Manufacturing Processes

(MSE – 881)

Dr. –Ing. Farhan Javaid

(farhan.javaid@scme.nust.edu.pk)
Office # 320 (SCME Building) +92-51-9085 5218
Sand Casting Production Sequence

© John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing

Desirable Mould Properties

1) Strength

2) Permeability

3) Thermal Strength

4) Collapsibility

5) Reusability
Desirable Mould Properties

(1) Strength— the mold’s ability to maintain its shape and resist erosion caused by the flow of
molten metal; it depends on grain shape, adhesive qualities of the binder, and other factors;

(2) permeability— capacity of the mold to allow hot air and gases from the casting operation to
pass through the voids in the sand;

(3) Thermal Stability— ability of the sand at the surface of the mold cavity to resist cracking
and buckling upon contact with the molten metal;

(4) collapsibility— refers to the ability to remove the sand from the casting during cleaning;

(5) reusability— can the sand from the broken mold be reused to make other molds?
Foundry Sand

➢ Silica (SiO2) or silica mixed with other minerals

➢ Good refractory properties - capacity to endure high temperatures

➢ Small grain size yields better surface finish on the cast part

➢ Large grain size is more permeable, allowing gases to escape

during pouring

➢ Irregular grain shapes strengthen molds due to interlocking,

compared to round grains

➢ Disadvantage: interlocking tends to reduce permeability

Facing Sand
Types of Sand Mold

➢ Green-sand molds - mixture of sand, clay, and water;

➢ “Green" means mold contains moisture at time of pouring

➢ Dry-sand mold - organic binders rather than clay

➢ And mold is baked to improve strength

➢ Skin-dried mold - drying mold cavity surface of a green-sand mold

to a depth of 10 to 25 mm, using torches or heating lamps
Green Sand Casting
Green Sand Casting
Binders Used with Foundry Sands

➢ Sand is held together by a mixture of water and bonding clay

➢ Typical mix: 90% sand, 3% water, and 7% clay

➢ Other bonding agents also used in sand molds:

➢ Organic resins (e g , phenolic resins)

➢ Inorganic binders (e g , sodium silicate and phosphate)

➢ Additives are sometimes combined with the mixture to increase

strength and/or permeability
Additives

Additives are the materials added to the sand mixture to develop some special properties in
moulding sand
Casting Defects

The defects in a casting may arise due to the defects in one or more of the
following:

➢ Fault in design of casting pattern

➢ Fault in design of mold and core

➢ Fault in design of gating system and riser

➢ Improper choice of molding sand

➢ Inadequate melting temperature and rate of pouring

Casting Defects: Mismatch

caused by a sidewise displacement of the mold cope relative to the drag, the result of
which is a step in the cast product at the parting line
Casting Defects: Misrun

A casting that has solidified before completely filling mold cavity

(1) Fluidity insufficient

(2) Low pouring temperature

(3) Pouring is done too slowly

(4) Cross-section of the Mold cavity is too thin

Casting Defects: Cold Shut

Two portions of metal flow together but there is a lack of fusion due to premature
freezing
Casting Defects: Cold Shot

Metal splatters during pouring and solid globules form and become entrapped in
casting
Casting Defects: Shrinkage Cavity

Depression in surface or internal void caused by solidification shrinkage that restricts

amount of molten metal available in last region to freeze.
Casting Defects: Pin Holes

also caused by release of gases during pouring, consist of many small gas cavities
formed at or slightly below the surface of the casting.

1) Low permeability

2) Poor venting

3) High moisture content of the sand mold

Casting Defects: Microporosity

caused by localized solidification shrinkage of the final molten metal in the dendritic
structure.
Casting Defects: Core Shift

is similar to mold shift, but it is the core that is displaced.

Casting Defects: Mold Crack

occurs when mold strength is insufficient, and a crack develops, into which liquid
metal can seep to form a ‘‘fin’’ on the final casting.
Casting Defects: Sand wash

An irregularity in the surface of the casting that results from erosion of the sand mold
during pouring, and the contour of the erosion is formed in the surface of the final
cast part
Foundry Inspection Methods

➢ Visual inspection to detect obvious defects such as misruns, cold shuts, and

severe surface flaws

➢ Dimensional measurements to ensure that tolerances have been met

➢ Metallurgical, chemical, physical, and other tests concerned with quality of cast

metal
Foundry Inspection Methods

Metallurgical tests include:

✓ pressure testing to locate leaks in the casting;

✓ radiographic methods, the use of fluorescent penetrants to detect

either surface or internal defects in the casting;

✓ mechanical testing to determine properties such as tensile strength

and hardness
Casting Techniques
Shell Molding

Casting process in which the mold is a thin shell of

sand held together by thermosetting resin binder

Figure 11.5 Steps in shell-molding: (1) a match-plate or cope-and-drag

metal pattern is heated and placed over a box containing sand mixed
with thermosetting resin.
Shell Molding

Figure 11.5 Steps in shell-molding: (2) box is inverted so

that sand and resin fall onto the hot pattern, causing a
layer of the mixture to partially cure on the surface to
form a hard shell; (3) box is repositioned so that loose
uncured particles drop away;
Shell Molding

Figure 11.5 Steps in shell-molding: (4) sand shell is heated

in oven for several minutes to complete curing; (5) shell
mold is stripped from the pattern;
Shell Molding

Figure 11.5 Steps in shell-molding: (6) two halves of the shell mold
are assembled, supported by sand or metal shot in a box, and
pouring is accomplished; (7) the finished casting with sprue
removed.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SU4_8T8Jt3I
Shell Molding; Pros & Cons

➢ Advantages of shell molding:

1. Smoother cavity surface permits easier flow of molten metal and
better surface finish

2. Good dimensional accuracy - machining often not required

3. Can be mechanized for mass production

➢ Disadvantages:

1. More expensive metal pattern

2. Difficult to justify for small quantities

Investment Casting

A pattern made of wax is coated with a refractory material to make

mold, after which wax is melted away prior to pouring molten
metal

➢ "Investment" comes from a less familiar definition of "invest" - "to

cover completely," which refers to coating of refractory material
around wax pattern
➢ It is a precision casting process - capable of producing castings of
high accuracy and intricate detail
Investment Casting

Figure 11.8 Steps in investment casting: (1) wax patterns are

produced, (2) several patterns are attached to a sprue to form
a pattern tree
Investment Casting

Figure 11.8 Steps in investment casting: (3) the pattern tree is coated
with a thin layer of refractory material, (4) the full mold is formed by
covering the coated tree with sufficient refractory material to make
it rigid
Investment Casting
Investment Casting

Figure 11.8 Steps in investment casting: (7) the mold is

broken away from the finished casting and the parts are
separated from the sprue

https://youtu.be/lcsEk-24YB8
Investment Casting
Investment Casting: Pros and Cons

➢ Advantages of investment casting:

1. Parts of great complexity and intricacy can be cast

2. Close dimensional control and good surface finish

3. Wax can usually be recovered for reuse

4. Additional machining is not normally required - this is a

net shape process

➢ Disadvantages

1. Many processing steps are required

2. Relatively expensive process

Permanent Mold Casting Processes

Permanent mould casting is a process for producing a large number of castings using
a single reusable mould.

✓ The casting process simply involves pouring molten metal into a mould where it
cools and solidifies. The mould is then opened, the casting removed, and the mould
is reused.

✓ The mould is made from a high-temperature metallic material, such as cast iron or
hot work die steel, which can withstand the repeated heating and cooling involved
with large volume production.
Permanent Mold Casting Processes

Uses a metal mold constructed of two sections designed for easy, precise opening
and closing

Figure 11.10 Steps in permanent mold casting: (1) mold is

preheated and coated
Permanent Mold Casting Processes

Figure 11.10 Steps in permanent mold casting: (2) cores (if used)
are inserted and mold is closed, (3) molten metal is poured into
the mold, where it solidifies.
Advantages and Limitations

➢ Advantages of permanent mold casting:

✓ Good dimensional control and surface finish

✓ More rapid solidification caused by the cold metal mold results in a finer
grain structure, so castings are stronger

➢ Limitations:

✓ Generally limited to metals of lower melting point

✓ Simpler part geometries compared to sand casting because of need to

open the mold

✓ High cost of mold

Applications of Permanent Mold Casting

➢ Due to high mold cost, process is best suited to high volume production and can

be automated accordingly

➢ Typical parts: automotive pistons, pump bodies, and certain castings for aircraft

and missiles

➢ Metals commonly cast: aluminum, magnesium, copper-base alloys, and cast iron
Die Casting

A permanent mold casting process in which molten metal is injected into mold
cavity under high pressure

✓ Pressure is maintained during solidification, then mold is opened, and part is

removed.

✓ Molds in this casting operation are called dies; hence the name die casting

✓ Use of high pressure to force metal into die cavity is what distinguishes this from
other permanent mold processes

✓ Automotive connecting rods, pistons, electronic enclosures, plumbing fittings.

tools, toys, machine components, various housings, and motors
Die Casting: The mold

➢ Usually made of tool steel or maraging steel

➢ Tungsten and molybdenum dies used to die

cast steel and cast iron

➢ It contains all the components of the gating

system

➢ Multi-cavity die are employed in manufacturing

industry to produce several castings with each An engine block with aluminium and
magnesium die castings
cycle
Die Casting: Examples
Die Casting
Die Casting: Pros & Cons
Pros: Disadvantages:

✓ High production rates possible; ❖ A large capital investment is required to set

✓ Good surface finish. up a die casting process.

✓ Excellent dimensional accuracy. ❖ The alloys used must have a low melting

✓ Cool metal mould gives fast solidification, point (Zn, Al, Mg, Cu etc).

leading to a fine grain structure. ❖ Cannot be used for complex shapes, as the

✓ Can produce thin sections. casting couldn’t be ejected from the mould.

❖ Cannot be used for large castings. (<25 lbs)

❖ Some gases may be entrapped in form of porosity

Die Casting: Two Major Types
Hot Chamber: Cold Chamber:
✓ Hot-chamber process favor its use on low ✓ Molten metal is poured into unheated
melting-point alloys Zn, Sn, Pb alloys chamber from external melting container
✓ Higher production rate 15 cycles per minute ✓ A plunger injects metal under high
for small parts or 500 parts/hr pressure into die cavity
✓ Metal injected directly from melt zone ✓ High production but not usually as fast as
hot-chamber machines => pouring step
Centrifugal Casting

A family of casting processes in which the mold is rotated at high speed so

centrifugal force distributes molten metal to outer regions of die cavity

➢ The group includes:

1. True centrifugal casting

2. Semicentrifugal casting

3. Centrifuge casting
True Centrifugal Casting

Figure 11.15 Setup for true centrifugal casting.

True Centrifugal Casting

Molten metal is poured into rotating mold to produce a tubular part:

➢ In some operations, mold rotation commences after pouring rather than

before

➢ Parts: pipes, tubes, bushings, and rings

Semicentrifugal Casting

Centrifugal force is used to produce solid castings rather than tubular parts:

➢ Molds are designed with risers at center to supply feed metal

➢ Density of metal in final casting is greater in outer sections than at center of

rotation

➢ Often used on parts in which center of casting is machined away, thus

eliminating the portion where quality is lowest

➢ Examples: wheels and pulleys

Semicentrifugal Casting
Centrifuge Casting

Mold is designed with part cavities located away

from axis of rotation, so that molten metal

poured into mold is distributed to these cavities

by centrifugal force.

▪ Used for smaller parts.

▪ Radial symmetry of part is not required as in

other centrifugal casting methods.

Continuous Casting

✓ Continuous casting is a casting method, in which the steps of pouring,

solidification and withdrawal (extraction) of the casting from an open-end mold are
carried out continuously.

✓ Cross-sectional dimensions of a continuous casting are constant along the casting

length, and they are determined only by the dimensions of the mold cavity.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d-72gc6I-_E
Vertical Continuous Casting

Molten metal is continuously supplied from the ladle to

the intermediate ladle (tundish) from which it is

continuously poured into the mold at a controllable rate

keeping the melt level at a constant position

Billet is a length of metal that has a round or square

cross-section, with an area less than 36 in2

Continuous Casting

Due to the water cooling (primary

and secondary) solidification rate
provided by continuous casting is
higher than in other casting
methods therefore continuous
castings have more uniform and
finer grain structure and enhanced
mechanical properties.
Continuous Casting
Continuous Casting

Continuous casting is used to produce very large quantities of metals in simple

shapes, by casting & rolling the metal continuously in one process.

• The slabs are then generally further processed by methods such as rolling,
extrusion or another casting method to make more useful items.

A slab is a length of metal that is rectangular in

cross-section
Continuous Casting

Advantages:
✓ High yield of casting for a given volume of liquid,
✓ Good surface finish.
✓ Extremely low unit cost due to the very high volume of metal that can be cast.

Disadvantages:

✓ A large capital investment is required to set up the process.

✓ Only simple shapes can be cast, which must have a constant cross-section.