Basics

1. What is manufacturing ?- Converting raw materials into useful products

design of product
selection of raw materials
sequence of process in which product is manufactured

2. What is manufacturing technology ?

study of the various processes required to produce parts and to assemble
them into machines and mechanism

3. Machining gives smooth surfaces and dimensional accuracy

4. Forging gives ultimate fibered strength and toughness

5. Welding and stamping

6. Concept of melting point

7. Deformation of materials
Classification of manufacturing process

1. Metal forming

2. Sheet metal

3. Machining

4. Powder metallurgy

5. Heat treatment and surface treatment

6. Assembly process

7. Joining process

8. Metal casting process

Basics

1. First used 6000 years ago, still casting finds its place as a important
manufacturing for small parts as well as large and complex parts.

2. Concept of solidification of metals and alloys

3. Fluid flow, shrinkages, heat transfer

4. Defects in castings
IMPORTANT TERMS USED IN CASTING
G

1. Flask
2. Pattern
3. Parting line
4. Moulding sand
5. Facing Sand
6. Core
7. Pouring Basin
8. Sprue
9. Runner
10. Gate
11. Chaplet
12. Riser
GLOSSARY

• Core: A separate part of the mold, made of sand and generally baked, which is used
to create openings and various shaped cavities in the castings.

• Pouring basin: A small funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mold into which the
molten metal is poured.

• Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal, from the pouring basin,
reaches the mold cavity. In many cases it controls the flow of metal into the mold.

• Runner: The channel through which the molten metal is carried from the sprue to the
gate.

• Gate: A channel through which the molten metal enters the mold cavity.

• Chaplets: Chaplets are used to support the cores inside the mold cavity to take care
of its own weight and overcome the metallostatic force.
• Riser: A column of molten metal placed in the mold to feed the castings as it shrinks
and solidifies. Also known as “feed head”.
• Vent: Small opening in the mold to facilitate escape of air and gases.
GLOSSARY
• Flask: A metal or wood frame, without fixed top or bottom, in which the mold is
formed. Depending upon the position of the flask in the molding structure, it is
referred to by various names such as drag – lower molding flask, cope – upper
molding flask, cheek – intermediate molding flask used in three piece molding.

• Pattern: It is the replica of the final object to be made. The mold cavity is made with
the help of pattern.

• Parting line: This is the dividing line between the two molding flasks that makes up
the mold.

• Molding sand: Sand, which binds strongly without losing its permeability to air or
gases. It is a mixture of silica sand, clay, and moisture in appropriate proportions.

• Facing sand: The small amount of carbonaceous material sprinkled on the inner
surface of the mold cavity to give a better surface finish to the castings.
CASTING FUNDAMENTALS

1. Casting may be defined as a metal object obtained by pouring molten

metal in to a mould and allowing it to solidify.
2. Casting process is based on the property of liquids to take up the
shape of the vessel containing it.
3. Molten metal when poured in to a cavity of desired shape (called
mould) flows in to every nook and corner of the cavity and fills all the
shape.
CASTING FUNDAMENTALS

 The shortest distance between raw material and a finished part is a

casting.

 Few grams to several tonnes can be manufactured, therefore size is not

a limitation.

 Castings which are required in small quantities say 1 to 100 can be

economically made. Forgings require costly dies and welding may
become expensive

 Gray cast iron can only be cast, they are brittle and can’t be forged or
formed

 Complicated parts can be cast into two o three pieces and then joined by
welding. This affords a great flexibility in design.
Flow sheet for production of castings

Casting design

Drawing

Pattern making

Moulding
Melting
Pouring

Fettling

Inspection

Shipping
Fluidity

1. The capability of molten metal to fill mold cavities

2. The molten metal flow characteristics are described by this term
3. Fluidity is the inverse of viscosity
4. Spiral mold test is to assess fluidity
5. A longer cast spiral means greater fluidity of metal
6. Fluidity --- characteristics of molten metal, casting parameters
7. Castability – ease with which a metal can be cast to produce a part with
good quality.
8. Castability includes fluidity
9. The following factors influence fluidity
• Melting point
• Metal composition
• Viscosity
• Heat transfer to the surroundings
CLASSIFICATION OF FOUNDARIES

 JOBBING foundries cater to wide variety of customers, size of the

castings, compositions melted may range widely

 Captive foundries cater to their own manufacturing units

 According to metals cast: ferrous foundries, non-ferrous foundries,

alumimium foundry, grey iron foundry, brass foundry
APPLICATION OF CASTINGS
 Sand casting – machine beds, machine frames, pump housing, motor
housing, bearing blocks, cylinder blocks, paper making rolls, bells,
valves.

 shell moulding – finned cylinders, value bodies, impellers, cutters,

connecting rods

 Centrifugal casting – tubes, pipes, cylinder liners, wheels, to cast thin

walled cylinders

 Plaster moulds – tyre making moulds, metal patterns,

 Permanent moulds – pistons, cylinders, dies, wagon, wheels, brass

valves

 Die casting – domestic appliances, sewing machines, toys, door

handles, electric boxes

 Investment castings – turbine blades, wave guides, milling cutters,

impellers
CENTRIFUGAL CASTINGS
SHELL MOULDING
DIE CASTING
ADVANGAGES AND DRAWBACKS

Advantages
1. Any complex shape can be easily produced as molten metal can
flow to every corner to produce any complex shapes.
2. Practically any material can be casted.
3. Simple and inexpensive of tools.
4. Flexibility in size and weight.
5. Wastage on raw materials is less.

Drawbacks
1.Poor dimensional accuracy
2. Poor surface finish
3.High initial Investment
THE CASTING PROCESS

It is one of the oldest manufacturing process

Principle:
1. Mould with required Cavity is created.
2. Metal is heated above its melting point.
3. Liquid metal is poured in to the mould.
4. Metal solidifies inside cavity of the mould.
5. Part is removed from the mould.

Mould materials can be

1. Sand
2. Metal
3. Wax etc
 TYPES OF MOLDING SAND
Natural moulding sand
1. It is taken from riverbeds or are dug from mines.
2. It is also obtained by crushing and grinding soft
yellow sandstone and rocks.
Synthetic sands or artificial sand
1. Synthetic sands or artificial sand can be prepared in
the foundry shop by crushing sandstone and then
washing and grading these to yield a sand grade of
required shape and grain distribution.
2. The desired strength and bonding properties of this
sand are developed by additive materials.
3. Synthetic sand is more expensive than natural sand.
Moulding sand is a refractory materials usually silica.

BROAD CLASSIFICATIONS

Moulding sand can be classified, according to its

use, and composition, into the following
categories:
1. Green sand
2. Dry sand
3. Loam sand
4. Parting Sand
5. Core Sand
 GREEN SAND

1. It consists of silica sand with 18-30% clay and 4-8%

water. Clay and water furnish the bond for green sand.
2. Green sand retains the shape given to it.
3. The name `green sand' implies moist or undried sand, as
the mould made from this sand is used immediately to
pour the molten metal. It is not a green coloured sand.
4. The moulds using this sand are called as green sand
moulds.
5. Green sand is collected from natural resources. It has
the advantage of maintaining moisture content for a long
time.
6. Green sand is collected from natural
the advantage of maintaining moisture
time.
 DRY SAND

1. Green sand that has been dried or baked after the mould
preparation is called dry sand.
2. The dry sand moulds have greater strength, rigidity and
thermal stability.
3. These are suitable for large-sized castings, say, heavier
than 500 kg.

LOAM SAND
1. When clay and silica are mixed in equal proportions with
little or no special additives, it is called loam sand.
2. It is used for loam moulds of large grey iron casting
 PARTING SAND

1. It is used to keep away the green sand from sticking to

the pattern and to allow the sand on the parting surface of
the flask to separate without clinging.
2. This permits easy withdrawal of the pattern after
ramming.
3. Parting sand is free from clay and is dry.

CORE SAND
1. Sand used for making core is called core sand.
2. Core sand should be stronger than the moulding sand.
3. To make core sand, core oil, which is composed of
linseed oil, resin, and other binding materials, is mixed
with silica sand.
 PROPERTIES OF A GOOD MOULDING SAND

PERMEABILITY or POROSITY
1. It is the property of sand which permits the steam and
other gases to pass through the sand mould.
2. The porosity of sand depends upon its grain size, grain
shape, moisture and clay components are the moulding
sand.
3. If the sand is too fine, the permeability porosity will be low.
COHESIVENESS
1. It is the property of sand due to which the sand grains stick
together during ramming.
2. It is defined as the strength of the moulding sand.
REFRACTORINESS
1. The property which enables it to resist high temperature of
the molten metal without breaking down or fusing.
 PROPERTIES OF A GOOD MOULDING SAND

COLLAPSIBILITY:
1. After solidification of the molten metal, the casting is
required to be removed from the mould.
2. If the moulding sand is easily collapsible, free contraction of
the metal as well as easy removal of the casting is
possible.
FLOWABILITIES
1. It is that property of sand due to which it flows to all
portions of the moulding box or flask.
2. The sand must have sufficient plasticity to produce a good
mould.
ADHESIVENESS
1. It is that properties of sand due to it adheres or cling to the
Sides of the moulding box.
EQUIPMENTS USED FOR MOULDING
 MOULD PREPARERATION
1. Moulding is the process of making a mould with the desired
cavity in a suitable material, like sand, to pour the molten metal.
2. The principal raw material used in moulding is the moulding
sand.
3. Depending upon the raw material used for preparing the mould,
moulds may be classified as Green sand mould, dry sand
mould, loam mould and metal mould.
Type of material for mould preparation
Green sand mould:
moulds are made using green sand
Green sand permit easy patching and finishing of moulds
Used for small and medium sized castings
Dry sand moulds:
These moulds are prepared using green sand
Green sand is dried or baked to remove all the moisture it
contains.
Used for large castings
Loam Mould:
The mould is first built – up with bricks or large iron
parts. These moulds are plastered with loam sand.
Loam sand moulds is dried very slowly and completely
before it is ready for casting.
It takes very long time to prepare loam moulds.
Used for large castings.

Metal mould:
moulds are made of metal and used for die
casting, permanent mould casting, and centrifugal
casting processes.
 Classification of casting process

• It is according to moulds, patterns, used to make Cavities and

cores are permanent or disposable.
• Disposable mould casting:
In this process, the mould cavity is obtained by
consolidating a refractory material around the pattern. The
mould has to be broken to take out the casting from the
mould cavity. So such moulds are one casting moulds.
the moulding material can be sand or some other refractory
material. The main disadvantages is that dimensional
accuracy and surface finish.

The pattern used in this process, can be permanent pattern

which can be used again and again, made of wood, metal, plastic
or expendable pattern full mould process, lost was method.
 Classification of casting process

• Permanent mould casting:

In this process, the mould is used repeatedly and it is not
destroyed after solidification of castings. The moulds are
adaptable to the production of thousands of castings.

Generally, this process is suitable of making parts of small

and medium mass from light non ferrous alloys.

Smooth surface finish and increased dimensional accuracy.

Due to high cost of permanent moulds, the use of this method

is limited to mass or quantity production
 Classification of casting process
• Semi permanent mould casting:
These moulds are prepared from high refractory materials for
example based on graphite. These moulds are not as durable
as permanent moulds. So these can not be used for mass or
quantity production but for only a few tons of castings.

In all the above three methods, the cores used may be permanent
(metallic) or expendable made of core sand or of some other
suitable material.
An iron foundry may have the following six prominent sections:
1. Moulding and core making
2. Metal melting
3. Metal handling and pouring
4. Knockout
5. Fettling
6. Miscellaneous
 SAND MOULD CASTING
• This process accounts for about 80% of the total output of cast
products.

• Sand moulds are single casting moulds and are completely

destroyed for taking out the casting after the metal has solidified
in mould cavity.

• The moulding material is sand which is mixed with small

amounts of other materials (binders and additives ) and water to
improve the cohesive strength and mouldability of sand

• For making the mould, the moulding material will have to be

consolidated and contained around the pattern.
 SAND MOULD CASTING
• The most common design is two flask system, in the assembled
position the upper flask is called “cope” and the bottom one
“drag”.

• In three flask system the central flask is called “cheek”. One

flask design is used in “ Full mould process” or in “ pit moulding”
where it is used as cope, the pit acting as the drag.
 TYPES OF SAND MOULD CASTING
• BENCH MOULDING:
This is done only for small work

• FLOOR MOULDING:
This process is done on the foundary floor and is
employed for medium sized and large castings.

• PIT MOULDING:
This method is used for very large castings and is done
on the foundary floor. However a pit dug in the floor acts as the
lower flask (drag) and the top flask (cope) is placed over the pit to
complete the assembly.
 MOULDING PRACTICES

Moulding Processes
The common moulding processes are:
1. Bench moulding
2. Floor moulding
3. Pit moulding
Bench moulding
1. Moulds are prepared on suitable benches
2. used for small moulds, which are light and can be
easily handled
3. used for making green sand, dry sand or skin dried
moulds
4. Slow and laborious method.
Floor moulding
1. Used when moulds are larger and cannot be
accommodated on benches.
2. Medium and larger moulds are prepared
3. Green or dry sands are used
4. This is also a slow method
Pit moulding
1. Used for big castings, which cannot be made by
flasks
2. Mould cavity is prepared in a pit dug in the earth
floor of the foundry
3. Used for making sand moulds.
 TYPES OF MOULDING OPERATION

There are two types of moulding operations:

1. Hand moulding
2. Machine moulding

Hand moulding
1. All the moulding operations are performed manually.
2. It is slow, laborious and time consuming.
3. It is difficult to obtain uniform hardness in moulds by
hand ramming.
4. Initial cost is low and simple tools are used.
 TYPES OF MOULDING OPERATION

Machine moulding
1. For faster and uniform quality moulds
2. Uses various moulding machines for preparing
moulds.
3. The majority of operations like ramming the sand,
pattern withdrawal, and the finishing operations are
done by machines.
4. The operation is very fast, homogeneous and
suitable for any size of casting.
5. Initial cost is high and difficult shapes cannot be
obtained.
A pattern may be made larger or smaller than the required size of
the casting considering the various allowances. It affects the
dimensional characteristics and shape of the casting.
These are the allowances which are usually provided in a
pattern.
Shrinkage Allowance: ( contraction allowance)
1. All metals used for casting shrink after solidification in the
mould and there fore, the pattern must be made larger than
the required casting.
2. The shrinkage allowance differs from metal to metal.
3. The amount of allowance provided depends upon the type of
material, its composition, and pouring temperature.
4. Shrinkage allowance is 1 to 2 % for gray cast iron and non
ferrous castings and 2 to 3 % for steel castings.
 PATTERN ALLOWANCE

Machining Allowances:
1. The allowance is provided on the pattern if the casting is
to be machined.
2. This allowance is given in addition to shrinkage
allowance.
3. The amount of this allowance varies from 1.6 to 12.5 mm
which depends upon the type of the casting metal, size
and the shape of the casting.
Draft Allowances:
1. It is a taper which is given to all the vertical walls of the
pattern for easy and clean withdraw of the pattern from the
sand without damaging the mould cavity.
2. It may be expressed in millimetres on a side or in degrees.
The amount of taper varies with the type of patterns.
 PATTERN ALLOWANCE

Distortion Allowances
1. This is provided on patterns whose castings tend to
distort on cooling. This happens due to unequal rate of
cooling in different parts of the castings.
2. Generally, distortion allowance is required for flat, long,
and U and V shaped castings. The pattern itself is
distorted suitably to yield a proper shaped casting.
Rapping or shaking allowance
1.During moulding, to withdraw the pattern from the rammed
sand, it is rapped to loosen it from the sand, so that it can be
easily withdrawn from the mould cavity without damaging the
mould walls. When a pattern is rapped for easy withdrawals, the
mould cavity is enlarged. To account for this increase in size of
cavity, the pattern size is reduced, i.e. the pattern is made
smaller by an amount equal to the mould enlargement that may
take place during rapping.
2.The amount of rapping allowance depends upon factors such
as
a)extent of rapping,
b)degree of compaction of sand, and
c)size of mould, most of these are difficult to evaluate.
PATTERN MAKING

1. A pattern is defined as a model of a casting. It is constructed in

such a way that it can be used for forming an impression in sand
or other material used for making the mould.
2. The process of making patterns is an important step in the casting
process. A pattern has to be made before making a mould.
Various types of patterns are needed to make different shaped
castings.
3. Patterns are the foundry man's mould forming tool.
4. Pattern is used to form the mould cavity in which molten
metal is poured.
5. Pattern making involves study of materials used for making
patterns, various types of patterns and pattern allowances.
 Pattern
Primarily used to produce the mould cavity in
sand.
It is slightly larger than the desired casting, due
to various allowances.
Temporary and permanent patterns

soft woods, easily wear metals Al, brass or plastics

warp, crack… short life
 Pattern
Patterns may be classified from their utility point
of view.

The following factor affect the choice of the

pattern
1. number of castings to be produced
2. size and complexity of shape and size of
casting
3. Types of moulding method
 TYPES OF PATTERN MATERIALS

Pattern Materials
Solid Patterns
Removable & Disposable
Pattern
Split Patterns
Match plate pattern

Gated pattern
 TYPES OF PATTERN
1. Solid or Single piece pattern
2. Split pattern
3. Loose piece pattern
4. Match plate pattern
5. Sweep pattern
6. Skeleton pattern
7. Segmental pattern
8. Shell pattern
SOLID or SINGLE PIECE Pattern
SPLIT Pattern
LOOSE PIECE Pattern
• Simply a replica of desired casting

• Slightly larger the desired casting due to

allowance

• Wood or metal depend on volume

• Gates, runners, risers are added during

moulding

• Say upto 100, no. of castings to be made

small.
MATCH PLATE Pattern
SWEEP Pattern
360 degree rotation

• Rotational symmetry

• A complete pattern is not necessary as it is

expensive for very large castings

• The moulds are made manually either in

pit and floor moulding.

• Large kettles of CI are made by sweep

patterns
SKELETON Pattern
• For large castings having simple
geometrical shapes

• Simple wooden frames that outline the

shape of the part

• Pit and floor moulding process

SEGMENTAL Pattern
180 degree rotation

• Similar to sweep pattern.

• Part of the pattern is used instead of

complete pattern to get the required
shape

• Having circular shape – casting

• When one portion of mould is completed,

the pattern is lifted up and moved to next
for next segment.

• Big gears and wheel rims

SHELL Pattern
(a) solid pattern
(b) split pattern
(c) match-plate pattern
(d) cope and drag pattern
PATTERN MAKING

A pattern for multiple uses must last long and, therefore,

must be made from a suitable material.
The materials commonly used for pattern making include
1. Wood
2. Metals and alloys
3. Plasters
4. Plastic
5. Rubber
6. Wax
The selection of the material for a pattern depends upon the
1. Type of moulding material used,
2. Number of castings to be produced,
3. Degree of dimensional accuracy required etc.
Characteristics of Commonly used pattern materials are
Wood :
1. The most commonly used pattern material is dried or
seasoned wood.
2. The main reason for using wood for making patterns is
its easy availability, low weight, and low cost. It can be
easily shaped, worked, joined, and is relatively cheap.
3. By a rough estimate, more than 90% of the castings are,
produced using wooden pattern.
4. The main disadvantage of the wood is that it absorbs
moisture, because of which distortions and dimensional
changes occur)
5. It has relatively lower life and is economical for the small
quantity production.
Metal:

1. Metal patterns are extensively used for the large quantity

production of casting and for closer dimensional
tolerances on castings.
2. Metal patterns have much longer life and are free from
major disadvantages of wooden patterns.
3. Though many materials such as cast iron and brass can
be used as pattern materials, aluminium is most
commonly used as it can be easily worked, it is light
weight and corrosion resistant.
Plastic
1. Plastics are used as pattern materials because of their
low weight, easier formability, smooth surfaces, and
durability.
2. They do not absorb moisture and are dimensionally
stable.
3. Plastic patterns can be cleaned easily and have good
corrosion resistance.
Polystyrene:
1. Polystyrene (or expanded thermo Cole) is another pattern
material, which has the special property that it changes to
gaseous state on heating.
2. Patterns made from polystyrene are disposable patterns that
are suitable for single casting, like a prototype.
3. Unlike other pattern materials, one pattern produces only one
casting.
4. It is very easy to make a pattern from polystyrene because it
is soft.
5. The pattern is not taken out of the mould to create the cavity.
When the molten metal is poured in to the mould, the
polystyrene transforms in to gaseous state, leaving negligible
residue and the space occupied by the pattern is filled by the
metal.
 PATTERN MATERIALS AND REQUIREMENTS

1. The materials commonly used for pattern making include wood,

metals and alloys, plasters, plastic, rubber, polystrin and wax.
2. The selection of the material for a pattern dependsupon the type
of moulding material used, number of castings to be produced,
degree of dimensional accuracy required and so on.

REQUREMENTS OF A GOOD PATTERN MATERIALS

1. It should be easily shaped, worked, machined and joined.
2. It should be resistant to wear and corrosion.
3. It should be resistant to chemical action.
4. It should be dimensionally stable and must remain unaffected by
variations in temperature and humidity.
5. It should be easily available and economical.
 CORES
CORES
1. To get holes or other internal cavities in castings,
cores are used.
2. A core may be defined as a sand shape or form,
that makes the contour of a casting for which no
provision has been made in the pattern.
3. Cores are placed in the moulds in specially created
cavities called core prints.
4. Cores may be made form sand, metal, plaster or
ceramics.
5. Core is like an obstruction placed and positioned in
the mould.
 CORES
A good core must possess the following properties:
1. It must be strong to retain the shape while handling.
2. It must resist erosion by molten metal
3. It must be permeable to gases
4. It must have high refractoriness.
5. It must have good surface finish to replicate it on to the
casting.
 CORE MAKING
Cores are made of clay-free silica sand, which is
thoroughly mixed with suitable binders, water and other
ingredients to produce a core mix.
This core mix is packed in to a core box that contains a
cavity of desired shape.
Core making consists of the following operations:
1. Core sand preparation
2. Core making
3. Core baking.
 CORES

• When a casting is to have a cavity or recess, a core is

introduced into the mould
• Cores are compact mass of core sand that when
placed in mould cavity at required location with proper
alignment does not allow the molten metal to occupy
space for solidification in that portion and hence help
to produce hollowness in the casting.
Core has to withstand the severe action of hot metal
which completely surrounds it.
 CORE TYPES

• The states or conditions of core

• Green sand core
• Dry sand core
• No bake sand core

• The nature of core material is employed

• Oil bonded cores
• Resin bonded cores
• Shell cores
• Sodium silicate cores
 CORE TYPES

• The type of core hardening process employed

• Co2 process
• The hot box process
• The cold set process
• Fluid or castable sand process
 CORE TYPES

• Cores are classified according to shape and position

in the mould. There are various types of cores such
as
• Horizontal core
• Vertical core
• Balanced core
• Drop core
• Hanging core
 HORIZONTAL CORES

• Used in its horizontal position in the mould always at

the parting line between two mould boxes
 VERTICAL CORES

 It is set in the mould in its vertical position. Its top and

bottom ends are supported in the seats or impressions
formed by the core prints in the moulding sand
 BALANCED CORES

 It has only one core print to maintain the alignment of the

core and is often used to produce a blind cavity in the
casting. The core print is large and heavy enough to
balance the weight of the core in the mould

 When casting has only one opening (side), when only

one core print is available.
 DROP CORES

• It is used when the cavity to be made in the casting is either

above or below the parting line

• When hole or cavities required in a casting is not in line with the

parting surface.
 Hanging core or cover core

 Hangs vertically in the mould with no support at its bottom

end. The entire mould cavity has, however to be contained in
the drag only.

 If the core hangs from the cope , fasten with wire or rod
MOLD FOR ASAND CASTING
 MOULDING MACHINES

1. Hand moulding is suitable for small batch production or large size castings

2. Machine moulding is necessary for production work involving large batches of

same type of casting is produced

3. Basically three methods used for ramming sand into the moulding flasks

4. It (moulding machines) is classified based on for the compaction of moulding

sand
Jolting, Squeezing, Sand slinging
 JOLTING

1. The sand is first filled into the flask generally from an overhead hopper, and
then it is raised to a certain height before it is allowed to free fall onto a solid
bed plate

2. The resulting impact forces the sand to get compacted uniformly into the
mould

3. This lifting and dropping process continues repeatedly till the required mould
hardness is achieved. This type of ramming is suitable for horizontal surfaces. It is
very severe on the moulding equioment and also likely to give rise to uneven
packing. The sand at the bottom experiences the highest force and consquencly
is packed well compared the sand into the top layers
 SQUEEZE RAMMING
1. In squeeze ramming, a plate slightly smaller than the inside dimension of the moulding
flask is fitted into the flask already filled with moulding sand.

2. A uniform pressure is applied on the plate by moving it down

3. The resulting force compacts the sand uniformly.

4. The sand next to the plate rams hardest while the sand below is progressively less
harder.

5. Hardness achieved is also dependent upon the pressure applied on the squeeze plate.

6. Sometime the plate is provided with contour to match pattern to achieve better
uniform hardness of the mould. This type is suitable for small castings and is generally
suitable for shallow flasks.

7. To provide differential ramming force required for the contour of the pattern—
diaphragm

8. A combination of jolt squeeze machines is more common in view of the more

uniform ramming that could be achieved by combining the two methods
SQUEEZE RAMMING
 SAND SLINGING

1. It is done by throwing sand into the flask rapidly and with great force

2. This process develops uniformly high mould hardness

3. The process is very fast and gives high uniform sand ramming

4. The sand should be uniformly sprayed into the mould by moving the nozzle
through the entire area of the flask.

5. Sand sprayed in layers to achieve uniform hardness

6. Initial cost of equipment is high compared to other form of moulding

machines
 SAND CASTING DEFECTS

1. A properly designed casting, a properly prepared mould and correctly melted

metal should result in a defect free casting.

2. However, if proper control is not exercised in the foundry sometimes it is too

expensive.

3. A variety of defects may result in a casting

4. The defects may be imporper pattern design, improper mould construction,

improper melting practice, improper pouring practice
 SAND CASTING DEFECTS: Blow holes

1. Blow holes, gas holes, or gas cavities are well rounded cavities having a clean
and smooth surface.

2. They appear either on the casting surface (open in nature), or in the body of
the casting(closed cavities)

3. These defects occur when an excessive evolved gas is not able to flow
through mould.

4. So it collects into a bubble at the high points of a mould cavity and prevents
the liquid metal from filling that space.

5. This will results in open blows.

 SAND CASTING DEFECTS: Misrun

1. Incomplete cavity filling

2. Due to inadequate metal supply, too low mould or melt temperature,

improperly designed gates, length to thickness ratio of casting is too large
 SAND CASTING DEFECTS: Misrun

1. Poor fluidity of molten metal

2. Misruns is a phenomenon when the cast materials solidify before the proper
filling of mould. This result presence of incomplete cavity filling. It is due to
too thin wall thickness, improper gating system, slow pouring, damaged
pattern and poor fluidity of molten metal.
 SAND CASTING DEFECTS: Coldshut

1. It is the basic defect which generally occurs. It is occur when the molten
metal flow through two different paths. When the two stream of molten
metal comes in contact and solidify before they mix completely, some
bubbles form between them. This phenomenon is known as cold shut. It is
also known as cold lap.

2. It is an interface within a casting that is formed when two metals streams

meet without complete fusion.

3. The causes are the same as for misrun

 SAND CASTING DEFECTS: Mismatch

1. It is defect due to mismatch of cope and drag. It is also known as shift. When
the cope shift relative to drag known as mold shift and when drag shift
known as cope shift. It is due to the bouncy of the molten metal, loose box
pins etc.

2. Shift of the individual parts of a casting with respect to each other

3. Due to mould shift or core shift.

4. Not assembling properly the two halves of the mould

and wear of pin bushes, dimensional discrepancy
between the core prints of the pattern
 SAND CASTING DEFECTS: Hot tear

1. A hot tear or crack is generally not visible because the casting has not
separated into fragments. This is occurring due to uneven cooling and
improper position of chills. This is generally occur where abrupt section
change. This is occur during solidification of casting when the solid portion
have not sufficient strength to resist tensile force.
 SAND CASTING DEFECTS:

1. Buckle : The formation of uneven line on the cast surface is known as buckle. It
generate due failure of sand surface or expansion of sand surface due to heat of
molten metal.

2. Pinholes: Pin holes are similarly to blow holes but smaller into size. These are
generally present at surface or sub surface and in large numbers. This is due to
improper ventilation for gas and low permeability of moulding material.

3. Warpage: It is the defect or deformation in a casting that occur during or after

solidification due to different rates of solidification of different sections of
casting, so stresses are set up in adjoining walls resulting in warpage these
area.

4. Swell: This defect generated due to insufficient strength of mould when metal
flow to the mould due to liquid metal pressure, the wall of the mould cavity
damage. It is also due to rigidity of the pattern is insufficient then it cannot
withstand with the ramming pressure and the wall of cavity damage. Today we
have learnt about major casting defects and its causes. These defects can be
 SAND CASTING DEFECTS:

1. Scar is generally occur at flat surface and it is due to improper venting or

permeability of sand. The blow is covered by the thin layer of metal.

2. This is also known as slag inclusion of sand inclusion. This is look like as slag
inside the cast and very difficult to remedy because generally it does not occur
at single point. This defect generally occurs due to defective mould or core, low
binding strength of moulding material or sand. It is also due to low permeability
of sand.
 SAND CASTING DEFECTS: Shrinkage

1. This defect generally arises during volume contraction during solidification. It

is occur when the liquid metal does not sufficient to compensate the volume
shrinkage. This is due to insufficient size of riser, improper direction
solidification of casting, improper location of chills or in gates.
 SAND CASTING DEFECTS: Metal penetration

1. This defect occurs when fluidity of molten metal is high. When mould is
porous and does not enough stronger to resist molten metal, this defect
occur. The liquid metal penetrates the mould and mix with sand. This gives
uneven casting surface.
Thank you !!!!