Fundamentals of Casting

ME 1107
Manufacturing Process
Casting
Dr. Md. Mahbubur Rahman

Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Khulna University of Engineering & Technology (KUET)
Khulna-9203, Bangladesh
Email: mahbub_rahman@me.kuet.ac.bd
Casting (Manufacturing Process ME 1107) 1

Casting / Founding
Casting/ Founding: It is a process of pouring molten metal into a mould in a cavity of the
shape to be made and allowing it to solidify. As this is done in foundry shop, it is also called
founding.
Mould: A mould is the container that has the cavity of the

shape to be cast. Mould may be made of sand, ceramic,
plastic, metal etc.
Sand casting: Sand casting is a process for casting

metal in sand moulds. The mould is made by
packing the sand around pattern and is used only
once. The sand is recycled after each use (with
only small loss), so the process is efficient.

Sand Casting Process
Casting process: (Sand Casting)
To understand casting process, there are some
terminologies of sand casting process, these
terminologies are following
 Pattern
 Molding flask
 Sprue
 Runner
 Gate
 Gate network
 Riser
 Bucket
 Air vent

Some Casting Terminologies
Pattern: A pattern is defined as a model of a casting, constructed in such a way
that it can be used for forming an impression in molding sand.
Molding flask: Molding flask has two parts, upper part and lower part. Upper part
is called cope and lower part is called drag. A parting line or parting surface is
used to separate these two parts.
Sprue (Downsprue): It is the vertical channel in the molding flask and is placed in
the cope. Sprue is used to pour molten metal inside mould cavity.
Runner: It is the horizontal channel in the molding flask and leads to the gate of
mould cavity. Molten metal flows allow to enter the casting mould cavity
through the runner.

Some Casting Terminologies
Gate: It is the door of the mold cavity through which molten metal enters in the mould cavity.
Gate network: Gate network is actually the combination of sprue , runner, gate . Its purpose is to guide
molten metal till it reaches the mould cavity. It is also known as gating system.
Riser: When molten metal is to be poured into mould cavity through runner, molten metal enters in another
vertical channel after passing through mould Cavity, this channel is called riser. To supply the extra metal
during cooling.
Purposes of Riser used:

There are two purposes for using riser in cope.
I. To indicate that mould cavity is filled with molten metal
II. Another is to act as feeding channel when during solidification, metal shrinks.
Bucket: It is used to carry molten metal from furnace to casting mould. It is also called
turnish.
Air vent: Air vent is placed in cope and is used to give water vapors a passage to leave sand
bed.
Sand Mould Casting Procedure

The process cycle for sand casting
The process cycle for sand casting consists of six main stages, which are explained below.
 Mold-making - The first step in the sand casting process is to create the mold for the casting. A
sand mold is formed by packing sand into each half of the mold. The sand is packed around the
pattern, which is a replica of the external shape of the casting. When the pattern is removed, the
cavity that will form the casting remains.
 Clamping - Once the mold has been made, it must be prepared for the molten metal to be poured. The
surface of the mold cavity is first lubricated to facilitate the removal of the casting. Then, the cores are
positioned and the mold halves are closed and securely clamped together. It is essential that the mold
halves remain securely closed to prevent the loss of any material.
 Pouring - The molten metal is maintained at a set temperature in a furnace. After the mold has been
clamped, the molten metal can be ladled from its holding container in the furnace and poured into the
mold.
 The pouring can be performed manually or by an automated machine. Enough molten metal must be
poured to fill the entire cavity and all channels in the mold. The filling time is very short in order to
prevent early solidification of any one part of the metal.

The process cycle for sand casting
 Cooling - The molten metal that is poured into the mold will begin to cool and solidify once it enters the
cavity. When the entire cavity is filled and the molten metal solidifies, the final shape of the casting is
formed. The mold can not be opened until the cooling time has elapsed. The desired cooling time can
be estimated based upon the wall thickness of the casting and the temperature of the metal. Most of
the possible defects that can occur are a result of the solidification process. If some of the molten metal
cools too quickly, the part may exhibit shrinkage, cracks, or incomplete sections. Preventative
measures can be taken in designing both the part and the mold and will be explored in later sections.
 Removal - After the predetermined solidification time has passed, the sand mold can simply be broken,
and the casting removed. This step, sometimes called shakeout, is typically performed by a vibrating
machine that shakes the sand and casting out of the flask. Once removed, the casting will likely have
some sand and oxide layers adhered to the surface.
 Trimming - During cooling, the material from the channels in the mold solidifies attached to the part. This excess
material must be trimmed from the casting either manually via cutting or sawing, or using a trimming press. The
time required to trim the excess material can be estimated from the size of the casting’s envelope. A larger
casting will require a longer trimming time. The scrap material that results from this trimming is either discarded
or reused in the sand casting process. However, the scrap material may need to be reconditioned to the proper
chemical composition before it can be combined with non-recycled metal and reused.

Flow Chart of a Typical Foundry Process

Sand Casting/ Green Casting
Sand casting is also called green sand casting. The reason behind calling it is due to the
composition of sand bed. Sand bed has three main constituents, clay, slica and water.
 In this composition clay is used as binding agent and retains its place especially when we
remove pattern from sand bed and due to the presence of water we called it green sand casting.
During solidification, heat dissipates to sand and vaporizes water molecules. These water
molecules leave sand bed through air vent.
 Limitation
The only limitation of sand casting is the rough finish surface.

Mould
Mould: A mould is the container that has the cavity of the shape to be cast. Mould may be
made of sand, ceramic, plastic, metal etc.
Mold are classified into the materials used:
Green sand moulds: damp molding sand are used and dark brown or black color.
Skin-dried moulds: These are made of green sand with dry sand baking.
Dry-sand moulds: Foundry sand artificially dried after being made into a mould.
Loam mould: Loam is used as the binding material.
Furan moulds : dry sharp+ phosphoric acid, furan resided added and also find smooth surface.
CO2-moulds: sand mixed with sodium silicate (dry sand + NasiO3). CO2 is pressure fed into the
mold.
Metal moulds: using die casting for low melting temperature alloys
Special moulds: Plastic, Cement, plaster, Paper, wood and rubber are all mold material
Loam and Silt
 Loam is soil made with a balance of the three main types of soil: sand, silt, and clay soil .
 Silt is granular material of a size between sand and clay and composed mostly of broken grains of quartz.
Silt may occur as a soil (often mixed with sand or clay) or as sediment mixed in suspension with water.

Components of a Mould
When the mould is open When the mould is closed

 In sand casting, the primary piece of equipment is the mould, which contains several components. The
mould is divided into two halves - the cope (upper half) and the drag (bottom half), which meet along
a parting line.
 Both mould halves are contained inside a box, called a flask, which itself is divided along this parting line.
 The mold cavity is formed by packing sand around the pattern in each half of the flask.
 The sand can be packed by hand, but machines that use pressure or impact ensure even packing of the sand
and require far less time, thus increasing the production rate.
 After the sand has been packed and the pattern is removed, a cavity will remain that forms the external
shape of the casting. Some internal surfaces of the casting may be formed by cores.
 Cores are additional pieces that form the internal holes and passages of the casting. Cores are
typically made out of sand so that they can be shaken out of the casting, rather than require the
necessary geometry to slide out. As a result, sand cores allow for the fabrication of many complex
internal features.

 The molten metal is poured into a pouring basin,
which is a large depression in the top of the sand
mould. The molten metal funnels out of the bottom of
this basin and down the main channel, called the
sprue.
 The sprue then connects to a series of channels, called
runners, which carries the molten metal into the
cavity.
 At the end of each runner, the molten metal enters the
cavity through a gate which controls the flow rate and
minimizes turbulence. Often connected to the runner
system are risers.
 Risers are chambers that fill with molten metal,

providing an additional source of metal during
solidification.

 When the casting cools, the molten metal will shrink
and additional material is needed. A similar feature
that aids in reducing shrinkage is an open riser.
 The first material to enter the cavity is allowed to pass

completely through and enter the open riser. This
strategy prevents early solidification of the molten
metal and provides a source of material to compensate
for shrinkage.
 Lastly, small channels are included that run from the

cavity to the exterior of the mould. These channels act as
venting holes to allow gases to escape the cavity. The
porosity of the sand also allows air to escape, but
additional vents are sometimes needed. The molten metal
that flows through all of the channels (sprue, runners, and
risers) will solidify attached to the casting and must be
separated from the part after it is removed.
Gating, Chills and Vent
Gating:
The function of gating system of a mold is to delivered the liquid to the mold cavity.The gating
system must :
Introduces the molten metal in the mold with as little turbulences as possible
Regulate the rate of entry of metal
Permit complete filling of the mold cavity
Slag or other foreign particle should be prevented from entering mold cavity
Chills: Chills are metal shapes inserted in moulds to speed up the solidifications. Chills are used for
smooth and homogeneous solidification after getting the liquid material into the mold. Mould metal and
chill metal are same.
Vent: Vents are small hole to permit escape of gases from mold cavity. Prevent gasses from
trapped in the metal or raising the back pressure to oppose the inflow of metal design.

Cores
 A core is a predetermined shaped mass of dry sand which is made
separately from mould. A core is sometimes defined as “any projection
of the sand into the mold”. This projection may be formed by pattern
itself or made outside and introduced into the mold after the pattern is
withdrawn.
 Sand cores allow for the fabrication of many complex internal
features. Each core is positioned in the mold before the molten metal
is poured.
 In order to keep each core in place, the pattern has recesses called
core prints where the core can be anchored in place. However, the
core may still shift due to buoyancy in the molten metal. Further
support is provided to the cores by chaplets.
 Chaplets are small metal pieces that are fastened between the core and the cavity surface.
 Chaplets must be made of a metal with a higher melting temperature than that of the metal
being cast in order to maintain their structure. After solidification, the chaplets will have been
cast inside the casting and the excess material of the chaplets that protrudes must be cut off.

Cores
Purpose of Core:
1. To obtain the desired cavities which otherwise could not be obtained by normal
moulding.
2. In pit moulding, the entire mould is made of cores.
3. To reduce metal erosion in gates, runners and pouring basin.
Types of Core:
(A) According to sand used:
1. Green sand core
2. Dry sand core
(B) According to the position or use:
1. Horizontal core
2. Vertical core
3. Balanced core
4. Drop core

Types of Core

Types of Core
Drop Core

Pros and Cons of Casting
Advantages of Casting:
 Molten material can flow into very small section so that intricate shapes can be
made.
 Any material can be cast (Ferrous and Non-Ferrous)
 Necessary tools are simple and inexpensive
 Size and weight is not a limitation
 Better dimensional accuracy and surface finish
Disadvantages of Casting:
 Labor intensive process

 Dimensional accuracy and surface finish is not good in case of sand casting

Patterns
A pattern is a model or the replica of the object (to be casted).
Objectives of a Pattern:
1. Pattern prepares a mould cavity for the purpose of making a casting.

2. Pattern possesses core prints which produces seats in form of extra recess
for core placement in the mould.
3. It establishes the parting line and parting surfaces in the mould.
4. Runner, gates and riser may form a part of the pattern.
5. Properly constructed patterns minimize overall cost of the casting.
6. Properly made pattern having finished and smooth surface reduce casting
defects.

Making a Mould

Common Pattern Materials
Common Pattern Materials
1. Wood – The main varieties of woods used in pattern-making are shisham, kail, deodar, teak and
mahogany.
2. Metal – The metals commonly used for pattern making are cast iron, brass and bronzes and
aluminum alloys
3. Plastic – Phenolic resin plastics are commonly used. Recently foamed plastic is also used.
4. Plaster – This material belongs to gypsum family which can be easily cast and worked with
wooden tools and preferable for producing highly intricate casting.
5. Wax – The commonly used waxes are paraffin wax, shellac wax, bees-wax, cerasin wax, and
micro-crystalline wax.

Wooden Patterns
Advantages of wooden patterns
1. Wood can be easily worked.

2. It is light in weight.
3. It is easily available.
4. It is very cheap.
5. It is easy to join.
6. It is easy to obtain good surface finish.
7. Wooden laminated patterns are strong.
8. It can be easily repaired.
Disadvantages
9. It is susceptible to moisture.
10.It tends to warp.
11.It wears out quickly due to sand abrasion.
12.It is weaker than metallic patterns.

Types of Patterns
On the basis of use patterns can be classified as :
 Disposable pattern: In the case of disposal patterns, the pattern are
made from polystyrene foam or other materials and sand is rammed
around them.
 The pattern is left in the mould sand instead of being removed from
the sand. The pattern material vaporizes when the molten material is
poured into the mould and the cavity thus created is filled with the
molten metal. The method is also known as full mould process or
cavity less method.
 Removable pattern: A removable pattern is used for producing

multiple identical moulds. The sand is packed around the pattern
and then the pattern is withdrawn from the sand leaving the desire
cavity. The cavity produced filled with molten metal to create
casting. Match Plate pattern, Gated pattern, Loose piece pattern are
removable pattern.
Removable Patterns
Advantages of Removable patterns

1. Reusable
2. Can be used in machine moulding
3. Cavity produced can be inspected
4. Easy to handle
Disadvantages of Removable patterns

1. Time required more
2. Finishing is not good
3. More metal is needed
4. Complex pattern with loose piece is difficult to
handle

Disposable Patterns
Advantages of Disposable patterns
1.0 Time required less
2.0 Less metal needed
3.0 Mould making is simple
4.0 Finishing is good
Disadvantages of Disposable patterns
1.0 Not reusable

2.0 Cavity produced can not be inspected
3.0 Machine moulding is not possible
4.0 Patterns are difficult to handle

Patterns: Classification
On the basis of physical structure there are many patterns available:


Single –piece or Solid pattern: This type of pattern is Split pattern: The split in the pattern
made without joints, partings, or any loose pieces. occurs at the parting of the mould. The
two parts of the pattern are aligned with
dowel pins.

 Gated pattern: such patterns are made of metal to Loose piece pattern: In these types of pattern,
give them strength and to eliminate any warping loose pieces are necessary to facilitate
tendency. withdrawal of the pattern from the mould.
These are need to fastened loosely to the
main pattern by wooden dowel pins.

Match plate pattern: This pattern is made by fastening each half
of a split pattern to the opposite sides of one plate.

Follow board patterns: This patterns having thin
sections, tend to get distorted or collapse during
ramming.
Sweep patterns: Symmetrical and regular shape

usually of large size may be constructed by the
use of sweep pattern.

Skeleton patterns:

Shell pattern: Usually mounted on a plate and parted along the centre line,
the two halves being accurately doweled together.

Pattern Allowances
 Pattern Allowances: The patterns are not made the exact size as the desired casting because
such a pattern would produce undersize casting.
 When a pattern is prepared, certain allowances are given on the sizes specified in the drawing
so that the finished and machined casting produced from the pattern will conform to the
specified sizes.
 Allowances provided to the patterns in order to produce a casting of proper size and shape is
called pattern allowances.
 While designing pattern, the allowances commonly considered are discussed
below.
1.0 Shrinkage Allowance

2.0 Draft Allowance
3.0 Finishing Allowance
4.0 Distortion Allowance
5.0 Shaking Allowance
Shrinkage Allowance
1.0 Shrinkage Allowance: Generally metals shrink in size during solidification and cooling in the
mould. So casting becomes smaller than the pattern and the mould cavity.
Therefore, to compensate for this, mould and the pattern should be made larger than the casting by the
amount of shrinkage. The amount of compensation for shrinkage is called the shrinkage allowance.
Typical shrinkage allowances for important casting metals

Shrinkage Allowance
Contraction from liquid to solid
Hot casting size Contraction from pouring to
When metal cools, it naturally shrinks in
A freezing temperature
size.
Pattern size
The total contraction of a casting B
comprises of three elements: Contracted final size
1. The contraction of
liquid from pouring temperature to Total
freezing temperature. Allowance
2. The contraction on
account of change from liquid to solid.
3. The lasting contraction
of solid casting from freezing temperature
to surroundings.
Shrinkage Allowance
Draft Allowance
2.0 Draft Allowance or Taper Allowance: When a pattern is withdrawn from a mould, there is
always a possibility of damaging the edges of the mould.
 Draft is taper made on the vertical faces of a pattern to make easier drawing of pattern out of the
mould. The draft is expressed in milimetres per metre on a side or in degrees.
 The amount of draft needed depends upon (1) the shape of casting, (2)depth of casting, (3)
moulding method, and (4) moulding material. Generally, the size of draft is 5 to 30 mm per
metre, or average 20 mm per metre.
 But draft made sufficiently large, if permissible, will make moulding easier. For precision
castings, a draft of about 3 to 6 mm per metre is required.

Finishing/ Machining Allowance
3.0 Finishing or Machining Allowance :
In case the casting designed to be machined, they are cast over-sized in those dimensions
shown in the finished working drawings. Where machining is done, the machined part is
made extra thick which is called machining allowance. For average sized casting, allowance
is 3 mm for Ferrous and 1.5 mm for Non-Ferrous metals.
Machining allowance is given due to the following reasons:
1. Castings get oxidised inside mould and during heat treatment. Scale thus formed
requires to be removed.
2. For removing surface roughness, slag, dirt and other imperfections from the casting.
3. For obtaining exact dimensions on the casting.
4. To achieve desired surface finish on the casting.

Distortion/ Camber Allowance
4.0 Distortion or Camber Allowance: Sometimes castings, because of their size, shape and type of
metal, tend to warp or distort during the cooling period depending on the cooling speed.
 This is due to the uneven shrinkage of different parts of the casting. Expecting the amount of
warpage, a pattern may be made with allowance of warpage. It is called camber.
 For example, a U-shaped casting will be distorted during cooling with the legs diverging, instead of
parallel.
Example of camber: (a) Casting without camber,

(b) Actual casting, (c) Pattern with camber allowance
Raping/ Shaking Allowance
5.0 Rapping or Shaking Allowance: When the pattern is shaken for easy withdrawal, the mould
cavity, hence the casting is slightly increased in size.
 In order to compensate for this increase, the pattern should be initially made slightly smaller. For
small and medium sized castings, this allowance can be ignored. But for large sized and
precision castings, however, shaking allowance is to be considered.
Shaking
Allowance
pattern
Pattern Mould
Mould
Slides courtesy: Mr. Raju Ahammad , Lecturer (ME,KUET)

The End

Fundamentals of Casting

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ME 1107

Dr. Md. Mahbubur Rahman

Casting (Manufacturing Process ME 1107) 1

Mould: A mould is the container that has the cavity of the

Sand casting: Sand casting is a process for casting

Casting (Manufacturing Process ME 1107) 2

Casting (Manufacturing Process ME 1107) 3

Casting (Manufacturing Process ME 1107) 4

Purposes of Riser used:

Casting (Manufacturing Process ME 1107) 6

Casting (Manufacturing Process ME 1107) 7

Casting (Manufacturing Process ME 1107) 8

Casting (Manufacturing Process ME 1107) 9

The only limitation of sand casting is the rough finish surface.

Casting (Manufacturing Process ME 1107) 10

Mold are classified into the materials used:

Casting (Manufacturing Process ME 1107) 12

When the mould is open When the mould is closed

Casting (Manufacturing Process ME 1107) 14

 Risers are chambers that fill with molten metal,

Casting (Manufacturing Process ME 1107) 15

 The first material to enter the cavity is allowed to pass

 Lastly, small channels are included that run from the

Casting (Manufacturing Process ME 1107) 17

Casting (Manufacturing Process ME 1107) 18

Casting (Manufacturing Process ME 1107) 19

Casting (Manufacturing Process ME 1107) 20

Casting (Manufacturing Process ME 1107) 21

 Labor intensive process

Casting (Manufacturing Process ME 1107) 22

1. Pattern prepares a mould cavity for the purpose of making a casting.

Casting (Manufacturing Process ME 1107) 23

Casting (Manufacturing Process ME 1107) 24

Casting (Manufacturing Process ME 1107) 25

1. Wood can be easily worked.

Casting (Manufacturing Process ME 1107) 26

 Removable pattern: A removable pattern is used for producing

Advantages of Removable patterns

Disadvantages of Removable patterns

Casting (Manufacturing Process ME 1107) 28

Disadvantages of Disposable patterns

1.0 Not reusable

Casting (Manufacturing Process ME 1107) 29

Casting (Manufacturing Process ME 1107) 30

Casting (Manufacturing Process ME 1107) 31

Casting (Manufacturing Process ME 1107) 32

Casting (Manufacturing Process ME 1107) 33

Casting (Manufacturing Process ME 1107) 34

Sweep patterns: Symmetrical and regular shape

Casting (Manufacturing Process ME 1107) 35

Casting (Manufacturing Process ME 1107) 36

Casting (Manufacturing Process ME 1107) 37

1.0 Shrinkage Allowance

Typical shrinkage allowances for important casting metals

Casting (Manufacturing Process ME 1107) 39

Casting (Manufacturing Process ME 1107) 41

Machining allowance is given due to the following reasons:

Casting (Manufacturing Process ME 1107) 42

Example of camber: (a) Casting without camber,

Slides courtesy: Mr. Raju Ahammad , Lecturer (ME,KUET)

Casting (Manufacturing Process ME 1107) 45

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