CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1. Casting:-
In metalworking, casting means a process, in which liquid metal is poured into
a mould, that contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and is then allowed to cool and
solidify. The solidified part is also known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of the
mould to complete the process. Casting is most often used for making complex shapes that
would be difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods.

Casting processes have been known for thousands of years, and widely used for sculpture,
especially in bronze, jewellery in precious metals, and weapons and tools. Traditional
techniques include lost-wax casting, plaster mould casting and sand casting.

Terms related to casting Process:-

Metal casting processes uses the following terminology:

Pattern: An approximate duplicate of the final casting used to form the mould cavity.
Molding material: The material that is packed around the pattern and then the pattern is
removed to leave the cavity where the casting material will be poured.
Flask: The rigid wood or metal frame that holds the moulding material.
Cope: The top half of the pattern, flask, mould, or core.
Drag: The bottom half of the pattern, flask, mould, or core.
Core: An insert in the mould that produces internal features in the casting, such as holes.
Core print: The region added to the pattern, core, or mould used to locate and support the
core.
Mould cavity: The combined open area of the moulding material and core, where the metal
is poured to produce the casting.
Riser: An extra void in the mould that fills with molten material to compensate for shrinkage
during solidification.
Gating system: The network of connected channels that deliver the molten material to the
mould cavities.
 Pouring cup or pouring basin: The part of the gating system that receives the molten
material from the pouring vessel.
Sprue: The pouring cup attaches to the sprue, which is the vertical part of the gating system.
The other end of the sprue attaches to the runners.
Runners: The horizontal portion of the gating system that connects the sprues to the gates.
Gates: The controlled entrances from the runners into the mould cavities.
Vents: Additional channels that provide an escape for gases generated during the pour.
Parting line or parting surface: The interface between the cope and drag halves of the
mould, flask, or pattern.
Draft: The taper on the casting or pattern that allow it to be withdrawn from the mould
Core box: The mould or die used to produce the cores.
Chaplet:- Long vertical holding rod for core that after casting it become the integral part of
casting, provide the support to the core.

Some specialized processes, such as die casting, use additional terminology.

1.1 Types of Casting

The modern casting process is subdivided into two main categories:

Expendable : Expendable mold casting is a generic classification that includes sand, plastic,
shell, plaster, and investment (lost-wax technique) moldings. This method of mold casting
involves the use of temporary, non-reusable molds.

Non-expendable casting: Non-expendable mold casting differs from expendable processes in

that the mold need not be reformed after each production cycle. This technique includes at
least four different methods: permanent, die, centrifugal, and continuous casting. This form
of casting also results in improved repeatability in parts produced and delivers Near Net
Shape results.

1.2 Expendable mold casting

1.2.1 Sand casting

1.2.2 Plaster mould casting
1.2.3 Shell moulding
1.2.4 Investment casting
1.2.5 Waste moulding of plaster
1.2.6 Evaporative-pattern casting
 1.2.1 Sand casting

Sand casting is one of the most popular and simplest types of casting, and has been used for
centuries. Sand casting allows for smaller batches than permanent mould casting and at a
very reasonable cost. Not only does this method allow manufacturers to create products at a
low cost, but there are other benefits to sand casting, such as very small-size operations.
From castings that fit in the palm of your hand to train beds (one casting can create the entire
bed for one rail car), it can all be done with sand casting. Sand casting also allows most
metals to be cast depending on the type of sand used for the moulds.

Sand casting requires a lead time of days, or even weeks sometimes, for production at high
output rates (120 pieces/hr-mould) and is unsurpassed for large-part production. Green
(moist) sand has almost no part weight limit, whereas dry sand has a practical part mass limit
of 2,3002,700 kg (5,1006,000 lb). Minimum part weight ranges from 0.0750.1 kg (0.17
0.22 lb). The sand is bonded together using clays, chemical binders, or polymerized oils
(such as motor oil). Sand can be recycled many times in most operations and requires little
maintenance.

1.2.2 Plaster mold casting

Plaster casting is similar to sand casting except that plaster of paris is substituted for sand as a
mould material. Generally, the form takes less than a week to prepare, after which a
production rate of 110 units/hrmould is achieved, with items as massive as 45 kg (99 lb)
and as small as 30 g (1 oz) with very good surface finish and close tolerances. Plaster casting
is an inexpensive alternative to other moulding processes for complex parts due to the low
cost of the plaster and its ability to produce near net shape castings. The biggest disadvantage
is that it can only be used with low melting point non-ferrous materials, such as aluminium,
copper, magnesium, and zinc.

1.2.3 Shell molding

Shell moulding is similar to sand casting, but the moulding cavity is formed by a hardened
"shell" of sand instead of a flask filled with sand. The sand used is finer than sand casting
sand and is mixed with a resin so that it can be heated by the pattern and hardened into a shell
around the pattern. Because of the resin and finer sand, it gives a much finer surface finish.
The process is easily automated and more precise than sand casting. Common metals that are
cast include cast iron, aluminium, magnesium, and copper alloys. This process is ideal for
complex items that are small to medium-sized.

1.2.4 Investment casting

Fig 1.2.4 An investment-cast valve cover

Investment casting (known as lost-wax casting in art) is a process that has been practiced for
thousands of years, with the lost-wax process being one of the oldest known metal forming
techniques. From 5000 years ago, when beeswax formed the pattern, to todays high
technology waxes, refractory materials and specialist alloys, the castings ensure high-quality
components are produced with the key benefits of accuracy, repeatability, versatility and
integrity.

Investment casting derives its name from the fact that the pattern is invested, or surrounded,
with a refractory material. The wax patterns require extreme care for they are not strong
enough to withstand forces encountered during the mould making. One advantage of
investment casting is that the wax can be reused.

The process is suitable for repeatable production of net shape components from a variety of
different metals and high performance alloys. Although generally used for small castings, this
process has been used to produce complete aircraft door frames, with steel castings of up to
300 kg and aluminium castings of up to 30 kg. Compared to other casting processes such
as die casting or sand casting, it can be an expensive process. However, the components that
can be produced using investment casting can incorporate intricate contours, and in most
cases the components are cast near net shape, so require little or no rework once cast.

1.2.5 Waste molding of plaster

A durable plaster intermediate is often used as a stage toward the production of a bronze
sculpture or as a pointing guide for the creation of a carved stone. With the completion of a
plaster, the work is more durable (if stored indoors) than a clay original which must be kept
moist to avoid cracking. With the low cost plaster at hand, the expensive work
of bronze casting or stone carving may be deferred until a patron is found, and as such work
is considered to be a technical, rather than artistic process, it may even be deferred beyond
the lifetime of the artist.

In waste moulding a simple and thin plaster mould, reinforced by sisal or burlap, is cast over
the original clay mixture. When cured, it is then removed from the damp clay, incidentally
destroying the fine details in undercuts present in the clay, but which are now captured in the
mould. The mould may then at any later time (but only once) be used to cast a plaster positive
image, identical to the original clay. The surface of this plaster may be further refined and
may be painted and waxed to resemble a finished bronze casting.

1.2.6 Evaporative-pattern casting

This is a class of casting processes that use pattern materials that evaporate during the pour,
which means there is no need to remove the pattern material from the mould before casting.
The two main processes are lost-foam casting and full-mould casting.

1.2.6a Lost-foam casting

Lost-foam casting is a type of evaporative-pattern casting process that is similar to

investment casting except foam is used for the pattern instead of wax. This process takes
advantage of the low boiling point of foam to simplify the investment casting process by
removing the need to melt the wax out of the mould.

1.2.6b Full-mold casting

Full-mould casting is an evaporative-pattern casting process which is a combination of sand

casting and lost-foam casting. It uses an expanded polystyrene foam pattern which is then
surrounded by sand, much like sand casting. The metal is then poured directly into the mould,
which vaporizes the foam upon contact.

1.3.1Permanent mold casting

Permanent mould casting is a metal casting process that employs

reusable moulds ("permanent moulds"), usually made from metal. The most common process
uses gravity to fill the mould. However, gas pressure or a vacuum are also used. A variation
on the typical gravity casting process, called slush casting, produces hollow castings.
Common casting metals are aluminum, magnesium, and copper alloys. Other materials
include tin, zinc, and lead alloys and iron and steel are also cast in graphite moulds.
Permanent moulds, while lasting more than one casting still have a limited life before
wearing out.

1.3.2Die casting

The die casting process forces molten metal under high pressure into mould cavities (which
are machined into dies). Most die castings are made from nonferrous metals,
specifically zinc, copper, and aluminium-based alloys, but ferrous metal die castings are
possible. The die casting method is especially suited for applications where many small to
medium-sized parts are needed with good detail, a fine surface quality and dimensional
consistency.

1.3.3Semi-solid metal casting

Semi-solid metal (SSM) casting is a modified die casting process that reduces or eliminates
the residual porosity present in most die castings. Rather than using liquid metal as the feed
material, SSM casting uses a higher viscosity feed material that is partially solid and partially
liquid. A modified die casting machine is used to inject the semi-solid slurry into re-usable
hardened steel dies. The high viscosity of the semi-solid metal, along with the use of
controlled die filling conditions, ensures that the semi-solid metal fills the die in a non-
turbulent manner so that harmful porosity can be essentially eliminated.

Used commercially mainly for aluminium and magnesium alloys, SSM castings can be heat
treated to the T4, T5 or T6 tempers. The combination of heat treatment, fast cooling rates
(from using un-coated steel dies) and minimal porosity provides excellent combinations of
strength and ductility. Other advantages of SSM casting include the ability to produce
complex shaped parts net shape, pressure tightness, tight dimensional tolerances and the
ability to cast thin walls.[6]

1.3.4Centrifugal casting

In this process molten metal is poured in the mould and allowed to solidify while the mould
is rotating. Metal is poured into the center of the mould at its axis of rotation. Due to
centrifugal force the liquid metal is thrown out towards the periphery.

Centrifugal casting is both gravity- and pressure-independent since it creates its own force
feed using a temporary sand mould held in a spinning chamber at up to 900 N. Lead time
varies with the application. Semi- and true-centrifugal processing permit 3050 pieces/hr-
mould to be produced, with a practical limit for batch processing of approximately 9000 kg
total mass with a typical per-item limit of 2.34.5 kg.

Industrially, the centrifugal casting of railway wheels was an early application of the method
developed by the German industrial company Krupp and this capability enabled the rapid
growth of the enterprise.

Small art pieces such as jewellery are often cast by this method using the lost wax process, as
the forces enable the rather viscous liquid metals to flow through very small passages and
into fine details such as leaves and petals. This effect is similar to the benefits from vacuum
casting, also applied to jewellery casting.

1.3.5 Continuous casting

Continuous casting is a refinement of the casting process for the continuous, high-volume
production of metal sections with a constant cross-section. Molten metal is poured into an
open-ended, water-cooled mould, which allows a 'skin' of solid metal to form over the still-
liquid centre, gradually solidifying the metal from the outside in. After solidification, the
strand, as it is sometimes called, is continuously withdrawn from the mould. Predetermined
lengths of the strand can be cut off by either mechanical shears or travelling oxyacetylene
torches and transferred to further forming processes, or to a stockpile. Cast sizes can range
from strip (a few millimetres thick by about five meters wide) to billets (90 to 160 mm
square) to slabs (1.25 m wide by 230 mm thick). Sometimes, the strand may undergo an
initial hot rolling process before being cut.Continuous casting is used due to the lower costs
associated with continuous production of a standard product, and also increased quality of the
final product. Metals such as steel, copper, aluminium and lead are continuously cast, with
steel being the metal with the greatest tonnages cast using this method.
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Rajesh Rajkolhe, J.G. Khan conclude that various defect are generated in
casting process while manufacturing, defects may like as filling related, shape related,
thermal related and other defects by appearance. While performing various number of
process parameters as trial and error basis they find out various challenges and uncertainty in
casting process. Such types of defects are developed poor quality and productivity. To obtain
high quality they was found their remedies to minimize those challenges and uncertainty also
rejections. This action may helps to improve quality as well as productivity in manufacturing
industry.

Mr. Siddalingswami , S. Hiremath, dr, S.R. dulange stated that various casting
defects and their causes. they go through a industry was kirloskar ferros industry ltd. Solapur,
they identify a defects for 4R cylinder block which they found a rejection rate was more than
40%. They alsoconclude that , while production involve various parameter like pattern
making, moulding, core making, and melting. A various defects like blowhole shrinkage, gas
porosity, cold shot, sand inclusion etc. are generated while casting process. for improved their
casting quality, they use product process search analysis, inspection method, design of
experiment method to found out their remedies in casting process.

C. M. Choudhari, B. E. Narkhede, S. K. Mahajan, are state that various casting

defects can be minimize by simulation software basis, software helps to improve quality of
casting process and parameters. Utilization of methodology which involve four decision (1)
orientation and parting line, (2) core print design, (3) feeder design, and (4) gating design.
Experiment are perform for process by trial basis with help of simulation software which
optimize faster and better result. It helps to minimize the bottleneck and non value added
time in casting development as it reduce the number of trail for casting required on shop
floor.
P. Shailesh, S.Sundarrajan and M.Komaraiah studied that optimization of process parameter
in casting process for Al-Si alloy by using Design of Experiments (DOE) method. It helps to
improve the mechanical properties of yield strength and density. The result is reducing the
pouring temperature and increasing the speed of die lead of casted component. They also
studied shrinkage characteristics and control the producing defects casting.

Dr. M. Arasu (Head department of foundry technology, PSG Polytechnic College) conclude
that every casting process achieve to have cost effectiveness and high quality for customer
point of view. They meant that cost effectiveness means a strategy of utilization of raw
material and equipment to improve finish products with good quality for defect free casting
in casting process. While in casting process of poorly maintained equipment used then they
affect to die as well as casting parameters. So indirectly it fails to maintain quality, and
defect developed on external as well as internal side on casting components.

T.R.Vijayaram, S.Sulaiman, A.M.S. Hamouda, and M.H.M. Ahmad (Metal casting

industries) they was work on scrap rejection and rework in manufacturing and state that for
avoid the defects by implementation of various modified technique which helps to eliminate
the uncontrolled scrap and rejections. The modified technique such as statistical quality
control (SQC) to adopted for developing metallurgical engineering foundry.

Guo-fa MI, Xiand-yu, Kuang-fei WANG, Heng-Zhi FU, are applied numerical value as a
simulation for casting process. Types of defects like shrinkage, gas porosity, cold shut were
analyze, also found the mold filling and solidification stage in casting parameters also found
filling behavior, solidification sequence, thermal stress distribution in casting process for
achieve high quality and productivity.

Alagarsamy are used trial and error method to solve casting related problem which helps find
the defects and their root causes. Using a powerful technique to mapping defects and finding
questionnaires such as design of experiments (DOE) for identify the defects and control the
variables in casting process. They also conclude the various defects in casting and root cause
so also they found their remedies to improve quality.

Malcolm Blair, Raymond Monroe, Christoph Beckermann, Rishard Hardin, Kent Carlson and
Charles Monroe state that casting design are based on experience of designer who developed
the design utilization factor of safety for casting process. Also, utilizes unquantified factor
such as shrinkage, porosity, also consider in casting. They predict the occurrence and nature
of defects and effect on performance of casting.

A.P.More, Dr.R.N.Baxi, Dr.S.B.Raju Mechanical Engineering Department, G.H.Raisoni

College of Engineering, reviewed that casting defect analyze in initial improvement process
to identify casting defects and their root cause. They minimize the various casting defects
their critical component in casting process to improve quality. Identifying various defects and
eliminates those defects by taking appropriate corrective action to achive higher productivity.

Elena Fiorese, Franco bollono and Gaiulio Timelli department of management and
engineering, stated that various process are available for production of aluminium alloy, but
significant role played by foundry process. they highlight on multilevel classification of
structural defects and imperfection in aluminium alloy casting. The frist level of types of
defects basis on their internal, external and geometric. Second level distingwish on their
metallurgical origin and third level refer to the specific types of defects. In high pressure die
casting required production rate up to 120 casting / hr. required high filling velocities of
molten alloy up to 40 m/sec. (131 ft/sec)with significant turbulence in the flow. Solidification
takes place in few seconds and die is first contact with a molten metal alloy temperature
higher than 700* C, (1292* F) and after 30-40 seconds, spray with a die relies agent at room
temperature. Solidification parameter is play main role to cooled the mold in casting so
various defects can generated while differences in solidification time.

M Avalle, G. Belingardi, M.P. cavatorta, R. Deglione Department of mechanical engineering

politechno de Torino Italy, stated that the influence of casting defects are exist in Gs and
shrinkage pores, as well as cold fill, dross and alumina skin. They also checked the specimen
by experimentally and made observations in form of acceptable and non acceptable. High
pressure die Casting used toobtaind complex shapes and geometry for high production rate.
Their studied shows the temrature defects as well as effects on mechanical properties for
material EN 46000 UNI EN 1706 which is mostly used in automotive field.

G. K.Sigworth concluded the concept of quality for improvement in aluminium casting which
combination of strength and elongation possible in heat treated casting with the help of
numerical value index. The concentration of casting defects was generating while molten
material flow in mold. For getting defects free casting, the solidification rate is considered as
important function, because it determine the size and amount of micro porosity (brittle phase)
of component in casting. In solidification time molten material in die freeze quickly and
concentrate high content of gas on different thickness which affects on tensile property.

J.B.Ferguson, Hugo F. Lopez, Kyu Cho,and Chang Soo Kim expert of material science and
technology USA, stated that the mechanical property are influence by as thermodynamic
stability of the participate in alloy, the concentration of impurity elements that evolve in alloy
micro structure. Different heat treatments to control the quantity, size and composition of
inter metallic form of alloy. The A-319 aluminium alloy material used for engine block for its
good abressive property as well as mechanical strength. They also stated the account of
temperature effects on youngs modulas, true yield stress, true failure stress and strain to
failure for participation hardness alloy. Also shows strength coefficients, ductility parameter
and strain hardening exponent for T-7 heat treatment condition.

J. Kajorncchairyakal, R. Sirichaivejakul, N moonrin, National metal and material technology

center Bangkok are studied that the experimental finding concerning the effect of sulfur on
A-356 aluminium alloy. It is better understanding regarding the influence of sulfur while
solidification as well as mechanical property on alloy. They conduct experiment with of
addition of sulfur and show the thermal analysis eutectic reaction of sulfuric alloy interval is
quite longer. It is not more affect to tensile strength as well as bulk hardness between
sulferise and normal alloy, which give greater ductility and lower yield strength with
comparison with normal alloy.

Ildiko peter, Mario Rosso, Material science and chemical engineering department Italy,
studied that mechanical performance hardly affected by internal surface and sub surface
defects, porosity etc while casting. Aluminium based alloy with T-6 heat treatment fined the
surface condition and inspection of micro and macro surface of metallic alloy. The most
common defects found in Al-Si casting alloys while solidification by volume concentration,
(Shrinkage) non correct feeding system, and gas (hydrogen) development. The defects like
shrinkage pour inclusion crack initiate site, which mostly affect to all mechanical properties
which indicate the mechanical failure.
 CHAPTER 3
CASTING DEFECTS, CAUSES AND THEIR REMEDIES

Casting is a process which carries risk of failure occurrence during all the
process of accomplishment of the finished product. Hence necessary action should be taken
while manufacturing of cast product so that defect free parts are obtained. Mostly casting
defects are concerned with process parameters. Hence one has to control the process
parameter to achieve zero defect parts. For controlling process parameter one must have
knowledge about effect of process parameter on casting and their influence on defect.
To obtain this all knowledge about casting defect, their causes, and defect remedies one has
to be analyze casting defects. Casting defect analysis is the process of finding root causes of
occurrence of defects in the rejection of casting and taking necessary step to reduce the
defects and to improve the casting yield.
In this review paper an attempt has been made to provide all casting related defect with their
causes and remedies.
During the process of casting, there is always a chance where defect will occur. Minor defect
can be adjusted easily but high rejected rates could lead to significant change at high cost.
Therefore it is essential for die caster to have knowledge on the type of defect and be able to
identify the exact root cause, and their remedies.

3.1 CASTING DEFECT

IT CAN BE CLASSIFIED AS FOLLOWS-
3.1.1 Filling related defect
3.1.2 Shape related defect
3.1.3 Thermal defect
3.1.4 Defect by appearance

These defects are explained as follows.

 3.1.1 Filling related defects
3.1.1a Blowhole:-

Blowhole is a kind of cavities defect, which is also divided into pinhole and subsurface
blowhole. Pinhole is very tiny hole. Subsurface blowhole only can be seen after machining.
Gases entrapped by solidifying metal on the surface of the casting, which results in a
rounded or oval blowhole as a cavity. Frequently associated with slags or oxides. The
defects are nearly always located in the cope part of the mould in poorly vented pockets and
undercuts.

1. Possible causes for blowholes:

a. Wet Sand
b. Surface
c. Sub Surface Slag Reactions holes
d. Sub Surface
e. Mould or core gasses (Steel Castings)
f. Mould or core gasses
g. Entrapped air Steel Castings
h. Entrapped air
i. Chaplet

1. Blowholes:

a. Wet Sand:
Localized patches of round or irregulars happed cavities of significant size. The walls of the
casting are smooth and often colored with oxidation tints. The two examples are
6`` gunmetal flange connection.
Grey iron valve body casting.
Possible Cause:
Excessive moisture in the sand
 Suggested Remedy: Reduce the moisture content or ensure even mixing. Avoid sleeking
(being the use of a water brush) or excessive moisture when finishing the mould.

Fig3.1.1aA
b. Surface:
This defect is characterized by localized areas of small cavities or pits on the
surface of a casting. The example given below shows defects located on the
inner diameter (the core side) of a small Phosphor-bronze casting containing
10%Sn, 0.3% P:

Fig3.1.1aB
Possible Cause:
Local overheating of the mould or core surfaces
Suggested Remedy:
Avoid local overheating of mould or core sand by the utilization of proper running methods.
(Illustrations below show good running method bottom with the top one being a bad running
method). Use of good refractory dressing. Check the pouring temperature. Localized areas of
small cavities/pits on the surface of the casting. The picture below shows defects on the
flange of a 4`` bore branch pipe in Ni-Cr Iron alloy cast in dry sand. This defect usually
occurs on heavier sections of castings which solidify at a slower rate than the thinner
sections. Rule of thumb suggests that it is most commonly experience on castings `` and
over. Stainless and other high alloyed steels are susceptible to this defect.
 Fig3.1.1aC

Possible Cause:
Reactions between the molten metal and the water vapour in the mould or
mould dressing is the most likely culprit contributing to this type of defect.

Suggested Remedy:
Use a mould dressing that will not evolve water vapour when heated. Mould dressings
bonded with such materials such as ethyl silicate provide satisfactory results. Defects
may also be minimized by the use of permeable well dried moulds made from either oil
bonded sand or synthetic sand containing a minimum amount of clay bond. Avoid local
overheating of the mould or core sand by proper methods of running.

Fig3.1.1aD: an enlargement of the above picture of which

the area expressed is indicated by the arrow.
c.Sub Surface Slag Reactions holes:

This type of blow hole is unique in appearance as it consists of small holes with rounded or
irregular shapes which may at times contain shot/grit at or just below the casting surface.
These blowholes mainly occur particularly on top surfaces and below cores. They may be
revealed on cleaning or after machining. These holes have discoloured surfaces which are
often associated with slag inclusions and sand grains.

Fig3.1.1aE
Possible Cause:
Fluid containing slag and manganese oxides entering the mould could react with the metal.
High manganese content and high sulphur contents coupled with low pouring temperatures
favour this kind of defect.

Suggested Remedy:
Avoid very fluid slags formed by oxidation of the metal in the ladle, or coming from low
melting point refractories such as botting clays. Skim the metal thoroughly, use strainer
cores, slag traps and good gating practices. Keep the runners full of metal. Reduce the
manganese content to a level just adequate to balance the sulphur content (Mn = 1.7 x
S% + 0.3), reduce the sulphur content and raise the pouring temperature.
d. Sub Surface:

Fig3.1.1aF
Small cavities adjacent to the surface of the casting (and usually on all surfaces of
the casting). In many cases the surface of the casting appears to be normal (which
makes this a difficult defect to identify in the as cast condition. In some cases
however, surface pitting may be present as illustrated below:

Fig3.1.1aG

Possible Cause:
This type of defect is caused by a reaction of the molten metal with the moisture in
the moulding sand. This is mostly associated (but not always) with high pouring
temperatures and is encouraged by insufficient de-oxidation, insufficient
permeability in the sand and insufficient ventilation
Suggested Remedy:
Reduce the volatile contend in the mould cores and dressing. Ensure that the
material is sufficiently de-oxidized. Increase the level of ventilation and increase the
permeability of the sand. Reduce the pouring temperature if possible.

e. Mould or core gasses (Steel Castings)

Fig3.1.1aH
Round shaped holes with bright smooth walls which normally present themselves once the
casting is sectioned as shown above. In some cases where blowholes has appeared from
concentrated pellets of other materials such as clay in the mould, the defect may migrate to
the surface of the casting.

Possible Causes:
Significant/excessive evolution of gases from the mould or core sand together with low
permeability and insufficient venting of the mould or core. It may also be the result of
improperly mixed mould and core sand.

Suggested Remedy:
Make sure that the sand is properly mixed and milled and that the materials (i.e.
bonding) are dispersed uniformly throughout the mix. Ensure that the cores are dry
and properly baked. Make use of less organic binders or additions and increase the
permeability/ventilation of the sand/mould.
Mould or core gasses

This defect appears with smooth walls and a round orientation. The source of the
issue is often difficult to identify unless the casting is sectioned. The picture below is
a 100mm grey cast pulley wheel casting showing blowholes from the core.
Possible Cause:

Excessive gas build up from the moulding or core sand coupled with insufficient
permeability or venting. Mat also be a result of metal entering the core vents.

Suggested remedy:

Use less oil binder. Ensure that the cores are sufficiently dry and properly baked.
Increase the permeability of the sand and ensure that the mould and cores are properly
vented.

Ensure that the sand is properly mixed and free of local contractions of core binder, coal
dust, etc

Fig3.1.1a I

g. Entrapped air Steel Castings:

These blowholes appear to be round with smooth out walls found on or just under
the surface of the casting. Both of the pictures (a) and (b) are small castings with
wall thicknesses ranging from 6 19mm in cross section. Both items were cast in
green sand.
Possible Cause:
Entrapped air

Suggested Remedy:
Increase the permeability of the sand as well as the venting of the mould. Try and avoid fast
and turbulent metal flow into the mould.

Fig3.1.1aJ
h. Entrapped air:

Elongated cavities of appreciable size consisting of smooth walls located on or

just below the surface of the casting located near the highest part of the cast
component.

Possible Cause:
Entrapped air

Suggested Remedy:
Make use of a vent in the affected area. Wire may be used to increase the permeability
of the sand should the surface finish of the product allow for it. Check the degree of
ramming or mould hardness at the affected areas.

Fig3.1.1aK

i.Chaplet:

Smooth-walled cavities adjacent to Chaplets which are round or elongated in

appearance. This defect is more often than not associated with issues associated to
the fusion of the chaplet with the casting and may cause leakage when exposed to
pressure. Picture (a) and (b) show blowholes and imperfect fusion of the chaplet in
a grey cast iron. (c) shows good fusion of chaplet with metal.

Possible Causes:
Rusty, Dirty, Damp or improperly coated Chaplets
Suggested Remedy:
Make sure that the Chaplets are clean, dry and free of contamination. Bright iron
steel chaplets are deemed to be satisfactory when used immediately. However they may
cause blowing if allowed to stand in the mould (long enough for rust to develop. The use of
Tin-coated or Copper coated chaplets is recommended to avoid this issue. Zinc or alloys
containing Zinc are problematic for chaplets as they will also cause blowing

Fig3.1.1aL
3.1.1b Sand burning

Burning-on defect is also called as sand burning, which includes chemical burn-on,
and metal penetration. Thin sand crusts firmly adhering to the casting. The defect occurs to
a greater extent in the case of thick- walled castings and at high temperatures. The high
temperature to which the sand is subjected causes sintering of the bentonite and silicate
components. In addition, the always present iron oxides combine with the low-melting-point
silicates to form iron silicates, thereby further reducing the sinter point of the sand.
Sintering and melting of the impurities in the moulding sand enable the molten iron to
penetrate even faster, these layers then frequently and firmly adhering to the casting
3.1.1c Sand inclusion

Sand inclusion and slag inclusion are also called as scab or blacking scab. They are inclusion
defects. Looks like there are slag inside of metal castings.

Irregularly formed sand inclusions, close to the casting surface, combined with
metallic protuberances at other points. Sand inclusion is one of the most frequent causes of
casting rejection. It is often difficult to diagnose, as these defects generally occur at widely
varying positions and are therefore very difficult to attribute to a local cause. Areas of sand
are often torn away by the metal stream and then float to the surface of the casting because
they cannot be wetted by the molten metal. Sand inclusions frequently appear in association
with CO blowholes and slag particles. Sand inclusions can also be trapped under the casting
surface in combination with metal oxides and slags, and only become visible during
machining. If a loose section of sand is washed away from one part of the mould, metallic
protuberances will occur here and have to be removed.

Fig3.1.3cASand inclusion

Avoid high pouring rates and impact of metal stream against mould walls
Shorten pouring times, improve distribution of gates.

3.1.1d Cold lap or cold shut

Cold lap or also called as cold shut. It is a crack with round edges. Cold lap is because of
low melting temperature or poor gating system.
When the metal is unable to fill the mould cavity completely and thus leaving unfilled
portion called misrun. A cold shunt is called when two metal streams do not fuse together
properly.
 Fig 3.1.1dA cold shut
Possible Causes
Lack of fluidity in molten metal
Faulty design
Faulty gating

Remedies:
Adjust proper pouring temperature
Modify design
Modify gating system

3.1.1e Misrun
Misrun defect is a kind of incomplete casting defect, which causes the casting uncompleted.
The edge of defect is round and smooth. When the metal is unable to fill the mould cavity
completely and thus leaving unfilled portion called misrun. A cold shunt is called when two
metal streams do not fuse together properly.

Fig 3.1.1eA Misrun

 3.1.1f Gas porosity

The gas can be from trapped air, hydrogen dissolved in aluminum alloys, moisture from
water based die lubricants or steam from cracked cooling lines.

Air is present in the cavity before the shot. It can easily be trapped as the metal starts to fill
the cavity. The air is then compressed as more and more metal streams into the cavity and
the pressure rises. When the cavity is full it becomes dispersed as small spheres of high
pressure air. The swirling flow can cause them to become elongated.

Fig3.1.1fA Gas porosity

Possible Causes
Metal pouring temperature too low.
Insufficient metal fluidity e.g. carbon equivalent too low.
Pouring too slow.
Slag on the metal surface.
Interruption to pouring during filling of the mould.
High gas pressure in the mould arising from molding material having high moisture and/or
volatile content and/or low permeability.
Lustrous carbon from the molding process.
Metal section too thin.
Inadequately pre-heated metallic moulds.

Suggested Remedies
Increase metal pouring temperature.
Modify metal composition to improve fluidity.
Pour metal as rapidly as possible without interruption. Improve mould filling
 by modification to running and gating system.
Remove slag from metal surface.
Reduce gas pressure in the mould by appropriate adjustment to moulding
material properties and ensuring
Adequate venting of moulds and cores.
Eliminate lustrous carbon where applicable.
If possible, modify casting design to avoid thin sections.
Ensure metal moulds are adequately pre-heated and use insulating coatings.

3.1.2 Shape defects

3.1.2a Mismatch defect
Mismatch in mold defect is because of the shifting molding flashes. It will cause the
dislocation at the parting line.

Fig 3.1.2aA Mismatch

Possible causes
A mismatch is caused by the cope and drag parts of the mould not remaining
in their proper position.
This is caused by loose box pins, inaccurate pattern dowel pins or
carelessness in placing the cope on the drag.

Suggested Remedies
Check pattern mounting on match plate and Rectify, correct dowels.
Use proper molding box and closing pins.

3.1.2b Distortion or warp

 Warped CastingDistortion due to warp age is known as warp defect.

Possible causes
Distortion due to warp age can occur over time in a casting that partially or completely
liberates residual stresses.

Suggested Remedies
Common practice in iron casting is normalizing heat treatment to remove residual stress.
In aluminum casting, a straightening between quench and aging might be required.

3.1.2c Flash defect

Flash can be described as any unwanted, excess metal which comes out of the die attached
to the cavity or runner.
Typically it forms a thin sheet of metal at the parting faces. There are a number of different
causes of flash and the amount and severity can vary from a minor inconvenience to a
major quality issue.
At the very least, flash is waste material, which mainly turns into dross when re-melted,
and therefore is a hidden cost to the business.

Fig.3.1.2cA Flash defect

Possible causes
Damage to die faces and die components
Parts of the die have insufficient strength
Bending, crowning of stretching of dies
Cavities offset from centre of platen
 Insufficient machine clamp-up
Pressure spikes at the end of cavity fill
Excessive intensification pressure
Incorrect intensification timing
Damage, or wear, in toggle mechanisms
Machine hydraulic malfunction
Hydraulic valve or seal leaks

Suggested Remedies
If your sprue is very tall and the casting covers a wide area of the mold face, it's very
possible for the mold to actually be forced up by the hydrostatic pressure of the metal.
The seriousness of this depends density of the metal (aluminum is very light, but be careful
with a bronze pour!) and the weight of the mold fighting it. The solution here is very simple:
weight down the mold.

3.1.3 Thermal defects

3.1.3a Cracks or tears
Cracks can appear in die castings from a number of causes. Some cracks are very obvious
an can easily be seen with the naked eye. Other cracks are very difficult to see without
magnification.

Fig3.1.3aA Crack
 3.1.3b Shrinkage

Shrinkage defects occur when feed metal is not available to compensate for shrinkage as
the metal solidifies. Shrinkage defects can be split into two different types: open shrinkage
defects and closed shrinkage defects. Open shrinkage defects are open to the atmosphere,
therefore as the shrinkage cavity forms air compensates. There are two types of open air
defects: pipes and caved surfaces. Pipes form at the surface of the casting and burrow into the
casting, while caved surfaces are shallow cavities that form across the surface of the casting.

Closed shrinkage defects, also known as shrinkage porosity, are defects that form within
the casting. Isolated pools of liquid form inside solidified metal, which are called hot spots.
The shrinkage defect usually forms at the top of the hot spots. They require a nucleation
point, so impurities and dissolved gas can induce closed shrinkage defects. The defects are
broken up into macroporosity and microporosity (or microshrinkage), where macroporosity
can be seen by the naked eye and microporosity cannot.

Fig3.1.3bA Shrinkage
Possible causes
The density of a die casting alloy in the molten state is less than its density in the solid state.
Therefore, when an alloy changes phase from the molten state to the solid state, it always
shrinks in size.
This shrinkage takes place when the casting is solidifying inside a die casting die. At the
centre of thick sections of a casting, this shrinkage can end up as many small voids known
as shrinkage porosity.
If the shrinkage porosity is small in diameter and confined to the very centre of thick
sections it will usually cause no problems. However, if it is larger in size, or joined together,
it can severely weaken a casting. It is also a particular problem for castings which need to be
gas tight or water tight.

Suggested Remedies
The general technique for eliminating shrinkage porosity is to ensure that liquid metal under
pressure continues to flow into the voids as they form.

3.1.3c Sink mark

Solving molding sink mark and void problems Definition: Sink marks and voids both
result from localized shrinkage of the material at thick sections without sufficient
compensation.

Sink marks appear as depressions on the surface of a molded part. These depressions are
typically very small; however they are often quite visible,because they reflect light in
different directions to the part. The visibility of sink marks is a function of the color of the
part as well as its surface texture so depth is only one criterion. Although sink marks do not
affect part strength or function, they are perceived to be severe quality defects.
Voids are holes enclosed inside a part. These can be a single hole or a group of smaller
holes. Void are caused when the outer skin of the part is stiff enough to resist the shrinkage
forces thus preventing a surface depression. Instead, the material core will shrink,creating
voids inside the part. Voids may have severe impact on the structural performance of the
part. moulding sink mark and void.
 Fig 3.1.3cA Sink mark
Possible causes
Sink marks are caused mainly by thermal contraction (shrinkage) during cooling.
After the material on the outside has cooled and solidified, the core material starts to cool. Its
shrinkage pulls the surface of the main wall inward, causing a sink mark. If the skin is rigid
enough, deformation of the skin may be replaced by formation of a void in the core.
Localized geometric features sink marks typically occur in moldings with thicker sections, or
at locations opposite from ribs, bosses or internal fillets. High volumetric shrinkage
insufficient material compensation early gate freeze-off or low packing pressure may not
pack the cavity properly. Short packing or cooling time High melt and/or mould
temperatures

Suggested Remedies
Optimize
packing profile
As sink marks occur during packing, the most effective way to reduce or eliminate them is to
control the packing pressure correctly. To determine the effects of packing on sink marks, use
a simulation package such as Mold flow Plastics Insight.

Change part geometry

Alter part design to avoid thick sections and reduce the thickness of any features that intersect
with the main surface.
Reduce volumetric shrinkage
Relocate gates to problem areas
This allows these sections to be packed before the thinner sections between the gate and the
problem areas freeze.
Optimize the runner system design
Restrictive runner system design can result in premature gate freeze-off.

3.1.4 Defects by Appearance

3.1.4a Metallic projection
Joint flash or fins. Flat projection of irregular thickness, often with lacy edges,
perpendicular to one of the faces of the casting. It occurs along the joint or parting line of the
mold, at a core print, or wherever two elements of the mold intersect.

3.1.4aA Metallic projection

Possible causes
Clearance between two elements of the mold or between mold and core; Poorly fit mould
joint.

Suggested Remedies
Care in pattern making, molding and core making. Control of their dimensions; Care in
core setting and mould assembly.

3.1.4b Cavities
Blowholes, pinholes, Smooth-walled cavities, essentially spherical, often not contacting
the external casting surface (Blowholes). The defect can appear in all regions of the
casting.

Fig3.1.4bA Blow hole

Possible causes
Blowholes and pinholes are produced because of gas entrapped in the metal during the
course of solidification:
Suggested Remedies
Make adequate provision for evacuation of air and gas from the mold cavity; Increase
permeability of mold and cores.
3.1.4c Discontinuities
Hot cracking. A crack often scarcely visible because the casting in general has not
separated into fragments. The fracture surfaces may be discolored because of oxidation. The
design of the casting is such that the crack would not be expected to result from constraints
during cooling.

Fig 3.1.4cA Body cracks

Possible Causes
Damage to the casting while hot due to rough handling or excessive temperature at
shakeout.

Suggested Remedies
Care in shakeout and in handling the casting while it is still hot; Sufficient cooling of the
casting in the mould.

3.1.4d Incomplete casting

Poured short. The upper portion of the casting is missing. The edges adjacent to the
missing section are slightly rounded; all other contours conform to the pattern. The spree,
risers and lateral vents are filled only to the same height above the parting line, as is the
casting.

Fig3.1.4dAIncomplete casting
Possible causes
Insufficient quantity of liquid metal in the ladle. Premature interruption of pouring due
to workmans error.

Suggested Remedies
Have sufficient metal in the ladle to fill the mold, Check the gating system. Instruct
pouring crew and supervise pouring practice.

3.1.4eIncorect dimension or shape

Distorted casting. Inadequate thickness, extending over large areas of the cope or drag
surfaces at the time the mold is rammed.
 Fig3.1.4eA Distortion

Possible causes
Rigidity of the pattern or pattern plate is not sufficient to withstand the ramming pressure
applied to the sand. The result is an elastic deformation of the pattern and a corresponding,
permanent deformation of the mold cavity. In diagnosing the condition, the compare the
surfaces of the pattern with those of the mold itself.
Suggested Remedies
Assure adequate rigidity of patterns and pattern plates, especially when squeeze pressures
are being increased.
3.1.4f Defective surface
Flow marks. On the surfaces of otherwise sound castings, the defect appears as lines
which trace the flow of the streams of liquid metal.

Fig 3.1.4fADefective surface

 Possible causes
Oxide films which lodge at the surface, partially marking the paths of metal flow through
the mold.

Suggested Remedies
Increase mold temperature;
Lower the pouring temperature;
Modify gate size and location Tilt the mold during pouring

3.1.4g Rat Tail and Buckles

Rat tails and buckles are caused by the expansion of a thin outer layer of moulding sand
on the surface of the mould cavity due to metal heat.

Fig3.1.4gA Rat tail

Possible Causes
A rat tail is caused by depression of a part of the mould under compression
which appears as an irregular line on the surface of the casting.
A buckle is a more severe failure of the sand surface under compression.

Suggested Remedies
The mould must provide for proper expansion instead of forming compressed layers to
avoid this defect.
 Chapter 4
Non-Destructive Testing of Casting
5.1 Definition of NDT
Nondestructive testing or non-destructive testing (NDT) is a wide group of analysis
techniques used in science and technology industry to evaluate the properties of a
material, component or system without causing damage. The terms nondestructive
examination (NDE), non-destructive inspection (NDI), and nondestructive
evaluation (NDE) are also commonly used to describe this technology. Because NDT
does not permanently alter the article being inspected, it is a highly valuable technique
that can save both money and time in product evaluation, troubleshooting, and
research.
NDT method is used to:
There are NDT application at almost any stage in the production or life cycle of a
component in:
Flaw detection and evaluation
Leak detection
Location determination
Dimensional measurements
Structure and microstructure characterisation
Estimation of mechanical and physical properties
Stress(Strain) and dynamic response measurements
Material sorting and chemical composition determination

5.2 Six Most Common NDT Methods

Visual Inspection Method
Liquid Penetrant
Magnetic Particle
Ultrasonic
Eddy Current Testing
Industrial Radiography

5.2.1 Visual Inspection Method

Common defects such as surface roughness, obvious shifts, omission of cores and
surface cracks can be detected by a visual inspection of the casting. Cracks may also
be detected by hitting the casting with a mallet and listening to the quality of the tone
produced.
Tools used in this method are
Fiberscope
Borescope
Magnifying Glasses and
Mirror

Fig5.2.1 Visual inspection with an articulating fiberscope

5.2.2 Liquid Penetrant
Liquid penetrant inspection (LPI), also called Dye penetrant inspection (DPI)
or penetrant testing (PT), is a widely applied and low-cost inspection method used
to locate surface-breaking defects in all non-porous materials (metals, plastics, or
ceramics). The penetrant may be applied to all non-ferrous materials and ferrous
materials, although for ferrous components magnetic-particle inspection is often used
instead for its subsurface detection capability. LPI is used to detect casting, forging
and welding surface defects such as hairline cracks, surface porosity, leaks in new
products, and fatigue cracks on in-service components.
Principles

DPI is based upon capillary action, where low surface tension fluid penetrates into
clean and dry surface-breaking discontinuities. Penetrant may be applied to the test
component by dipping, spraying, or brushing. After adequate penetration time has
been allowed, the excess penetrant is removed and a developer is applied. The
developer helps to draw penetrant out of the flaw so that an invisible indication
becomes visible to the inspector. Inspection is performed under ultraviolet or white
light, depending on the type of dye used - fluorescent or nonfluorescent (visible).

Inspection steps

Below are the main steps of Liquid Penetrant Inspection:

1. Pre-cleaning:

The test surface is cleaned to remove any dirt, paint, oil, grease or any loose scale that
could either keep penetrant out of a defect, or cause irrelevant or false indications.
Cleaning methods may include solvents, alkaline cleaning steps, vapor degreasing, or
media blasting. The end goal of this step is a clean surface where any defects present
are open to the surface, dry, and free of contamination. Note that if media blasting is
used, it may "work over" small discontinuities in the part, and an etching bath is
recommended as a post-blasting treatment.

Fig 5.2.2 Application of the penetrant to a part in a ventilated test

area.

2. Application of Penetrant:

The penetrant is then applied to the surface of the item being tested. The penetrant is
allowed "dwell time" to soak into any flaws (generally 5 to 30 minutes). The dwell
time mainly depends upon the penetrant being used, material being tested and the size
of flaws sought. As expected, smaller flaws require a longer penetration time. Due to
their incompatible nature one must be careful not to apply solvent-based penetrant to
a surface which is to be inspected with a water-washable penetrant.

3. Excess Penetrant Removal:

The excess penetrant is then removed from the surface. The removal method is
controlled by the type of penetrant used. Water-washable, solvent-removable,
or hydrophilic post-emulsifiable are the common choices. Emulsifiersrepresent the
highest sensitivity level, and chemically interact with the oily penetrant to make it
removable with a water spray. When using solvent remover and lint-free cloth it is
important to not spray the solvent on the test surface directly, because this can remove
the penetrant from the flaws. If excess penetrant is not properly removed, once the
developer is applied, it may leave a background in the developed area that can mask
indications or defects. In addition, this may also produce false indications severely
hindering the ability to do a proper inspection. Also.

4. Application of Developer:

After excess penetrant has been removed, a white developer is applied to the sample.
Several developer types are available, including: non-aqueous wet developer, dry
powder, water-suspendable, and water-soluble. Choice of developer is governed by
penetrant compatibility (one can't use water-soluble or -suspendable developer with
water-washable penetrant), and by inspection conditions. When using non-aqueous
wet developer (NAWD) or dry powder, the sample must be dried prior to application,
while soluble and suspendable developers are applied with the part still wet from the
previous step. NAWD is commercially available in aerosol spray cans, and may
employ acetone, isopropyl alcohol, or a propellant that is a combination of the two.
Developer should form a semi-transparent, even coating on the surface. The developer
draws penetrant from defects out onto the surface to form a visible indication,
commonly known as bleed-out. Any areas that bleed out can indicate the location,
orientation and possible types of defects on the surface. Interpreting the results and
characterizing defects from the indications found may require some training and/or
experience [the indication size is not the actual size of the defect
5. Inspection:

The inspector will use visible light with adequate intensity (100 foot-candles or
1100 lux is typical) for visible dye penetrant. Ultraviolet (UV-A) radiation of
adequate intensity (1,000 micro-watts per centimeter squared is common), along with
low ambient light levels (less than 2 foot-candles) for fluorescent penetrant
examinations. Inspection of the test surface should take place after 10- to 30-minute
development time, depends of product kind. This time delay allows the blotting action
to occur. The inspector may observe the sample for indication formation when using
visible dye. It is also good practice to observe indications as they form because the
characteristics of the bleed out are a significant part of interpretation characterization
of flaws.

6. Post Cleaning:

The test surface is often cleaned after inspection and recording of defects, especially if
post-inspection coating processes are scheduled.

Advantages and disadvantages

The main advantages of DPI are the speed of the test and the low cost. Disadvantages
include the detection of only surface flaws, skin irritation, and the inspection should
be on a smooth clean surface where excessive penetrant can be removed prior to being
developed. Conducting the test on rough surfaces, such as "as-welded" welds, will
make it difficult to remove any excessive penetrant and could result in false
indications. Water-washable penetrant should be considered here if no other option is
available. Also, on certain surfaces a great enough color contrast cannot be achieved
or the dye will stain the workpiece.

Limited training is required for the operator although experience is quite valuable.
Proper cleaning is necessary to assure that surface contaminants have been removed
and any defects present are clean and dry. Some cleaning methods have been shown
to be detrimental to test sensitivity, so acid etching to remove metal smearing and re-
open the defect may be necessary.

5.2.3 Magnetic Particle

Magnetic particle Inspection (MPI) is a non-destructive testing (NDT) process for
detecting surface and slightly subsurface discontinuities in ferromagnetic
materials such as iron, nickel, cobalt, and some of their alloys. The process puts a
magnetic field into the part. The piece can be magnetized by direct or indirect
magnetization. Direct magnetization occurs when the electric current is passed
through the test object and a magnetic field is formed in the material. Indirect
magnetization occurs when no electric current is passed through the test object, but a
magnetic field is applied from an outside source. The magnetic lines of force are
perpendicular to the direction of the electric current, which may be either alternating
current (AC) or some form of direct current (DC) (rectified AC).

The presence of a surface or subsurface discontinuity in the material allows

the magnetic flux to leak, since air cannot support as much magnetic field per unit
volume as metals.

To identify a leak, ferrous particles, either dry or in a wet suspension, are applied to a
part. These are attracted to an area of flux leakage and form what is known as an
indication, which is evaluated to determine its nature, cause, and course of action, if
any.
Types of electrical currents used

There are several types of electrical currents used in magnetic particle inspection. For
a proper current to be selected one needs to consider the part geometry, material, the
type of discontinuity one is seeking, and how far the magnetic field needs to penetrate
into the part.

Alternating current (AC) is commonly used to detect surface discontinuities.

Using AC to detect subsurface discontinuities is limited due to what is known as
the skin effect, where the current runs along the surface of the part. Because the
current alternates in polarity at 50 to 60 cycles per second it does not penetrate
much past the surface of the test object. This means the magnetic domains will
only be aligned equal to the distance AC current penetration into the part. The
frequency of the alternating current determines how deep the penetration.
Full wave DC (FWDC) is used to detect subsurface discontinuities where AC can
not penetrate deep enough to magnetize the part at the depth needed. The amount
of magnetic penetration depends on the amount of current through the part. DC is
also limited on very large cross-sectional parts in terms of how effectively it will
magnetize the part.
Half wave DC (HWDC, pulsating DC) works similar to full wave DC, but allows
for detection of surface breaking indications and has more magnetic penetration
into the part than FWDC. HWDC is advantageous for inspection process as it
actually helps move the magnetic particles during the bathing of the test object.
The aid in particle mobility is caused by the half-wave pulsating current
waveform. In a typical mag pulse of 0.5 seconds there are 15 pulses of current
using HWDC. This gives the particle more of an opportunity to come in contact
with areas of magnetic flux leakage.

An AC electromagnet is the preferred method for find surface breaking indication.

The use of an electromagnet to find subsurface indications is difficult. An AC
electromagnet is a better means to detect a subsurface indication than HWDC, DC, or
permanent magnet, while some form of DC is better for subsurface defects.
Equipment

Fig5.2.3a An automatic wet horizontal MPI machine with an external power supply,
conveyor, and demagnetizing system. It is used to inspect engine cranks.

A wet horizontal MPI machine is the most commonly used mass-production

inspection machine. The machine has a head and tail stock where the part is
placed to magnetize it. In between the head and tail stock is typically an induction
coil, which is used to change the orientation of the magnetic field by 90 from the
head stock. Most of the equipment is built for a specific application.
Mobile power packs are custom-built magnetizing power supplies used in wire
wrapping applications.
Magnetic yoke is a hand-held device that induces a magnetic field between two
poles. Common applications are for outdoor use, remote locations, and weld
inspection. The draw back of magnetic yokes is that they only induce a magnetic
field between the poles, so large-scale inspections using the device can be time-
consuming. For proper inspection the yoke needs to be rotated 90 degrees for
every inspection area to detect horizontal and vertical discontinuities. Subsurface
detection using a yoke is limited. These systems used dry magnetic powders, wet
powders, or aerosols.
Demagnetizing parts

Fig5.2.3b A pull through AC demagnetizing unit

After the part has been magnetized it needs to be demagnetized. This requires special
equipment that works the opposite way of the magnetizing equipment. The
magnetization is normally done with a high current pulse that reaches a peak current
very quickly and instantaneously turns off leaving the part magnetized. To
demagnetize a part, the current or magnetic field needed has to be equal to or greater
than the current or magnetic field used to magnetize the part. The current or magnetic
field is then slowly reduced to zero, leaving the part demagnetized.

AC demagnetizing
Pull-through AC demagnetizing coils: seen in the figure to the right are AC
powered devices that generate a high magnetic field where the part is slowly
pulled through by hand or on a conveyor. The act of pulling the part through
and away from the coil's magnetic field slows drops the magnetic field in the
part. Note that many AC demagnetizing coils have power cycles of several
seconds so the part must be passed through the coil and be several feet
(meters) away before the demagnetizing cycle finishes or the part will have
residual magnetization.
AC decaying demagnetizing: this is built into most single phase MPI
equipment. During the process the part is subjected to an equal or greater AC
current, after which the current is reduced over a fixed period of time
(typically 18 seconds) until zero output current is reached. As AC is
alternating from a positive to a negative polarity this will leave the magnetic
domains of the part randomized.
 AC demag does have significant limitations on its ability to demag a part
depending on the geometry and the alloys used.
Reversing full wave DC demagnetizing: this is a demagnetizing method that must
be built into the machine during manufacturing. It is similar to AC decaying
except the DC current is stopped at intervals of half a second, during which the
current is reduced by a quantity and its direction is reversed. Then current is
passed through the part again. The process of stopping, reducing and reversing the
current will leave the magnetic domains randomized. This process is continued
until zero current is passed through the part. The normal reversing DC demag
cycle on modern equipment should be 18 seconds or longer. This method of
demag was developed to overcome the limitations presented by the AC demag
method where part geometry and certain alloys prevented the AC demag method
from working.
Halfwave DC demagnetizing (HWDC): this process is identical to full-wave DC
demagnetization, except the waveform is half-wave. This method of
demagnetization is new to the industry and only available from a single
manufacturer. It was developed to be a cost-effective method to demagnetize
without needing a full-wave DC bridge design power supply. This method is only
found on single-phase AC/HWDC power supplies. HWDC demagnetization is
just as effective as full-wave DC, without the extra cost and added complexity. Of
course, other limitations apply due to inductive losses when using HWDC
waveform on large-diameter parts. Also, HWDC effectiveness is limited past 410
mm (16 in) diameter using a 12-volt power supply.

Magnetic particle powder

A common particle used to detect cracks is iron oxide, for both dry and wet systems.

Wet system particle range in size from less than 0.5 micrometres to 10
micrometres for use with water or oil carriers. Particles used in wet systems have
pigments applied that fluoresce at 365 nm (ultraviolet A) requiring
1000 W/cm2 (10 W/m2) at the surface of the part for proper inspection. If the
particles do not have the correct light applied in a darkroom the particles cannot
be detected/seen. It is industry practice to use UV goggles/glasses to filter the UV
light and amplify the visible light spectrum (normally green and yellow) created
 by the fluorescing particles. Green and yellow fluorescence was chosen, because
the human eye reacts best to these colors.

Dry particle powders range in size from 5 to 170 micrometres, designed to be

seen in white light conditions. The particles are not designed to be used in wet
environments. Dry powders are normally applied using hand operated air powder
applicators.
Aerosol applied particles are similar to wet systems, sold in premixed aerosol
cans similar to hair spray.

Magnetic particle carriers

It is common industry practice to use specifically designed oil and water-based

carriers for magnetic particles. Deodorized kerosene and mineral spirits have not been
commonly used in the industry for 40 years. It is dangerous to use kerosene or mineral
spirits as a carrier due to their low flash points, and inhalation of fumes by the
operators.

Inspection

The following are general steps for inspecting on a wet horizontal machine:

1. Part is cleaned of oil and other contaminants.

2. Necessary calculations done to know the amount of current required to
magnetize the part.
3. The magnetizing pulse is applied for 0.5 seconds, during which the operator
washes the part with the particle, stopping before the magnetic pulse is
completed. Failure to stop prior to end of the magnetic pulse will wash away
indications.
4. UV light is applied while the operator looks for indications of defects that are
0 to 45 degrees from path the current flowed through the part. Indications
only appear 45 to 90 degrees of the magnetic field applied. The easiest way to
quickly figure out which way the magnetic field is running is grab the part
with either hand between the head stocks laying your thumb against the part
(do not wrap your thumb around the part) this is called either left or right
thumb rule or right hand grip rule. The direction the thumb points tell us the
direction current is flowing, the magnetic field will be running 90 degrees
 from the current path. On complex geometry, like a crankshaft, the operator
needs to visualize the changing direction of the current and magnetic field
created. The current starts at 0 degrees then 45 degrees to 90 degree back to
45 degrees to 0 then -45 to -90 to -45 to 0 and this is repeated for
each crankpin. Thus, it can be time consuming to find indications that are only
45 to 90 degrees from the magnetic field.
5. The part is either accepted or rejected, based on pre-defined criteria.
6. The part is demagnetized.
7. Depending on requirements, the orientation of the magnetic field may need to
be changed 90 degrees to inspect for indications that cannot be detected from
steps 3 to 5. The most common way to change magnetic field orientation is to
use a "coil shot". In Fig 1 a 36 inch coil can be seen then steps 4, 5, and 6 are
repeated.

5.2.4 Ultrasonic Method

Ultrasonic testing (UT) is a family of non-destructive testing techniques based on the

propagation of ultrasonic waves in the object or material tested. In most common UT
applications, very short ultrasonic pulse-waves with center frequencies ranging from
0.1-15 MHz, and occasionally up to 50 MHz, are transmitted into materials to detect
internal flaws or to characterize materials. A common example is ultrasonic thickness
measurement, which tests the thickness of the test object, for example, to monitor
pipework corrosion.

Ultrasonic testing is often performed on steel and other metals and alloys, though it
can also be used on concrete, wood and composites, albeit with less resolution. It is
used in many industries including steel and aluminium construction, metallurgy,
manufacturing, aerospace, automotive and other transportation sectors.
How it works

At a construction site, a technician tests a pipeline weld for defects using an

ultrasonic phased array instrument. The scanner, which consists of a frame with
magnetic wheels, holds the probe in contact with the pipe by a spring. The wet area is
the ultrasonic couplant that allows the sound to pass into the pipe wall.

Non-destructive testing of a swing shaft showing spline cracking

In ultrasonic testing, an ultrasound transducer connected to a diagnostic machine is

passed over the object being inspected. The transducer is typically separated from the
test object by a couplant (such as oil) or by water, as in immersion testing. However,
when ultrasonic testing is conducted with an Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducer
(EMAT) the use of couplant is not required.

There are two methods of receiving the ultrasound waveform: reflection and
attenuation. In reflection (or pulse-echo) mode, the transducer performs both the
sending and the receiving of the pulsed waves as the "sound" is reflected back to the
device. Reflected ultrasound comes from an interface, such as the back wall of the
object or from an imperfection within the object. The diagnostic machine displays
these results in the form of a signal with an amplitude representing the intensity of the
reflection and the distance, representing the arrival time of the reflection. In
attenuation (or through-transmission) mode, a transmitter sends ultrasound through
one surface, and a separate receiver detects the amount that has reached it on another
surface after traveling through the medium. Imperfections or other conditions in the
space between the transmitter and receiver reduce the amount of sound transmitted,
thus revealing their presence. Using the couplant increases the efficiency of the
process by reducing the losses in the ultrasonic wave energy due to separation
between the surfaces.

Advantages

1. High penetrating power, which allows the detection of flaws deep in the part.
2. High sensitivity, permitting the detection of extremely small flaws.
3. In many cases only one surface needs to be accessible.
4. Greater accuracy than other nondestructive methods in determining the depth
of internal flaws and the thickness of parts with parallel surfaces.
5. Some capability of estimating the size, orientation, shape and nature of
defects.
6. Some capability of estimating the structure of alloys of components with
different acoustic properties
7. Non hazardous to operations or to nearby personnel and has no effect on
equipment and materials in the vicinity.
8. Capable of portable or highly automated operation.
9. Results are immediate. Hence on the spot decisions can be made.

Disadvantages

1. Manual operation requires careful attention by experienced technicians. The

transducers alert to both normal structure of some materials, tolerable
anomalies of other specimens (both termed noise) and to faults therein
severe enough to compromise specimen integrity. These signals must be
distinguished by a skilled technician, possibly requiring follow up with other
nondestructive testing methods.
2. Extensive technical knowledge is required for the development of inspection
procedures.
3. Parts that are rough, irregular in shape, very small or thin, or not homogeneous
are difficult to inspect.
 4. Surface must be prepared by cleaning and removing loose scale, paint, etc.,
although paint that is properly bonded to a surface need not be removed.
5. Couplants are needed to provide effective transfer of ultrasonic wave energy
between transducers and parts being inspected unless a non-contact technique
is used. Non-contact techniques include Laser and Electro Magnetic Acoustic
Transducers (EMAT).
6. Inspected items must be water resistant, when using water based couplants that
do not contain rust inhibitors. In these cases anti-freeze liquids with inhibitors
are often used.

5.2.5 Eddy Current Testing

Eddy-current testing is one of many electromagnetic testing methods used

in nondestructive testing (NDT) making use of electromagnetic induction to detect
and characterize surface and sub-surface flaws in conductive materials.

ECT principle

In its most basic form the single-element ECT probe a coil of conductive wire is
excited with an alternating electrical current. This wire coil produces an
alternating magnetic field around itself. The magnetic field oscillates at the same
frequency as the current running through the coil. When the coil approaches a
conductive material, currents opposed to the ones in the coil are induced in the
material eddy currents.

Variations in the electrical conductivity and magnetic permeability of the test object,
and the presence of defects causes a change in eddy current and a corresponding
change in phase and amplitude that can be detected by measuring the impedance
changes in the coil, which is a telltale sign of the presence of defects. This is the basis
of standard (pancake coil) ECT.

ECT has a very wide range of applications. Because ECT is electrical in nature, it is
limited to conductive material. There are also physical limits to generating eddy
currents and depth of penetration (skin depth).
Applications

The two major applications of eddy current testing are surface inspection and tubing
inspections. Surface inspection is used extensively in the aerospace industry, but also
in the petrochemical industry. The technique is very sensitive and can detect tight
cracks. Surface inspection can be performed both on ferromagnetic and non-
ferromagnetic materials.

Tubing inspection is generally limited to non-ferromagnetic tubing and is known as

conventional eddy current testing. Conventional ECT is used for inspecting steam
generator tubing in nuclear plants and heat exchangers tubing in power and
petrochemical industries. The technique is very sensitive to detect and size pits. Wall
loss or corrosion can be detected but sizing is not accurate.

A variation of conventional ECT for partially magnetic materials is full saturation

ECT. In this technique, permeability variations are suppressed by applying a magnetic
field. The saturation probes contain conventional eddy current coils and magnets. This
inspection is used on partially ferromagnetic materials such as nickel alloys, duplex
alloys, and thin-ferromagnetic materials such as ferritic chromium molybdenum
stainless steel. The application of a saturation eddy current technique depends on the
permeability of the material, tube thickness, and diameter.

A method used for carbon steel tubing is remote field eddy current testing. This
method is sensitive to general wall loss and not sensitive to small pits and cracks.

ECT on surfaces

When it comes to surface applications, the performance of any given inspection

technique depends greatly on the specific conditions mostly the types of materials
and defects, but also surface conditions, etc. However, in most situations, the
following are true:

Effective on coatings/paint: yes

Computerized record keeping: partial
3D/Advanced imaging: none
User dependence: high
Speed: low
 Post-inspection analysis: none
Requires chemicals/consumables: no

5.2.6 Industrial Radiography

Industrial radiography is a method of non-destructive testing where many types of

manufactured components can be examined to verify the internal structure and
integrity of the specimen. Industrial Radiography can be performed utilizing either X-
rays or gamma rays. Both are forms of electromagnetic radiation. The difference
between various forms of electromagnetic energy is related to the wavelength. X and
gamma rays have the shortest wavelength and this property leads to the ability to
penetrate, travel through, and exit various materials such as carbon steel and other
metals.

Fig5.2.6 Making a radiograph

 Chapter 5
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

In this research work different casting defects are studied in casting industries. By
referring different research papers causes and their remedies are listed. These will help to
quality control department of casting industries for analysis of casting defect. This study will
definitely be helpful in improving the productivity and yield of the casting. Rejections of the
casting on the basis of the casting defect should be as minimized and all the above research
is heading in the same direction.
 REFERANCES

[1]. Review of Casting Defect Analysis to Initiate the Improvement ProcessA.P.More,

Dr.R.N.Baxi, Dr.S.B.Jaju Mechanical Engineering Department, G.H.Raisoni College of
Engineering, Nagpur. 440016 (India)
[2].Defect formation in cast iron Lennart Elmquist School of Engineering Jnkping
University,
Sweden Tammerfors, Finland, November 8, 2012 [3]. Analysis of Casting Defects and
Identification of Remedial Measures A Diagnostic Study Dr D.N. Shivappa1, Mr Rohit2,
Mr. Abhijit Bhattacharya3
International Journal of Engineering Inventions ISSN: 2278-7461, www.ijeijournal.com Volume
1, Issue 6
(October2012) PP: 01-05
[4]Casting Defect Analysis using Design of Experiments (DoE) and Computer Aided Casting
Simulation Technique Uday A. Dabade* and Rahul
C. Bhedasgaonkar,(2013)

[5]. Reduction of defects in grey cast iron castings by six sigma approach
Raguramsingh.M#1, Syath Abuthakeer.S*2 #ME Lean Manufacturing, PSG College of
Technology, Coimbatore, India. 1raguramsingh1990@gmail.com *Assistant Professor,
Department of Mechanical Engineering, PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore, India.
2syathpsgtech@gmail.com
[6]. Process optimization as a tool in the analysis of steel casting defects By Dr.Hathibelagal
Roshan, Chief Metallurgist Maynard Steel Casting Company Milwaukee, WI 53217
[7]. Silver anniversary paper,div5 Porosity defects in iron casting from mold metal interface
reaction. R.l.naro.aci international,inc,cleveland,ohio.
[8]. Modeling of shrinkage defects during solidification of long and short freezing materials A.
Reisa,, Y. Houbaertc, Zhian Xub, Rob Van Tol b, A.D. Santosa, J.F. Duartea, A.B.
Magalha esa a FEUP Faculdade de Engenharia da Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
b WTCM Foundry Center, Research Center of Belgium Metalworking Industry, 9052
Zwijnaarde, Gent, Belgium c UGent
University of Ghent, Technologiepark Zwijnaarde 903, Gent, Belgium