC address allocation administered by IEEE
+ manufacturer buys portion of MAC address space (to assure uniqueness)
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Ethernet on the Physical medium

 Ethernet uses the CSMA/CD algorithm to send bits through the physical medium.
+ The computer doesn‘t transmit if it senses that some other computer is transmitting, that is,
carrier sense
+ transmitting computer aborts when it senses that another computer is transmitting, that is,
collision detection.
+ Before attempting a retransmission, adapter waits a random time, that is, random access
CSMA/CD Algorithm
1. Adaptor receives datagram from net layer & creates frame
2. If adapter senses channel idle, it starts to transmit frame. If it senses channel busy, waits until
channel idle and then transmits
3. If adapter transmits entire frame without detecting another transmission, the adapter is done with
frame !
4. If adapter detects another transmission while transmitting, aborts and sends jam signal
5. After aborting, adapter enters exponential back off: after the mth collision, adapter chooses a K at
random from {0,1,2,…,2m-1}. Adapter waits K· 512 bit times and returns to Step 2
LAN HARDWARE
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Repeater
 Repeaters used to strengthen signals over long distances
+ Operates at physical layer (bit level)
+ The purpose of a repeater is regenerate and retime network signals at the bit level to
allow them to travel a longer distance on the media.
+ Does not connect two LANs (only two segments in the same network).
 Should be placed in a precise point on the link.
 A repeater connects segments of a LAN.

 A repeater forwards every frame; it has no filtering capability.
 A repeater is a regenerator, not an amplifier.
 The purpose of a hub is to regenerate and retime network signals. This is done at the bit level to a
large number of hosts
 Hub is also known as a multi-port repeater (number of cables larger and number of hosts).
 The more data hub passes, the slower the connection
Reasons for using hubs

 Create a central connection point for the wiring media
 Increase the reliability of the network:
 The reliability of the network is increased by allowing any single cable to fail without disrupting
the entire network.
Passive hubs
 Combines the signals of a network segments.
 Do not regenerate bits or signal processing , so they do not extend a cable's length, they only allow
two or more hosts to connect to the same cable segment.
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 Reduce cabling signal to half.

Active Hub
 Most modern hubs are active; they take energy from a power supply to regenerate network signals.
 Like passive but have electronic components for regentation (distance can be increased)
 Amplify noise with signals
 Much expensive than passive.
Intelligent Hub
 Signal regeneration +perform some network management and path selection

 Switching chooses only the port where the signal to be sent.
BRIDGE
 Can regenerate the signal +check MAC address
 A bridge is a Layer 2 device designed to connect two LAN segments.
 The purpose of a bridge is to filter traffic on a LAN, to keep local traffic local, yet allow
connectivity to other parts (segments) of the LAN for traffic that has been directed there.
 A bridge has a table used in filtering decisions.
 A bridge does not change the physical (MAC) addresses in a frame.
SWITCH
 A switch is a Layer 2 device just as a bridge is. In fact a switch is called a multi-port bridge (more
efficient)
 The difference between the hub and switch is that switches make decisions based on MAC
addresses.
 Because of the decisions that switches make, they make a LAN much more efficient.
 They do this by "switching" data only out the port to which the proper host is connected.
 Types: Store and Forward (complete), Cut through (until des. Address is received)
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Router
 The purpose of a router is to examine incoming packets (Layer 3 data), choose the best path for
them through the network, and then switch them to the proper outgoing port.
 Hardware (network server, computer, special devices, interfaces (Token Ring, Ethernet, T1, frame
Relay, ATM))
 Software (Operating System, Routing Protocol, management Software)
 Routers are the most important traffic-regulating devices on large networks.
Chapter Four
IP Addressing
Ip Address
 An IP address is a logical software address at the network layer that identify a particular
computer from a LAN.
 An IP address is a 32 bit address.
 An IP address is notified as
+ Binary Notation for eg:: 01110101 10010101 00011101 11101010
+ Dotted Decimal Notation: 128.11.3.31
+ Hexadecimal notation : 0x75951DEA
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 Example : 1 Change the following IP address from binary notation to dotted-decimal notation and
hexa-decimal.
10000001 00001011 00001011 11101111
129.11.11.239
0X810B0BEF or 810B0BEF16
 Example 2: Find the error, if any, in the following IP address:
There are no leading zeroes in dotted-decimal notation (045).
 Example 3: Find the error, if any, in the following IP address: 75.45.301.14
In dotted-decimal notation, each number is less than or equal to 255; 301 is outside this range.
Occupation of the address space
 IP Address has two classes
+ Classless
– have two parts: subnet or prefix, and host.
+ Class full
– Addresses have three parts: network, subnet, and host.
 Class full IP address has Five types
 IP addressing defines three basic address classes
Range of Classes:
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 Example 5: How many network and host address we can address on the class A IP Address?
In class A, the 1st bit defines the class. With 31 bits, the seven bits define the network address hence we
can have network address and the remaining bits for the host
address.
Two host address are
+ All zeros are 0.0.0.0 to designate an invalid address and
+ 255.255.55.255 to designate a broadcast IP Address
 Example 6: How many network and host address we can address on the class C IP Address?
In class A, the 1st bit defines the class. The remaining 31 bits are available for the address. With 31 bits,
the seven bits define the network address hence we can have network address
and the remaining bits for the host address.
Two host address are
+ All zeros are 0.0.0.0 to designate an invalid address and
+ 255.255.55.255 to designate a broadcast IP Address
 Example 7:
a. Find the class of the address:
00000001 00001011 00001011 11101111
The first bit is 0. This is a class A address
b. Find the class of the address:
11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111
The first bit is 1 followed by 1 followed by 0. This is a class A address
 Example 8
a. Find the class of the address:
00000001 00001011 00001011 11101111
The first bit is 0. This is a class A address
11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111
The first bit is 1 followed by 1 followed by 0. This is a class A address .
 Example 9: a. Find the class of the address:
227.12.14.87
The first byte is 227 (between 224 and 239); the class is D.
193.14.56.22
The first byte is 193 (between 192 and 223); the class is C.
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 Example 10: Design a network and assign a class A ip address starting from 10.0.0.0 for 20 computers
each. number of host each = 20
1st computer ip address = 10.0.0.1
2nd computer ip address= 10.0.0.2
…
The 20 IP address=10.0.0.20
th
 Class D addresses are used for multicasting; there is only one block in this class.
 Class E addresses are reserved for special purposes; most of the block is wasted.
 Given the network address, we can find the class of the address, the block, and the range of the
addresses in the block
 In classful addressing, the network address (the first address in the block) is the one that is assigned to
the organization.
 Example 11: Given the network address 17.0.0.0, find the class, the block, and the range of the
addresses.
The class is A because the first byte is between 0 and 127.
The block has a netid of 17.
The addresses range from 17.0.0.0 to 17.255.255.255.
Sub-netting a network
– Physical devices can be used to divide a network into smaller segments in order to increase the
network‘s efficiency.
– Network segments separated by routers are called subnets .
 Subnetting allows a single class network ID to be divided into smaller network IDs.
 Using these multiple smaller network IDs, the single network can be segmented into subnets, each
with a different network ID, also known as the subnet ID.
Structure of subnet masks
 Example:
 255.255.0.0 is a valid subnet mask.
 255.0.255.0 is not valid subnet mask.
 255.255.0.0 the first two numbers in the IP address identifies the network ID as .
Default subnet masks
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Determining local and remote hosts

 Identify the network ID of a host.
 Compare the network IDs of both hosts
+ If the network IDs match, the two hosts are on the same subnet.
+ If the network IDs do not match, then the hosts are on different subnets and a router is
required to transmit data between them.
 Consider two computers A and B with IP addresses of 192.168.1.100 and 192.168.2.100 and a subnet
mask of 255.255.0.0
IP Address Classes
 Determining local and remote hosts
 Local Host example

 Now consider computers A and D with the IP addresses 192.168.1.100 and 192.168.2.100 and a
subnet mask of 255.255.255.0. The network IDs of these computers do not match, as illustrated in
the following table. Therefore Computer A and Computer D are not on the same subnet.
Addressing guidelines
 The following guidelines should be considered when assigning an IP address for the network ID
and the host:
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 The first number in the Network ID cannot be 127. This ID number is reserved for testing
connections, such as the local loop-back.
 The numbers in the host ID cannot all be 255, as this address is used as an IP broadcast address.
 The host ID cannot be all zeros because this address is used to denote a network ID.
 The host ID must be unique to the local network ID.
Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR)
 IP address classes provide a simple method for differentiating local hosts from remote hosts and for
locating the router to a remote host. However, this method permits very few variations in network
sizes, which has led to such problems as inappropriately assigning IP addresses to networks. To
overcome these limitations, a method known as Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) was
developed for breaking up networks into a larger variety of sizes.
 Limitations of Class based IP Addressing
– Class based IP addressing involved three major limitations:
– The number of available address in the class B address space was near depletion.
– The Internet routing tables were nearly full.
– All available IP addresses would be eventually assigned.
 CIDR notation
– The IP addresses in CIDR notation are known by the number of bits from the IP address that
make up the network ID and are represented as /x.
– For example, 10.217.123.7/20 specifies that its subnet mask has 20 contiguous 1s.
Consequently the 12 bits remaining from the original 32 must be 0s.
 To calculate the network ID :
– Convert the IP address to binary format.
– Convert the subnet mask to binary format.
– ANDing IP address with subnet mask.
 Calculating the Network ID
– Consider the IP address. 10.217.123.7 and its associated subnet mask 255.248.0.0. The
following illustrates the calculation of the network ID in binary notations and the conversion
of both the IP address and subnet mask to binary notation.
IP Address allocation using CIDR

 CIDR optimizes the allocation of IP addresses through the use of super netting and subletting.
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 Supernettting is a procedure that combines multiple addresses to form a single network ID.
 Subnetting divides a large network into multiple subnets.
 The number of hosts is calculated as 2n – 2 Where; (n) is the number of (0s).
 The 2 addresses are subtracted since they are the reserved IP addresses that cannot be allocated
to any host .
 Reserved Host Ids:
– The values of the bits in a host ID cannot be all 0s or 1s
– The host ID with the value 0 is used to denote a network ID.
– The host ID consisting of all 1s is used as an IP broadcast address.
 The following table shows the possible host values for a specific number of non zero bits in the
CIDR notation of an IP address.
 To create the subnetwork structure:

 host bits must be reassigned as network bits.
 This is often referred to as ‗borrowing‘ bits.
 The starting point for this process is always the leftmost host bit, the one closest to the last
network octet.
 The subnet field and the host field are created from the original host portion of the major IP
address.
 This is done by assigning bits from the host portion to the original network portion of the address.
To create the subnetwork structure:
 Whichever class of address needs to be subnetted, the following rules are the same:
 Total subnets = 2 to the power of the bits borrowed.
 Total hosts= 2 to the power of the bits remaining.
 Usable subnets = 2 to the power of the bits borrowed minus 2.
 Usable hosts= 2 to the power of the bits remaining minus 2.
 Example: An Organization has a Class C network Address 192.168.10.0. The company needs to
create a Subnetting scheme to provide 5 subnets with at least 25 hosts.
Use the rule to calculate number of subnets and number of hosts.
for 5 subnets 3 bits is required .
n 3
Total subnets using 3 bits = 2 – 2= 2 – 2 = 8 – 2 = 6
For class C From 8 bits 3 bits is used for subnets while the remaining 5 bits is used for hosts/ Number of
n 5
Hosts = 2 – 2 = 2 – 2 = 30.
00000000 = 0 01000000 = 64
00100000 = 32 01100000 = 96
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10000000 = 128 11000000 = 192

10100000 = 160 11100000 = 224
Subnetwork Subnetwork ID Host Range Broadcast ID
#
1 192.168.10.0 .1 to .30 192.168.10.31
2 192.168.10.32 .33 to .62 192.168.10.63
3 192.168.10.64 .65 to .94 192.168.10.95

4 192.168.10.96 .97 to .126 192.168.10.127
5 192.168.10.128 . 129 to .158 192.168.10.160

6 192.168.10.160 . 161 to .190 192.168.10.191
7 192.168.10.192 . 193 to .222 192.168.10.223

8 192.168.10.224 .225 to 254 192.168.10.225
 How many useable hosts are on each subnet when the Network ID is 150.150 and the subnet mask is
255.255.192.0?
+ Network ID is=15.15
+ Subnet mask is 255.255. 192.0
+ From the network id one can see that the class is CLASS B SO 16 bit is
reserved for the host while the rest is reserved for host address.
Chapter Five
Reliability in the Data Link and Network Layer
Reliability
 Data can be corrupted during transmission.
 Hence network service require that errors be detected and corrected
 Networks must be able to transfer data from one device to another with complete accuracy.
 Data can be corrupted during transmission.
 For reliable communication, errors must be detected and corrected.
 Error detection and correction are implemented either at the data link layer or the transport
layer of the OSI model.
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Single bit Error

 Single bit errors refers to either the flipping of bits from zero to one or one to zero.
 Assuming data is sent at 1Mbps then each bit lasts only 1/1,000,000 sec. or 1 μs.
 For a single-bit to occur, the noise must have a duration of only 1 μ s, which is very rare.
Burst Error
 The term burst error means that two or more bits in the data unit have changed.
 Burst Error can be
1. Multiple bit error
2. Multiple byte error
 The Multiple bit error happens when two or more bits in the data unit sent have changed while
receiving.
 The Multiple byte error happens when two or more consecutive bits in the data unit sent have
changed while receiving.
 Burst error is most likely to happen in serial transmission since the duration of noise is normally
longer than the duration of a bit.
 The number of bits affected depends on the data rate and duration of noise.
 Example:
 If data is sent at rate = 1Kbps then a noise of 1/100 sec can affect 10 bits.(1/100*1000 .
 If same data is sent at rate = 1Mbps then a noise of 1/100 sec can affect 10,000
bits.(1/100*106).
Error Detection
 Error detection means to decide whether the received data is correct or not without having a copy
of the original message.
 Error detection uses the concept of redundancy, which means adding extra bits for detecting
errors at the destination.
Redundancy Check
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 Four types of redundancy check
VRC
 VRC OR Vertical Redundancy Check adds either 1 to form
1. Even parity
2. Odd Parity
 Example if the bits 01100100 is sent
1. 1 is added to form Even Parity 101100100
2. While 0 is added to form Odd Parity 001100100
VRC Even Parity Checker

 It can detect single bit error because the received bit must be even.
 It can not detect burst errors.
Longitudinal Redundancy Check (LRC )
 Add a redundant alternating 0s and 1s to the send bytes.
 For example the byte 10101010 is added to the following messages.
 LRC in the parallel transmission of bits. The receiver will check if the fifth received byte is
10101010
 Given a k-bit frame or message, the transmitter generates an n-bit sequence, known as a frame
check sequence (FCS), so that the resulting frame, consisting of (k+n) bits, is exactly divisible by
some predetermined number.
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 The receiver then divides the incoming frame by the same number and, if there is no remainder,
assumes that there was no error.
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
 Example: Let the data to be sent be 1001 and let the divisor be 1011.
 STEP ONE: divide 1001 by 1101 as follows by adding three extra zeros.
+ We make added three bits to make the quotient of the same length as the divider
 STEP TWO: ADD the reminder to the last zero bits of the data to be sent.
 So the data sent is
+ 10001110
 In the receiver side assume the following scenario
1. The sent data has a bit error on the third bit
2. The sent data has no error
 No bit error the received frame will be 1001110 . No divide this with the known divisor 1011.
+ The remainder will be 000
+ So the frame has no ERROR
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2. A bit error at the third bit the received frame will be 1000110. No divide this with the known divisor
1011.
+ The remainder will be 011
+ So the frame is ERROR
The divisor in a cyclic code is normally called the generator polynomial or simply the generator.
The most common divisors known to the world are shown below:
Error Correction
ChuckSUM
 Error Correction can be handled in two ways:
1. Receiver can have the sender retransmit the entire data unit.
2. The receiver can use an error-correcting code, which automatically corrects certain errors
Hamming Code
 In the late 1940‘s Richard Hamming recognized that the further evolution of computers required
greater reliability, in particular the ability to not only detect errors, but correct them. His search
for error-correcting codes led to the Hamming Codes, perfect 1-error correcting codes, and the
extended Hamming Codes, 1-error correcting and 2-error detecting codes.
 Let us find the Hamming distance between two pairs of words.
 The Hamming distance d(000, 011) is 2 because
 The Hamming distance d(10101, 11110) is 3 because
 Hamming Codes are still widely used in computing, telecommunication, and other applications.
Hamming Codes also applied in
+ Data compression
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+ Some solutions to the popular puzzle The Hat Game

+ Block Turbo Codes
 The Hamming distance between two words is the number of differences between corresponding
bits.
 The minimum Hamming distance of a code word is the smallest Hamming distance between all
possible pairs in a set of words.
 Find the minimum Hamming distance of the coding scheme in the Table .
 The minimum Hamming distance of a code word is the smallest Hamming distance between all
possible pairs in a set of words.
 Find the minimum Hamming distance of the coding scheme in the Table .
 Example 1: Find the minimum Hamming distance of the coding word

We first find all the Hamming distances {00000,01011, 10101,11110}.
 The dmin in this case is 3.

 To guarantee the detection of up to s errors in all cases, the minimum Hamming distance in a
block code must be dmin = s + 1.
1. For the code word {000, 011, 101, 110} how many errors can we detect
+ The dmin in this case is 2.
+ Hence we can detect upto 3-1= 2 errors
2. For the code word {00000,01011, 10101,11110} how many errors can we detect?
+ The d
min
in this case is 3.
+Hence we can detect upto 3=S-1= 4 errors
 To guarantee correction of up to t errors in all cases, the minimum Hamming distance in a block code
must be dmin = 2t + 1.
 For the code word {000, 011, 101, 110} how many errors can we correct
+ The dmin in this case is 2.
+ Hence we can correct up to
+ Hence we cant correct any error with the above codeword
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Review Questions
1. A network administrator is troubleshooting connectivity issues on a server. Using a
tester, the administrator notices that the signals generated by the server NIC are
distorted and not usable. In which layer of the OSI model is the error categorized?
a) presentation layer c) physical layer*
b) network layer d) data link layer
2. What is a characteristic of UTP cabling?
a) cancellation* c) cladding
b) immunity to electrical d) woven copper braid or
hazards metallic foil
3. What are two characteristics of fiber-optic cable? (Choose two.)
a) It is not affected by EMI or RFI.*
b) Each pair of cables is wrapped in metallic foil.
c) It combines the technique of cancellation, shielding, and twisting to
protect data.
d) It typically contains 4 pairs of fiber-optic wires.
4. What will a host on an Ethernet network do if it receives a frame with a destination
MAC address that does not match its own MAC address?
a) It will discard the frame.*
b) It will forward the frame to the next host.
c) It will remove the frame from the media.
d) It will strip off the data-link frame to check the destination IP address.
5. What are the services provided by the OSI network layer?
a) performing error detection
b) routing packets toward the destination*
c) placement of frames on the media
d) collision detection
6. Which statement is true about variable-length subnet masking?
a) Each subnet is the same size.
b) The size of each subnet may be different, depending on requirements.*
c) Subnets may only be subnetted one additional time.
d) Bits are returned, rather than borrowed, to create additional subnets.
7. We add r redundant bits to each block to make the length n = k +r. The resulting
n-bit blocks are called _________
a) Datawords b) blockwords
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c) codewords d) none of the above

8. If the Hamming distance between a dataword and the corresponding codeword is
three, there are _____ bits in error.
a) 3 c) 5
b) 4 d) none of the above
9. What is the minimum number of wires needed to send data over it serial communication link
layer?
a) 1 a) 3
b) 2 b) 4
10. Which data communication method is used to send data over a serial communication
link?
a) Simplex c) full duplex
b) half duplex c) all of these
11. Which of the following statements is incorrect?
a) teleprocessing combing telecommunication and DP techniques in online
activities.
b) Multiplexers are designed to accept data from several I/O devices and transmit a
unified stream of data on one communication line.
c) a half-duplex line is a communication line in which data can move in two
directions, but not the same time.
d) batch processing is the preferred processing mode for telecommunication
operations.
12. Q.6 Which of the following is an example of a bounded medium?
a) coaxial cable c) fiber optic cable
b) wave guide d) all of these
13. Q.7 Coaxial cable has conductors with….
a) a common axis c) the same diameter
b) equal resistance d) none of these
14. What is the main difference between synchronous and asynchronous transmission?
a) band width required is different.
b) pulse height is different.
e) clocking is derived from the data in synchronous transmission.
c) clocking is mixed with data in asynchronous transmission.
15. The transmission signal coding method for T, the carrier is called…..
a) NRZ c) Manchester
b) Bipolar d) Binary
16. In a synchronous modem, the digital-to-analog converter sends a signal to the……
47 Wello University
a) transmission line c) terminal

b) modulator d) equalizer
17. How much power (approximately) a light-emitting diode can couple into an optical
fiber?
a) 1 picowatt c) 10 milliwatts
b) 100 microwatts d) 10 watts
18. Avalanche photodiode receiver can detect bits of transmitted data by receiving.
a) Photon c) 10 photons
b) 200 photons d) 100 photons
19. The loss in signal power as light travels down the fiber is called.
a) Propagation c) scattering
b) attenuation d) absorption
20. Multiple repeaters in communication satellites are called.
a) detector c) transponders
b) modulator d) stations
21. Many low-speed channels are interwove into one high-speed transmission by…..
a) time-division multiplexer c) both (A) and (B)
b) frequency-division d) none of these
multiplexer
22. A central computer surrounded by one or more satellite computers is called.
a) bus network c) star network
b) ring network d) none of these
23. The most flexibility how devices are wired together is provided by…
a) bust networks c) star networks
b) ring networks d) T-switched networks
24. A network that requires human intervention to route signals is called.
a) bus network c) star network
b) ring network d) T-switched network
25. A packet-switching network
a) Uses only UDP
b) can reduce the cost of using an information utility
c) allows communication channels to be shared among more than one user
d) both (B) and (C)
26. Local area network can transmit….
a) faster than telecommunications over public telephone lines.
b) slower than telecommunications over public telephone lines.
c) using twisted-pair wiring or coaxial cables
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d) both (A) and (C)

27. A local area network….
a) connects personal computers.
b) cannot become bogged down like a mainframe if the load is too high..
c) both (A) and (B)
d) none of these
28. What is used to identify whether a data word has an odd or even number of 1's?
a) Cary bit d) Sign bit
b) Zero bit e) None of these
c) Parity bit
29. In.......topology, network comments are connected by only one cable
a) Star d) Mesh
b) Ring e) Mixed
c) Bus
30. On the large scale, geographically spreaded LAN's office are connected by using
a) CAN d) WAN
b) LAN e) TAN
c) DAN
31. Many low-speed channels are interwove into one high-speed transmission by…..
a) time-division multiplexer
b) frequency-division multiplexer
c) both (A) and (B)
d) none of these
32. 105 In single-mode fiber, a large fraction of the power is propagated in the……
a. sheath
b. core
c. cladding
d. air
33. Zero Code Suppression is a technique that …
a) allows data to flow on a digital line
b) ensures that each byte has at least one-mark bit
c) it is the latest clear channel encoding technique developed by Bell Laboratories
d) provides a clear channel transmission capability, allowing 64 kbps data
transmission on a voice4 channel
34. They key to the operation of ADPCM is….
a) fast sampling
b) high amplitude
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c) adaptive predictor
d) digitization
35. Higher the rate an analog signal is sampled
a) smaller the difference between sampled amplitudes
b) larger the difference between sampled amplitudes
c) greater the noise level
d) more bits required to represent the sample
36. A half-duplex communication channel permits information to travel…
a) both ways at once
b) both ways, but not at once
c) one direction only
d) at timed intervals
37. An error detecting code is the remainder resulting from dividing the bits to be checked
by a predetermined binary number, is called.
a) cyclic redundancy check
b) checksum
c) error detecting code
d) error rate
38. Binary codes are sometimes transformed in modems into.
a) Hexadecimal
b) Huffman codes
c) Gray code
d) Complementary codes
39. Modulation is…….
a) Varying of some parameter of a carrier, such as its amplitude to transmit
information.
b) Utilization of a single transmission channel to carrying multiple signals.
c) Transmission of pulses in DC form over a copper wire.
d) None of these.
40. Multiplexing is….
a) The process of increasing bandwidth on a channel.
b) A technique that enables more than one data source to share the use of a
common line.
c) Mailing letters at the Post Office.
d) The capability to share frequency by time.
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41. Which of the following address belongs class A?

a) 121.12.12.248
b) 130.12.12.248
c) 128.12.12.248
d) 129.12.12.248
42. Which of the following is correct IPv4 address?
a) 124.201.3.1.52
b) 01.200.128.123
c) 300.142.210.64
d) 10110011.32.16.8
e) 128.64.0.0
43. Which of the following cannot be used as a medium for 802.3 ethernet?
a) A thin coaxial cable
b) A twisted pair cable
c) A microwave link
d) A fiber optical cable
44. What IP address class allocates 8 bits for the host identification part?
a) Class A
b) Class B
c) Class C
d) Class D
45. On a simplex data link, which of the following is a possible error recovery technique?
a) Backward error correction (BEC)
b) The use of hamming codes
c) Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ)
d) Downward error correction (DEC)
46. Which of the statement is correct with regard to Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) and
its variants?
a) Statistical TDM makes inefficient use of the bandwidth only if the arrival pattern
of the data stream is probabilistic.
b) TDM requires the transmitter and receiver to be synchronized periodically.
c) TDM performs efficiently if the arrival pattern of the data stream is probabilistic.
d) Statistical TDM is efficient if the data stream is deterministic.
47. A _________________ is a device that forwards packets between networks by
processing the routing information included in the packet.
a) Bridge c) Router
b) Firewall d) Hub
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48. The five components that make up a data communications system are the
message, sender, receiver, medium, and
a) Protocol c) Code
b) Connecting device d) Both a and b
49. Two computers connected by an Ethernet hub are
a) LAN Topology c) MAN Topology
b) WAN Topology d) WAN Topology
ANSWER KEY
1. c
2. a
3. a
4. a
5. b
6. b
7. c
8. a
9. b
10. c
11. d
12. d
13. a
14. e
15. b
16. d
17. b
18. b
19. b
20. c
21. a
22. c
23. a
24. d
25. d
26. d
27. a
28. c
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29. c
30. d
31. a
32. c
33. d
34. c
35. a
36. b
37. a
38. c
39. a
40. b
41. a
42. e
43. c
44. c
45. b
46. b
47. d
48. a
49. a
Questions on the Web
https://examradar.com/data-communication-networking-mcqs-set-1/
53 Wello University

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Data Communication and Computer

Networks Module December 25, 2022

1.2. Data communications Components

1.3. Transmission Mode

Simplex Half-duplex Full-duplex

1.3.2. Half- Duplex

1.4.1. Parallel Transmission

Serial Par Synchronous

1.4.2. Serial Transmission

Receiv The eight bits 0

We need eight lines Sender

Two ways of Serial transmissions

1.4.2.2. Synchronous Transmission

1.5. Modulation Scheme

1.5.1. Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

1.7. Categories of Networks

Figure 1.10 An isolated LAN connecting 12 computers to a hub in a closet

Figure 1.11 WANs: a WAN and a point-to-point WAN

Figure : Point-to-point line configuration

Figure : Multipoint line configuration

2.6. Standards Organizations

2.7. Open System Interconnection (OSI)

The seven Layers of the OSI Reference Model

Layer 5: The Session Layer

3.1.1. Types of Media

Shielded twisted-pair cable (STP)

Unshielded twisted-pair cable (UTP)

3.2. Bandwidth and Length Limitations

and other items of network equipment

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)(100 10 Mbps 100 meters

1000 Mbps 500 meters

2.9 Cable Specifications

Some examples of Ethernet specifications which relate to cable type include:

3.10. Wireless Media

Band Range Propagation Application

VLF 3–30 KHz Ground Long-range radio navigation

LF 30–300 KHz Ground Radio beacons and

MF 300 KHz–3 MHz Sky AM radio

HF 3–30 MHz Sky Citizens band (CB),

VHF 30–300 MHz Sky and LOS VHF TV, FM radio

UHF 300 MHz–3 GHz Line-of-sight UHF TV, cellular phones,

SHF 3–30 GHz Line-of-sight Satellite

EHF 30–300 GHz Line-of-sight Long-range radio

Terrestrial Microwave Transmission

Satellite Microwave Transmission

 LEO (Low-Earth-Orbit)—100 to 1000 miles out

Data link layer

Ethernet on the Physical medium

 A repeater connects segments of a LAN.

Reasons for using hubs

 Reduce cabling signal to half.

 Signal regeneration +perform some network management and path selection

 A bridge does not change the physical (MAC) addresses in a frame.

10000001 00001011 00001011 11101111

 IP addressing defines three basic address classes

Determining local and remote hosts

Determining local and remote hosts

IP Address allocation using CIDR

 To create the subnetwork structure:

10000000 = 128 11000000 = 192

3 192.168.10.64 .65 to .94 192.168.10.95

5 192.168.10.128 . 129 to .158 192.168.10.160

7 192.168.10.192 . 193 to .222 192.168.10.223

Single bit Error