Lecture 14 Casting Process

Sand Casting

14.1 Introduction
Sand casting, the most widely used casting process, utilizes expendable sand
molds to form complex metal parts that can be made of nearly any alloy. The
sand casting process involves the use of a furnace, metal, pattern, and sand
mold. A mold is made by shaping a suitable sand mixture around a pattern
of the desired form. A metal or wood box (flask) is used to retain the sand.
The metal is melted in the furnace and then ladled and poured into the cavity
of the sand mold, which is formed by the pattern. The sand mold separates
along a parting line, and the solidified casting can be removed. The solidified
metal is removed from the mold, cleaned, and then forward it to the other
machining processes.

14.2 Mold Making

The process cycle, as illustrated in Fig. 14.1, for sand casting, consists of six
main stages: 1. Preparation of molds, 2. Clamping, 3. Pouring, 4. Cooling or
solidification of casting, 5. Removing or withdrawal of solidified casting,
and 6. Trimming, that are explained below.

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Core Pattern
making making

(if needed)
Sand
Preparation Mold
of sand making
Raw
material
Metal Solidification Removal of Cleaning/ Finished
Pouring
melting / cooling sand mold Trimming casting

Fig. 14.1 Steps in the production sequence in sand casting. The steps include not
only the casting operation but also pattern making and mold making.

1. Preparation of mold: The first step in the sand casting process is to

create the mold for the casting. In an expendable mold process, this step
must be performed for each casting. A sand mold, shown in Fig. 14.2, is
formed by packing sand into each half of the mold. In making the mold,
the grains of sand are held together by a mixture of water and bonding
clay. A typical mixture (by volume) is 90% sand, 3% water, and 7% clay.
Other bonding agents can be used in place of clay, including organic
resins (for example, phenolic resins) and inorganic binders (for example,
sodium silicate and phosphate). Besides sand and binder, additives are
sometimes combined with the mixture to enhance properties such as
strength and permeability of the mold.
In producing a sand mold, the molder’s skill is of great value. A good
mold must bear the following characteristics:
a) The mold must be strong enough to hold the weight of the metal.
b) The mold must resist the erosive action of the rapidly flowing metal
during pouring.
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 Pouring
Basin Riser Flask Bars

Sprue Cope

Cheek
Runner

Gate Drag

Fig. 14.2 Cross-sectional view of a three- part sand mold.

c) The mold must generate a minimum amount of gas when filled

with molten metal. Gases contaminate the metal and can disrupt the
mold.
d) The mold must be constructed so that any gases formed can pass
through the body of the mold itself, rather than penetrate the metal.
e) The mold must be refractory enough to withstand the high
temperature of the metal and strip away cleanly from the casting
after cooling.
f) The core must collapse enough to permit the casting to contract
after solidification.
The sand is packed around the pattern, which is a replica of the external
shape of the casting. When the pattern is removed, the cavity that will
form the casting remains. Any internal features of the casting that cannot
be formed by the pattern are formed by separate cores which are made
of sand prior to the formation of the mold.

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2. Clamping: Once the mold has been made, it must be prepared for the
molten metal to be poured. The surface of the mold cavity is first
lubricated to facilitate the removal of the casting. Then, the cores are
positioned, and the mold halves are closed and securely clamped
together. It is essential that the mold halves remain securely closed to
prevent the loss of any material.

3. Pouring: The molten metal is maintained at a set temperature in a

furnace. After the mold has been clamped, the molten metal is ladled
from its holding container in the furnace and poured into the mold. The
pouring can be performed manually or by an automated machine.
Enough molten metal must be poured to fill the entire cavity and all
channels in the mold. The filling time is very short in order to prevent
the early solidification of any one part of the metal.

4. Cooling: The molten metal that is poured into the mold will begin to cool
and solidify once it enters the cavity. When the entire cavity is filled, and
the molten metal solidifies, the final shape of the casting is formed. The
mold can not be opened until the cooling time has elapsed. The desired
cooling time can be estimated based upon the wall thickness of the
casting and the temperature of the metal.
5. Removal: After the predetermined solidification time has passed, the
sand mold can be broken, and the casting removed. This step, sometimes
called shakeout, is typically performed by a vibrating machine that
shakes the sand and casting out of the flask. Once removed, the casting
will likely have some sand and oxide layers adhered to the surface. Shot
blasting is sometimes used to remove any remaining sand, especially
from internal surfaces, and reduce the surface roughness.

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6. Trimming: This excess material must be trimmed from the casting either
manually via cutting or sawing, or using a trimming press. The time
required to trim the excess material can be estimated from the size of the
casting's envelope. A large casting will require a longer trimming time.
The scrap material that results from this trimming is either discarded or
reused in the sand casting process. However, the scrap material may need
to be reconditioned before reuse.

14.3 Foundry Sand

Foundry sands are silica (SiO2) or silica mixed with other minerals. The sand
should possess good refractory properties, the capacity to stand up under
high temperatures without melting or otherwise degrading. Sand is very
inexpensive and is allowing many metals to be cast that have high melting
temperatures. Other important features of the sand include grain size, the
distribution of grain size in the mixture, and shape of the individual grains.
Small grain size provides a better surface finish on the cast part, but the large
grain size is more permeable. Molds made from grains of irregular shape
tend to the stronger than molds of round grains because of interlocking, yet
interlocking tends to restrict permeability.
There are different preparations of the sand for the mold, and depending on
specific characteristics, these unique types of sand molds are available:
1. Green sand mold;
2. Dry sand molds;
3. Core sand molds;
4. Loam molds;
5. Shell molds;
6. Cement-bonded molds.

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1. Green sand mold: Greensand molds use a mixture of sand, water, and a
clay or binder. The typical composition of the mixture is 90% sand, 3%
water, and 7% clay or binder. Greensand molds are the least expensive
and most widely used. The sand is not green in color, nor do the molds
use ‘greensand’; a greenish color sandstone. Instead, the sand is called
‘green’ because it has moisture in it before the sand dries out when
molten metal is poured in the mold.
However, in general, the green sand for the casting molds usually has a
mixture of: 75-85% sand, 5-11% bentonite clay, 2-4% water, and 3-5%
other materials.

2. Dry sand mold: In a dry sand mold, sometimes called a cold box mold,
the sand is mixed only with an organic binder. The mold is strengthened
by baking it in an oven. The resulting mold has high dimensional
accuracy, but is expensive and results in a lower production rate. Very
intricate designs that are required for housing constructions and
automotive parts can be molded perfectly by this method. Accuracy in
terms of dimensions, size, designs, which is the main benefit, and this
process is favored by large foundries.

3. Core sand mold: Among the various kinds of binders available for core
sand, the most commonly used binders are sodium silicate and baked
core. Sodium silicate is a liquid, which is mixed with plain clean core
sand, and then packed in the core box. The core is hardened by leaving
it exposed in the air. The time for the hardening of the core depends on
the size and complexity. The addition of vinegar and baking soda
produces CO2, which does not require access to an oven. The baked sand
is referred to as low technology sand that is available to the average
hobbyist.

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4. Loam molds: Loam is mud or soil, that is composed of sand, silt, and
clay in relatively even concentration about 40-40-20%, respectively.
Loam soils generally contain more nutrients and humus than sandy soils,
have better infiltration and drainage than silty soils, and are easier to till
than clay soils. The sticky and sloppy mix is usually applied by hand to
build up mold or core and is particularly useful for the forming of bell-
shaped molds.
5. Shell mold: In the shell mold, the sand is mixed with 3–6% of synthetic
resin (a thermosetting resin, phenol-formaldehyde resins) and heated to
230 to 315 °C (450 to 600 °F). Shell mold casting allows the use of both
ferrous and non-ferrous metals, most commonly using cast iron, carbon
steel, alloy steel, stainless steel, aluminum alloys, and copper alloys.
6. Cement-bonded mold: The cement-bonded molds have excellent
strength and are for used castings of high accuracy products. Silica sand,
cement, and water are the important ingredients. The major constituents
of cement are tricalcium silicate (3CaO.SiO2), dicalcium silicate
(2CaO.SiO2), tricalcium aluminate (3CaO.Al2O3) and tetra calcium
aluminoferrite (4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3). The major drawback associated
with these molds is that they need a considerably long time to attain the
required strength. As a result, it will increase the total time of making the
casting. This mold is extensively used in the construction of civil works.

7. Skin-dried mold: In addition, a skin-dried mold begins like a greensand

mold, but additional bonding materials are added, and the cavity surface
is dried by a torch or heating lamp to increase mold strength. Doing so
also improves the dimensional accuracy and surface finish, but will
lower the collapsibility. Dry skin molds are more expensive and require
more time, thus lowering the production rate.
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14.4 Properties of Green Sand Mixture

The quality of the sand used that is significantly affects the quality of the
casting and is usually described by the following seven measures:
1. Green compression strength/ Cohesiveness: Molds must be strong
enough not to collapse during handling and transfer. It must also be
capable of withstanding pressure and erosion forces during the pouring
of the molten metal. The strength of the molding sand grows with
density, clay content of the mix, and decreased the size of sand grains.
2. Permeability/ Porosity: Permeability is defined as the ability of the
molding sand to allow gases to pass through. This property depends
not only on the shape and size of the sand particles but also on the
amount of the clay binding material present in the mixture, and the
moisture content. The permeability of molds is usually be low when
casting gray cast iron and high when casting steel.
3. Moisture content: Moisture content is expressed as a percentage and is
important because it affects other properties, such as permeability and
green compression strength. Excessive moisture content can result in
entrapped steam bubbles in the casting.
4. Flowability/ Plasticity: Flowability is the ability of sand to flow easily
and fill the recesses and the fine details in the pattern. It is the measure
of the molding sand to flow around and over a pattern during ramming
and to uniformly fill the flask. This property may be enhanced by
adding clay and water to the silica sand.
5. Refractoriness: Refractoriness is the resistance of the molding sand to
elevated temperatures; that is, the sand particles must not melt, soften,
or sinter when they come in contact with the molten metal during the
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 casting process. Molding sands with poor refractoriness may burn
when the molten metal is poured into the mold. Usually, sand molds
should be able to withstand up to 30000F (16500C).
6. Adhesiveness: This is the property of sand mixture to adhere to another
body (here, the molding flasks). The molding sand should cling to the
sides of the molding boxes so that it does not fall out when the flasks
are lifted and turned over. This property depends on the type and
amount of binder used in the sand mix.
The success of the casting process depends to a large extent on the making
of a satisfactory mold. For this, the molding properties of the sand have to
be controlled.

14.5 Methods of Mold Making

In industry, the ingredients are blended together in mulling machines. To
form the mold cavity, the traditional method is to pack the molding sand in
a box called a flask, around a pattern, and with a gate system. Hand ramming
of sand around a pattern is rarely used today except under special
circumstances for simple sand casting. To increase the production rate, the
major method of making molds are:
a. Bench molding
b. Machine molding
c. Floor molding, and
d. Pit molding.
Bench molding: Bench molding is carried out on a convenient bench, and
the molds prepared are relatively small. By bench molding, green sand, dry

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sand, or skin-dry sand molds can be made. In this, hand ramming with loose
patterns is employed, and as such, it is best suited for the mold of small and
light items that are to be cast by non-ferrous metals, and it is a slow and
laborious method. Various methods of bench molding include: two box
molding, molding box made of two cope and drag parts; three-box molding,
molding box made in three parts; and stacked molding, when a large number
of small size castings are required, each having one flat surface. There will
be a common passage for the molten metal running through the stock of the
intermediate boxes. A number of parts can thus be cast in a single pouring
operation.

Machine molding: The employment of molding machines results in an

increase in the production rate, a marked increase in productivity, and a
higher and more consistent quality of molds. The function of these machines
is to pack the sand onto the pattern and draw the pattern out from the mold.
There are several types of molding machines, each with a different way of
packing the sand to form the mold. The main types include squeezers, jolt
machines, and sandlingers. There are also some machines, such as jolt-
squeeze machines, that employ a combination of the working principles of
two of the main types. No matter what type of molding machine is used,
special machines are employed to draw the pattern out of the mold.

Floor molding: In this method, the molding of medium and large molds is
directly carried out on the floor. Green sand, dry sand, or skin-dry molds can
be made by this method on the floor with the proper flasks. It is also a slow
and laborious method as it requires ramming with loose patterns. The floor
molding is generally carried out using two-part boxes (top and bottom,

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known as cope and drag). These boxes consist of two stout frames with pins
and holes to ensure accurate location. The ground surface is first leveled, and
half part of the pattern is placed over it, and then the box frame is placed
around the pattern.
The box is packed with sand, and sand is rammed and leveled off. The
packed box is then turned over and the second box placed on top, ensuring
the correct location by inserting dowel pins into the holes in side lugs on the
boxes. The other half of the pattern is placed over earlier half, and sand is
filled and rammed in the top box and leveled off. Two boxes are then opened
and pattern is removed. Boxes are again put back into position and usually
clamped to prevent the upper box floating on the liquid metal.

Pit molding: Pit molding is usually employed for producing a single piece
of a large casting when it would be difficult to handle patterns of that size in
the flask. Pit is serving the purpose of the flask. Molding is done in specially
prepared pits in the ground of the foundry. The bottom of the pit is often
covered with a large coke that is 2 to 3 inches (50 to 75 mm) thick. Generally,
green sand is used in pit molding, but cement bonded sand sections may also
be used.
Molding is carried out as usual, and molds are almost always dried before
pouring the molten metal. This drying is achieved by means of a portable
mold drier. A cope that is also dried is then placed on the pit, and a suitable
weight or a group of weights is located on the cope to prevent it from floating
with the molten metal is poured. For large molds, this is the only method of
molding and is quite slow and laborious.

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14.6 Solidification and Cooling of Metals

After being poured into the mold, the molten metal cools and solidifies. A
series of events and transitions take place during the process of the
solidification of the molten metal and its cooling to ambient temperature.
These events greatly influence the size, shape, and chemical composition of
the grains formed throughout the casting. The factors that affect these
transitions are:

• type of metal,
• thermal properties of the molten metal and the molds,
• relationship between the volume and the surface area of the casting, and
• the shape of the mold.
The cooling rate of a casting affects its microstructure, quality, and
properties. However, there is a fundamental difference between the
cooling curve observed during the solidification of a pure metal and that of
an alloy. The actual freezing of metal takes time, the local solidification time
in the casting during which the metal’s latent heat of fusion is released into
the surrounding mold. The total solidification time is the time taken between
pouring temperature and complete solidification. After complete
solidification, the solidified metal, called the casting, is taken out of the mold
and allowed to cool to ambient temperature.
While pure metals have a well-defined melting point temperature, for alloys,
there is a melting temperature range, over which liquid and solid co-exist.
The melting range can be quite large, resulting in a phenomenon known as
coring. Coring means that individual grains do not have the same chemical
composition from the center to the outer edge of the grain. Schematic

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illustration of grain formation for a pure metal and an alloy are shown in Fig.
14.3.

Fig. 14.3 Schematic illustration of grain structure in casting of: (a) a pure metal,
and (b) an alloy: (i) chill zone, (ii) columnar zone, (iii) equiaxial grain
structure.

Solidification begins with the formation of solid nuclei, and the growth of
these nuclei taken place by the addition of new atoms at the interface. The
total solidification time is the time required for the casting to solidify from
molten metal after pouring. This time is a function of the volume of casting
and the surface area that is in contact with the mold.
According to Chvorinov’s rule, the mathematical relationship can be written
as: the solidification time of casting,
n
V 
t = c 
 A

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where, t = solidification time, s (min); V = volume of the casting, m3; A =

surface area of the casting, m2; c = mold constant; and n = exponent (1.5< n
≤ 2, but usually taken as 2).

14.6.1 Shrinkage
Most molten metals typically have a lower density than solid ones, so there
is an expectation that the casting will be proportionally smaller (i.e., it will
shrink) than the pattern from which it was cast. Shrinkage is the result of the
three factors:
1. contraction of the liquid as it cools prior to its solidification,
2. contraction during phase change from a liquid to solid,
3. contraction of the solid as it continues to cool to ambient temperature.
The three steps can be explained with reference to a hypothetical cylindrical
casting made in an open mold, shown in Fig. 14.4. The molten metal
immediately after pouring is shown in part (a) of the series. Contraction of
the liquid metal during cooling from pouring temperature to freezing
temperature causes the height of the liquid to be reduced from its starting
level as in (b) of the figure. The amount of this liquid contraction is usually
around 0.5%. Solidification shrinkage, seen in part (c) has two effects. First,
contraction causes a further reduction in the height of the casting. Second,
the amount of liquid metal available to feed the top center portion of the
casting becomes restricted. This is usually the last region to freeze, and the
absence of metal creates a void in the casting at this location. This shrinkage
cavity is called a pipe by foundrymen. Once solidified, the casting
experiences further contraction in height and diameter while cooling, as in
(d). This shrinkage is determined by the solid metal’s coefficient of thermal
expansion, which in this case, is applied in reverse to determine contraction.
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Fig. 14.4 Shrinkage of a cylindrical casting during solidification and cooling: (a)
starting level of molten metal immediately alter pouring; (b) reduction
in level caused by liquid contraction during cooling; (c) reduction in
height and formation of shrinkage cavity caused by solidification
shrinkage; and (d) further reduction in height and diameter due to
thermal contraction during cooling of the solid metal.

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Volumetric shrinkage: Volumetric or liquid-to-solid shrinkage is the

shrinkage of the metal as it goes from a state of disconnected atoms and
molecules (liquid) to the formed crystals of atoms and chemical compounds,
the building blocks of solid metal. The amount of solidification shrinkage
varies a great deal from alloy to alloy. In the treatment of some alloys,
disregard for this type of shrinkage may result in voids in the casting.

Linear shrinkage: Shrinkage after solidification can be dealt with by using

an oversized pattern designed for the relevant alloy. Pattern makers use
special shrink rulers to make the patterns used by the foundry to make
castings to the design size required. These rulers are 2–6% oversized,
depending on the material to be cast.
Although the shrinkage is volumetric, the dimensions of the casting are
Table 14.1 Volumetric contraction for different casting metals due to
solidification shrinkage and solid contraction

Metal Volumetric contraction due to

Solidification Solid thermal
shrinkage, % contraction, %

Aluminum 7.0 5.6

Aluminum alloy (typical) 7.0 5.0
Gray cast iron 1.8 3.0
Gray cast iron, high carbon 0 3.0
Low carbon cast steel 3.0 7.2
Copper 4.5 7.5
Bronze (Cu-Sn) 5.5 6.0

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almost always expressed linearly, so the allowances must be applied
accordingly. Table 14.1 represents the volumetric contraction for different
casting metals due to solidification shrinkage and solid contraction.

14.6.2 Compensation in the directional solidification

To minimize the damaging effects of shrinkage, it is desirable for the regions
of the casting from the liquid metal supply to freeze first and for
solidification to progress from these remote regions toward the riser. In this
way, the molten metal will continually be available from the risers to prevent
shrinkage voids during freezing. The term directional solidification is used
to describe this aspect of the freezing process and the methods by which it is
controlled.
Another way to encourage directional solidification is to use chill internal or
external heat sinks that cause rapid freezing in certain regions of the casting.
Internal chills are small metal parts placed inside the cavity before pouring
so that the molten metal will solidify first around these parts. The internal
chill should have a chemical composition that is approximately the same as
the metal being poured.

Fig. 14.5 Chills used to encourage rapid freezing of the molten metal in a thin
section of the casting: (a) External chills, and (b) internal chills.

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External chills are metal inserts in the walls of the mold cavity that can
remove heat from the molten metal more rapidly than the surrounding sand
in order to promote solidification. They are often used effectively in sections
of the casting that are difficult to feed with liquid metal. Fig. 14.5 illustrates
the possible application of external chills and internal chills in the casting.

14.7 Different Pattern Allowances

The pattern is a replica of casting, but it has a slightly large dimension. This
change in dimensions in pattern and casting is due to various allowance used
in casting. When the cast solidifies, it shrinks to some extent due to metal
shrinkage property during cooling, so the patterns are made slightly larger to
compensate it. So the pattern hence cavity for casting forms slightly larger,
which can compensate all these drawbacks of casting. The change in
dimensions of pattern and casting is known as allowance.

14.7.1 Types of patterns

There are some allowances that are responsible for the difference in the
dimensions of the casting and the pattern. These allowances are considered
when a pattern is designed for casting. The following factors affect the
choice of a pattern:
(i) Number of castings to be produced;
(ii) Size and complexity of the shape and size of casting;
(iii) Type of molding and castings method to be used;
(iv) Machining operation available; and
(v) Characteristics of castings
Therefore, the pattern size is bigger than that of the finished cast products.

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This size of the pattern depends on:

• Dimensions of casting;
• Design and intricacy of casting;
• Resistance of mold to shrinkage;
• Molding materials used;
• Method of molding used; and
• Pouring temperature of the molten metal.

14.7.2 Different types of pattern allowances

1. Shrinkage allowance
2. Draft or taper allowance:
3. Machining allowance
4. Distortion allowance, and
5. Rapping allowance.
Shrinkage allowance: As discussed earlier, shrinkage is defined as reduce
the dimension of the casting during solidification or during cooling. This is
a general property of all materials. Some metal shrinks more, some less, but
every material shrinks. There are three types of shrinkage.
a. Liquid Shrinkage
b. Solidification Shrinkage
c. Solid Shrinkage
The liquid shrinkage and solidification shrinkage are compensated by
suitable riser, but solid shrinkage does not compensate by it, so the pattern
is made slightly larger to compensate shrinkage. This is known as a
shrinkage allowance.

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Draft or taper allowance: When the pattern is removed from the mold, the
parallel surface to the direction at which pattern is withdrawn, damaged
slightly, and convert into slightly tapered surfaces. To compensate these
changes, these parallel surfaces on patterns are made slightly tapered (1-20).
This allows easy removal of the pattern from mold and does not affect the
actual dimension of casting. These are known as a draft allowance, as
illustrated in Fig. 14.6. It allows easy removal of the pattern without
damaging the mold.

Fig. 14.6 Draft allowance used in the pattern.

The draft depends on:

o the method of molding;
o the sand mixture used;
o the design (shape and length of the vertical side of the pattern);
o economic restrictions imposed on the casting;
o intricacy of the pattern.
Distortion allowance: This allowance is taken into consideration when
casting products of irregular shapes. When casting of very thin surfaces like
V Shape, U shape, etc. It will distort or damage during pattern removal or
during casting. To avoid this problem, a chamber is provided on the pattern

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to compensate for distortion during pattern removal. This change in casting
dimension is known as distortion allowance, as shown in Fig. 14.7.

Cambered pattern Distorted casting Required shape of casting

Fig. 14.7 Change in casting dimension due to distortion.

Finishing or machining allowance: As the casting produces the poor

surface finish and rough surfaces, the casting is made slightly larger than the
finished product to ensure that machining will clean up the surfaces. This
change in dimension of casting is known as machining allowance. This
machining allowance is added to all surfaces that are to be machined.
Machining allowance is larger for hand molding as compared to machine
molding.
The machining or finishing allowance depends on:
o The type of machining operations needed,
o Characteristics of metal,
o Methods of castings,
o Size, shapes, and volumes of castings,

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o Degree of finish required in castings, and

o Configuration of the casting.
Shaking or rapping allowance: When the pattern is removed from casting,
it slightly increases the dimension of casting. So, to compensate for this
change, the pattern is made slightly smaller from casting. This change in
dimension is known as rapping allowance.
14.8 Good Casting Rules
Castings should be carefully designed to take full advantage of the economy
inherent in the casting process without sacrificing the quality of the finished
part. The designer should consider ease of casting and machining as well as
the shape required to allow the part to function properly. Casting design is
often influenced by the methods, size of equipment, etc., at the foundry
where the castings are to be made, as well as by the machines and methods
available for the machining operations. Good casting always depends on the
expertise of the labor. However, the most important rules for good casting
design are stated briefly:
Rule 1. Start with a good quality melt: Immediately before casting, the melt
shall be prepared, checked, and treated, if necessary. Prepare and use
so far as possible only near-defect-free melt.
Rule 2. Avoid turbulent entrainment of the surface film on the liquid. This
is the requirement that the liquid metal front (the meniscus) should
not go too fast.
Rule 3. Avoid laminar entrainment of the surface film on the liquid. This is
the requirement that no part of the liquid metal front should come to
a stop before the complete filling of the mold cavity.

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Rule 4. Avoid bubble entrainment. No bubbles of air entrained by the filling
system should pass through the liquid metal in the mold cavity. A
naturally pressurized filling system fulfills this criterion. No
interruptions to pouring.
Rule 5. Avoid core blows. No bubbles from the outgassing of cores or molds
should pass through the liquid metal in the mold cavity. Cores to be
demonstrated to be of sufficiently low gas content and/or adequately
vented to prevent bubbles from core blows.
Rule 6. Avoid shrinkage. No feeding uphill in larger section thickness
castings. Feeding against gravity is unreliable because of the adverse
pressure gradient and complications introduced by convection.
Rule 7. Avoid convection. Assess the freezing time in relation to the time
for convection to cause damage. Thin- and thick-section castings
automatically avoid convection problems.
Rule 8. Reduce segregation. Predict segregation to be within limits of the
specification. Avoid channel segregation formation if possible.
Rule 9. Reduce residual stress. No quenching into water (cold or hot)
following solution treatment of light alloys.
Rule 10. Provide location points. All castings to be provided with location
points for pickup for dimensional checking and machining.
Proposals are to be agreed on with quality auditor, machinist, etc.

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