People’s Democratic Republic of Algeria

Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research

Larbi Ben M’hidi University-Oum El Bouaghi

Faculty of Letters and Languages

Department of English

Women and the City in Cyprian Ekwensi's Jagua

Nana.

A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of Letters and Languages,

Department of English in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
degree of
Master in Anglo –American studies

Board of examiners: Candidate:

President : Zerrouki Zina. Meryem Hacini.
Examiner: Boukemache Wissem.
Supervisor: Haddad Mordjana.

*July 2019*
 Hacini I

The city is a girl walking, [...]

Walking at dawn, handbag over arm, [...]
Walking at noon, bracelets all aglitter
Walking at dusk, heels high and flattering
The city is a girl walking into offices
Adventuring into bedrooms, seducing into the top
The city is a girl walking [...]
Ever walking, ever scheming [...] (Ekwensi, Iska 187-8)
 Hacini II

DECLARATION:
I, Meryem HACINI, do hereby solemnly declare that the work I presented in

this thesis is my own, and has not been submitted before to any other institution or

university for a degree.

I assert that all information in this document has been obtained and presented in

accordance with academic rules and ethical conduct. I also assert that, as required by

these rules and conduct, I have fully cited and referenced all material and results that are

not original to this work.

 Hacini III

Dedications:
Praise Allah who has guided and helped me.

This dissertation is proudly dedicated to:

To every woman who fights for a choice.

To my darling parents who no words are sufficient to describe them.

To my model, my beloved mother “Hacini Laatra” the one who made me the strong

woman I am today.

To My father “Ammar” for his unconditional support.

To my precious sister Khadidja, my little angel Oumeima and my dearest brothers

Youcef, Abdelghani, Messaoud and Tarek for always being by my side.

To my cousin Hacini Roquia for believing in me.

To my second family, my dearest friends: Aberkane Marwa, Zeghoud Chayma,

Amokrane Sana, Chaffai Ines, Benali Soumia, Allouane Imene and Merzouk Bouchra.

You are my shelter.

To my online friends whom I thank for their limitless encouragement.

Thank you all for being part of my life…

 Hacini IV

Acknowledgments:
Above all, the greatest and special gratitude should go to Allah, who

guides us to the right path and gives the strength

to accomplish this work.

I would like to express my most sincere thanks and gratitude to my

respected teacher and supervisor Miss. Mordjana Haddad for her endless

advice and guidance.

I also would like to thank my teacher Professor Abdelhak Nemouchi for

his encouragement.

And I would like to thank all my teachers in the department of English in

Laarbi Ben Mhidi University, Oum El Bouaghi.

 Hacini V

ABSTRACT:

Generally speaking, the postcolonial city inherited Western urbanization and

modernization that have given women a relative freedom and helped them to change

positions in their society. This research examines the representation of Lagos City in

Cyprian Ekwensi's Jagua Nana and displays the lives and experiences of individuals,

particularly women characters within it. In other words, it investigates the relationship

between women and the city and how they influence each other. To do so, this study

uses different approaches such as postcolonialism and feminism—that can be called

urban feminism. First, it shows the characteristics of the postcolonial city at two main

levels: the physical and the social. The reader learns about those characteristics through

the daily details of women life, especially through the eyes of Jagua Nana. Moreover, it

sheds light on women roles, social positions, political engagement, and economic

contribution – and more importantly it focuses on the theme of prostitution, not as a

social moral problem, but as an economic tactic that leads sometimes to women

empowerment in an urban setting. Finally, this study comes out with the idea that there

exists a bound relation between the city and the woman in Jagua Nana. It concludes

that the city can be compared to a woman more than a mere setting in the novel.

Keywords: City, postcolonial city, African woman, female character, Ekwensi, Jagua

Nana, Lagos, urbanization.

 ‫‪Hacini VI‬‬

‫ملخص الدراسة‪:‬‬

‫على العموم‪ ،‬ورثت مدينة ما بعد االستعمار التحضر الغربي و الحداثة ما أعطى النساء حرية نسبية و ساعدهن على‬

‫تغيير مناصبهن في المجتمع‪ .‬يقوم هذا البحث بدراسة تمثيل مدينة القوس في رواية جاجوانانا للروائي سيبريان‬

‫إيكوينزي و عرض حياة وتجارب األفراد و خاصة الشخصيات النسائية فيها‪ .‬بمعنى آخر‪ ,‬تحلل هذه الدراسة العالقة‬

‫بين النساء و المدينة و كيف ي ؤثر كل منهما على اآلخر‪ .‬للقيام يذلك‪ ,‬تستخدم هذه الدراسة مناهج مختلفة من بينها‪:‬‬

‫منهج ما_بعد_االستعمارية و النسوية التي يمكن حصرها في مصطلح "النسوية الحضرية"‪ .‬أوال‪ ,‬يظهر التحليل‬

‫حصائص مدينة ما بعد اإلستعمار على مستويين رئيسببن‪ :‬المادي و اإلجتماعي‪ .‬حيث يستطيع القاريء أن يتعرف‬

‫على هذه الخصائص من خالل التفاصيل اليومية لحياة المرأة‪ ,‬و بالخصوص من خالل أعين جاقوا نانا‪ .‬عالوة على‬

‫ذلك‪ ,‬يلقي البحث الضوء على أدوار النساء‪ ,‬مواقعهن اإلجتماعية‪ ,‬مشاركاتهن السياسية و مساهماتهن اإلقتصادية‪ ,‬و‬

‫األهم من ذلك‪ ,‬تركز هذه الدراسة على موضوع الدعا رة‪ ,‬ليس كمشكلة أخالقية و إجتماعية‪ ,‬و لكن كتكتيك إقتصادي‬

‫ي ؤدي أحيانا إلى تمكين المرأة في المناطق الحضرية‪ .‬أخيرا‪ ,‬تحاول هذه الدراسة برهنة وجود عالقة وطيدة بين‬

‫المدينة و المرأة في الرواية‪ .‬وتخلص إلى أن المدينة ليست مجرد إطارمكاني بل يمكن مقارتنتها مع المرأة‪.‬‬

‫الكلمات المفتاحية‪ :‬المدينة‪ ,‬مدينة ما بعداإلستعمار‪ ,‬المرأة اإلفريقية‪ ,‬الشخصية األنثوية‪ ,‬إكوينزي‪ ,‬جاجوا نانا‪,‬‬

‫القوس‪ ,‬التحضر‪.‬‬
 Hacini VII

Table of Contents:

Epigraph .……………………………………………………………………………….I

Declaration .…………………………………………………………………………….II

Dedication. …………………………………………………………………………….III

Acknowledgements: ……………………………………………………………...........IV

Abstract: ……………………………………………………………………………….V

‫………………………………………………………………………… ملخص الدراسة‬...VI

Table of Contents: ……………………………………………………………………VII

General Introduction: ……………………………………………………………….VIII

Chapter One: The Postcolonial City at the Dawn of |Independence:

Introduction……………………………………………………………………………13

The Image of Postcolonial Lagos in Jagua Nana……………………………………...16

Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………... 34

Chapter Two: Women in the City.

Introduction……………………………………………………………………………35

The Image of Women in Postcolonial Lagos in Jagua Nana………………………….38

Conclusion to the Chapter……………………………………………………………...55

Chapter Three: The City in the Woman.

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………….56

Jagua Nana and Lagos City…………………………………………………………….58

Conclusion to the Chapter……………………………………………………………...72

General Conclusion…………………………………………………………………….73

Works Cited……………………………………………………………………………74
 Hacini VIII

General Introduction:

Generally, in reading African literature, one can find that many African writers

deal with post colonial issues in order to retaliate and write back against the Western

claim of the non-civilization of Africa, which is a false stereotype. In their commitment,

they put forward their nation's social and political issues and almost marginalize other

themes such as women rights, roles or reality. Although there exists a number of female

characters in works of many African writers, including Achebe, Amadi, Aluko,

Munonye, Ngugi and so many others, the roles which women play in the flow of events

is somehow passive.

Also, they usually choose the tribe as a setting in which they cast all women in

the strict dull sexist traditional roles of mothers and wives, who are submissive and

silent. Black African female writers view these male writers as contributors to the

construction of patriarchal oppressive perceptions about African women. They argue

that none of them actually devoted literary effort to understand how women feel, think

or contribute to their society. For this, they believe in the importance of being literary

committed to African women issues. As the black woman writer, Audrey Lorde states: ''

Primarily, I think of my responsibility in terms of women because there are many voices

for men. There are few voices for women" (qtd. Eko 210). They believe they are the

voices through which the African woman can be heard and understood since male

writers share a shallow attitude towards women and appear to be uncommitted and

uncritical of the status quo of females.

However, some male writers choose a different setting in which they treat their

female characters differently. Cyprian Ekwensi, a Nigerian writer; who was described

as ''Charles Dickens of modern African literature''(Homaifer 175, Riche1), was the first

to be interested in the postcolonial city and gives it a primary interest in his writing.
 Hacini IX

Almost all his works treat the city as a theme, its various sides and its effect on its

inhabitants. Most of his stories happen in Lagos, Nigeria's capital in the early days of

independence where he displays multi-faceted descriptions of many of its parts: the

highly prestigious neighborhoods, slums, and official buildings. And more importantly,

he depicts how people live in such urban spaces. Urban novelists, including Cyprian

Ekwensi, do not view women who choose independence of traditional roles as corrupt.

Ekwensi, though the harsh feminist criticism of some of his literary aspects, can be

considered as a feminist urban writer. He focuses on African women issues and reflects

their everyday struggles in the city. He depicts their roles on many levels in the

postcolonial city and how they contribute on its many levels. He shows the different

strategies that the city allows women to adopt in order to enhance their positions.

This literary shift in treating women as characters has always captured my

interest. As a woman, I feel curious to investigate the patterns that help women,

specifically African women to acquire new roles in reality which would therefore be

reflected in literature. By reading Jagua Nana, I noticed the huge change in African

women's roles in their society. This motivated me to make an investigation about

women's life details.

Hence, the objective of this study is to explore the urban features which

characterize the postcolonial city of Lagos. It studies the paths which the city system

propels female characters to follow. It also examines the change in women's perceptions

about their roles in relation to their gender and how this perceptual change affects their

participation in the urban environment. It further tries to understand the possibility of

the existence of a relation between the city and the woman.

 Hacini X

In other words, this study attempts to answer many questions related to

conditions of women in accordance to their postcolonial urban environment as depicted

in Jagua Nana. The first question is: What is the postcolonial city? And how does it

differ from the rural structure? Second, what impact does it have on the position of

African female urbanites? Does it free or rather limit women? What tactics do women,

as marginalized urban participants, follow in order to survive the industrial system? Can

there be a relation between the city and female characters in literature? If yes, on which

levels can the city resemble the female characters?

To answer the posed questions, this study analyzes the relation between

African female urbanites and the postcolonial city as presented within the plot of Jagua

Nana (1961) using an analytical approach that combines postcolonialism, feminist

geography and some urban notions.

The corpus of the study shall be analyzed within the main ideas transmitted by

the content of Cyprian Ekwensi's urban novel Jagua Nana 1961. Therefore, the study is

divided as follows: a general introduction, a body of the work in three chapters, and a

general conclusion.

The first chapter examines the notion of postcolonial city in relation to its

geographical and economic characteristics as depicted by Cyprian Ekwensi. The second

chapter applies feminist geography to study the female character's positions in the

postcolonial city, specifically in Lagos. Then, the third chapter tends to draw a link

between the characteristics of postcolonial city and Jagua Nana, the main character. It

analyzes the similarities which the city and the protagonist, i.e. Jagua Nana, share and

which allow for the identification of the socio-geographical unit by the female's

character features and development.

 Hacini XI

I have read many articles that are similar to the topic of the current study. A

number of scholars and researchers have dealt with the theme of the relationship which

links women and the urban setting in Cyprian Ekwensi's novels.

In his article The City as a Force: Three Novels by Cyprian Ekwensi, John

McClusky studies the role of the urban setting in shaping individuals lives depending on

a number of Ekwensi's urban novels. He tries to understand the way urbanization

changes the representation of human drama in an urban framework.

Professors B.Riche and M. Bensamanne did a project research under the title:

City Life and Women in Cyprian Ekwensi's The People of the City and Jagua Nana. In

their study, the researchers study the role which Cyprian Ekwensi makes women

assume in his novels, presicely in The People of the City and Jagua Nana. The research

focuses on the representation of African Women in an urban setting.

In addition, Plau O.Iheakaram analyses a collection of stories written by

Cyprian Ekwensi. In his article The City as Metaphor: The Short Stories of Cyprian

Ekwensi, the writer studies the way Ekwensi uses over-lapped themes, including

women's life, as vehicles for commentary on a number of the cultural tensions in Urban

African society.

Homaifer Nazaneen examines in the African Prostitution: An Everyday

''Debrouillard'' in reality and African fiction the paper the role of the prostitute in

Cyprian Ekwenski's Jagua Nana and Okot p'Bitek's Song of Malaya as an individual

utilizing de Certeauian tactics to oppose victimization. It studies the way women use-

and are used by society.

Hacini XII
 Hacini 13

Chapter One:

Lagos: The Postcolonial City at the Dawn of Independence.

Introduction:

The city is one of the important notions that define the old and modern history.

Nowadays man's life is tightly associated with the urban setting. However, the city's

meaning changes from one discipline to another and from one society to another. So it

is better to start with "what is the city?" so that we can understand its nature and how it

works in Ekwensi's Jagua Nana.

To fully understand the meaning of ''the city'' one must make an enquiry into the

different meanings of "city"' as set by several scholars., According to René Maunier,

statisticians, for instance, have defined cities in terms of special characteristics but they

have differed as to the nature of these characteristics. Some employed morphological

characteristics. They frequently described the city as an aggregation composed of a

certain population, i.e. the city's definition relies on the number of its human

components related to the quantity of its territorial components. (536)

Other authors, including Riimelin, use demographic elements to assess whether or not it

is possible to call a certain area 'a city'. The city can be described, for instance, by its

lower birth rate or elevated marriage rate. But since the city's demography is similar to

that of the village, this criterion is pointless. (Maunier 536)

René Maunier further claims that others define the city in terms of judicial features. For

example, historians used municipal right or trade right as criteria to define the town.

These elements are not universal, however, and are only valid for a certain city type. In
 Hacini 14

the Middle Ages, though lacking these features, many aggregations were called ''cities''.

(Maunier 537)

Another group defines the city in terms of functional characteristics. Economists argue

that every aggregation which is place for special activities regardless of the nature of

these activities has been called ''a city''. However, they failed to specify the type of the

activities that should be practiced in the aggregation in order to upgrade it to the

definition of the city. (Maunier 538)

Apparently, definitions of the city are all subject to criticism. It is impossible to

define a city depending on a certain domain while neglecting the other. The specialness

of the city makes it very hard to set a stable definition. As the city of the Medieval Ages

does not resemble that of the 19th century, and that of the 17th century does not share the

same characteristics of today's cities; it is illogical then to apply the definitions

mentioned earlier to measure the ''citiness'' of a certain area. In brief, there can be no

exact scientific definition of the city.

In addition, the city may display another definition in the post-colonial context and

release other elements. I think the primary element that the postcolonial town can

involve is more than the geographical political historical subject. The city would be the

center of growth and a place of flourishing of modern perception. It should be noted that

the colonizer brought the touch of modernization and that was a turning point in some

African nations' history–at least in our case, which is Nigeria.

In everyday usage, postcolonial cities refer to those cities (frequently capitals) in what

were previously colonial communities. However, in addition to the historical use of the

term, postcolonial city can also involve a particular criticism that not only highlights the

distinctive effect that colonialism has had on the city's economy, society culture, spatial
 Hacini 15

form and architectural structure, but also the way in which the city itself is understood

and represented by its inhabitants. (King 1).

The postcolonial city is a colonial heritage in which colonial and indigenous criteria

fuse together. These cities are mainly characterized by two main concepts. First,

''Pseudo-urbanization'' which theorists have used to give us the indications that post-

colonial urbanization has been a deviation from almost an aberration of the Classical

European experience; the latter is thus used as a yardstick to assess developments in the

third world. Second, ''Hyper-urbanization'' which is explained as a result of an urban

bias on the part of third world elites who concentrate resources in the cities (Chandoke

2868). These criteria are examined by many writers including Cyprian Ekwensi who

tends to examine the different aspects of Nigerian cities in most of his works.

Thus this chapter sheds light on the nature of postcolonial Lagos city as described by

Cyprian Ekwensi in his novel Jagua Nana (1961). It also tackles some of the general

characteristics of any city and reconsiders their impact on the urban growth such as the

geographical features. Besides, it shows that one of the consequences of urbanization is

the imbalance between some villages, and the city – Lagos. Then, this chapter focuses

on the results of the urban growth such as spatial and social division that is so apparent

in the distinction between the prestigious places and the slums. It highlights how these

areas function differently and how their inhabitants cope with their surroundings.

The Image of Postcolonial Lagos in Jagua Nana:

 Hacini 16

In one of his most famous novels, Jagua Nana, Ekwensi narrates the

adventures and life events of a middle-aged Nigerian prostitute called Jagua Nana who

lives in Lagos. Through her daily activities and the unexpected situations she gets

through, the reader travels back in time and visits Lagos of the 1960's. Jagua can be

considered as a tourist-guide to the city of Lagos. Being economically independent and

having so many social relationships allow Jagua Nana to move in all parts of Lagos and

explain the different lifestyles of its inhabitants and the duality of Lagosians' life. She

makes comments and notices details which draw for us the map of post-colonial Lagos.

At the beginning of the novel, the writer makes it very clear for anyone who is

not familiar with Lagos that the city is situated on the coast. The scenes of the British

Council are very clear after Ekwensi describes it through the attendance of Jagua Nana

and her boyfriend Freddie of a lecture. The writer says:

Freddie sat near the window looking out towards the jumble of cargo

vessels and fast mail boats from Europe and America that cluttered up

the lagoon. Local yachts, motorboats and canoes occasionally sped by,

chugging up the water. (8)

He makes a brief introduction and a logical beginning to guide the reader through Lagos

city and introduce him to it and most importantly to understand its nature.

Being a coastal city makes Lagos a very important trading base as Jagua Nana

explains:

It was true Port Harcourt was to the eastern part of Nigerian what

Lagos was the western part: a port, a conglomerate of peoples drawn

from all over the world, fleeting, hungering for sensation and diversion,
 Hacini 17

hands in their pockets fingering the all-powerful sterling and dollars, a

polyglot world with quite different ideas of conduct from Ogabu. (248)

This passage shows that the early independent Lagos looks like a cosmopolitan city. It

is characterized by overpopulation and diversity of people and languages. I noticed

through the novel that the language used by Lagosians is not purely Nigerian. They use

Pidgin English for their daily communication and there are many nationalities. This

makes Lagos share some characteristics that belong to metropolitan cities.

Another characteristic that may define the citiness of Lagos is the demographic

growth.According to Adisa, as quoted by Daniel Immerwahr in his article The politics

of architecture and urbanism in postcolonial Lagos, 1960–198, the population of

greater Lagos reached 1.14 million in 1963. This was mainly because of the new comers

to the city who come looking for economic opportunities as the city is a very important

trading port and seeking the pleasures the postcolonial city offers. It makes Lagos a hub

for many ethnic groups. As Jagua describes the attendees of the British Council: '' The

same group always met at cocktail parties: the American and Swiss Consuls, the oil

prospectors and the public relations men, the managing directors in the merchant houses

'' (8). Later on, after she reaches The Tropicana nightclub, she gives further information

about the type of business these foreign groups come to make in Lagos:

Jagua saw them now as with white collars off they struck a different

mood from the British Council: the 'expatriate' bank managers, the oil

men and shipping agents, the brewers of beer and pumpers out of

swamp water, the builders of Maternity Block, the healers of the flesh.

German, English, Dutch, America, Nigerian, Ghanaian, they were all

here, bound together in the common quest for diversion. (13)

 Hacini 18

These details show the diversity of both the population of Lagos city and the projects

that are held on its lands. The inhabitants of Lagos city are not all, if not none of them,

originally Lagosians. As Freddie and Jagua come from Eastern Nigerian tribes, other

inhabitants come from Western countries including: England, America, Germany and

African countries like Ghana and, Freetown, Serra Leone from which freed slaves like

Nancy's ancestors come. In the Tropicana nightclub, which can be considered as a

minimized version of Lagos, there were black and white men, as well as, different types

of women like ''Pure ebony, half-caste, Asiatic, even white''(13-14).

These comments made by Jagua give further details not only about the type of

population which inhabited Lagos in the post-independent period, but also about the

economic activities which is an important aspect in the definition of the city. Moreover,

her comments introduce another important image about any city, the physical concrete

side including the types of buildings which are related to different sectors of the urban

area like: banks, maternity block… etc

Jagua Nana visits many areas and neighborhoods in Lagos: from her room in

central Lagos to Ikoyi, the government reservation, moving to Obanla; the shelter of

crime; and ending up in the suburbs of Lagos called Gunle. Apparently, Ekwensi uses

Jagua Nana as a magnifier to map Lagos city for the reader. However, she does not only

show instruction and direction to these areas, but she also introduces us to a physical

and concrete panorama of Lagos: buildings, population, neighborhoods, economy,

education and society structure. It can be said that her footsteps can create a kind of a

map of the city. One may notice that Ekwensi does not only bring to light the urban side

of Nigeria or Lagos. He contrasts it with the rural side to reinforce the idea of urban

development.
 Hacini 19

Hereby I argue that Ekwensi, intentionally or unintentionally, contrasts the

social structure of rural regions of Nigerian (villages and islands) with the image of the

urbanized Lagos to show the degree of urbanization and modernization that the city

reached by that time. And he emphasizes the idea that the capital always gets the

advantage over the rest of the country. To strengthen his standpoint, he sends Jagua

Nana to her home village, to islands of Freddie's family and their rivals and to

economically important towns like Accra and Port Harcourt.

I notice that Ekwensi tries to depict many important details to prove that the

capital always gets advantages over the rest of the country. On the one hand, these

villages show an early and slow process of urbanization. As she moves to Ogabu, her

homeland, Jagua notices that much of the forest had been cleared. She later "discovered

that the wide area which had been cleared beyond the church was being planned for

building a college'' (94). Yet, the government did not provide the necessary funds for

urbanization projects. So, the villagers decide to build a school on their own.

On the other hand, Lagos is more developed and consists of so many intellectual

and educational buildings. For instance, Freddie, Jagua's young lover,'' was a teacher at

the Nigerian National College'' (2). Besides, Jagua once gets informed he ''had begun to

teach in some night school in the suburbs of Lagos'' (72). Furthermore, Freddie takes

Jagua to the British Council to attend intellectual gatherings and listen to lectures

presented by the elite of Lagos city.

The fact that there are different types of educational buildings and institutions

and that education is used as a strong argument in political campaigns, like in the case

of Uncle Taiwo, proves how much the government considers the existence and
 Hacini 20

construction of educational buildings in postcolonial Lagos as a priority while neglects

it on the level of villages.

Health care represents another contradiction between city and village. To

confirm she is pregnant when she is in Ogabu, Jagua has to ride thirty miles to reach the

nearest hospital, or what it looks like one. As the doctor explains,

It was only a wooden hospital built among the palm trees, but it served

the people and they came eighty miles around. It had been a 'temporary'

hospital for thirty years now. The government kept on promising to

build a bigger one. (251)

However, when Freddie Namme gets seriously injured because of political

violence, he is taken to a private hospital. And as it is mentioned before, there are

maternity block builders inside the Tropicana club. That means Lagos is relatively

developed on health institutions' constructing domain.

As thirty years take us back to the colonial days, it means that even the colonial

government showed little interest in constructing urban places in rural agricultural

areas. During the colonial period, this acceleration of urbanizing big cities like Lagos is

related to economy. As Home explains:

Unlike colonial cities in Australia or the Americas, where a settling

population developed planned cities, the built environment of Lagos

was for the most part touched by colonialism only indirectly, through

economic forces rather than direct legislation. (qtd. in Immerwahr 170)

So, apparently, postcolonial Lagos received more urban interest due to its economic

importance.
 Hacini 21

Another characteristic of Lagos city is the availability of means of

transportation. Since Lagos is a coastal trade base, there exist boats, cargoes, canoes,

ships which are used for fishing or carrying imports and exports, mail and people.

Inside its main land, Lagos looks very crowded. Unlike in Ogabu which ''was indeed the

land of the bicycle taxi where the people did not in the least depend on four wheels for

their transport'' (99) And also in Bagana where Jagua ''did not meet any motor cars, only

bicycles [because] There wasn't the space, and the vehicles would only clutter up the

beautiful island'' (99) two areas which depend mainly on bicycles, the transportation

means in Lagos are very diverse and modern. Taxis, motorcars, limousines and buses

are used by the inhabitants of Lagos on a daily basis in order to fulfill their daily

activities. The absence, or more precisely, the lacking of transportation means in

villages, or at least the non-existence of those more developed transportation means that

are available in Lagos, make them less polluted than Lagos which is described as noisy,

and its '' air was thick with the smell of diesel oil from the buses'' (72) while ''The air in

Ogabu … had the mixed scent of palm fronds, wild flowers and humus '' (92) and its

roads are more crowded of animals than of transportation means. In addition to the

natural atmosphere, houses in small villages are very traditional, red mud houses which

lack the simplest amenities. They have no electricity, unlike in Lagos, which makes

Jagua realize it has been a long time she has not seen the moon because ''In Lagos the

street lights were so bright'' (95).

However, Jagua Nana lives in a room in Central Lagos. She can afford rent

because she is economically independent. Her room is the typical room of any middle-

class individual. It is on the upper floor as she appears in many scenes climbing the

stairs or gazing from the balcony. She lives in the same compound with Freddie who
 Hacini 22

lived in the compound before Jagua joined it. Ekwensi gives a description of Freddie's

room in Central Lagos as follows:

His room was at the back, on the ground floor: one of ten rooms which

bounded a narrow corridor. Each floor had a communal cooking place,

a bathroom and a lavatory pail. There was a small yard at the back

where the children played and hawkers came in with their wares and

wood was split and gossip exchanged. The owner of the building was a

retired Civil Servant… (39)

In contrast to Freddie and Jagua's rooms in Central Lagos, where she baths in a shower,

Jagua baths ''in the river in the public gaze'' (94) in Ogabu, and she sleeps in a room

which contained ''no spring mattresses, terrazzo-tiled floors and decorated walls'' (92).

Ekwensi criticizes the imbalance and inequality concerning the government

urban projects. He emphasizes the fact that the government is more ready to develop

Lagos city whilst other regions of the country lack the simplest life conditions. In the

villages, hospitals, for example, though their importance; are not built or repaired while

in a period of three months, ''Lagos was changing so fast. The lorry park had been

cemented and paved and they had now built a proper entrance and exit...'' (144). in his

book The African City: A History, Bill Freud states that Lagos, which was the colonial

capital of the most populated territory in Africa in the 1950's, experienced the most

change while small areas were totally or partly neglected. This can be explained, again,

that governments, either colonial or postcolonial, tend to show much interest in

urbanizing economically important areas.

The characteristics of Lagos can relate to a lot of successful postcolonial coastal

cities. Accra, which is the largest city in Ghana, is one of the successful cities that were
 Hacini 23

built on the coast side. Its coast allowed for economic prosperity and trade activities.

Less than a decade after independence, the American anthropologist Marion Kilson

describes Accra as: ''Central Accra is a densely populated, active, noisy centre of

African urban life in the heart of the national capital of Ghana . . .'' (qtd. in Freud 73). In

addition, Bill Freud mentions that the population of Accra, according to William

Hance's book Geography of Modern Africa (1964), reached 491 thousands in 1960. It

was, then, the seventh most crowded African city after Cairo, Alexandria,

Johannesburg, Casablanca, Algiers, and Ibadan, respectively (66).

It is true that Lagos is different and appears more modern compared to other

Nigerian regions, especially small villages. But Ekwensi explores the whole Lagos

structure. He shows how it is not all modern and that people living in it do not share the

same lifestyle. He argues that Lagos is a dual city. It is not a paradise; it has its dark side

as any other city of the world. The colonial segregation that once divided the British and

the Nigerian by, of course, favoring the British inhabitants of Lagos, was replaced by

class segregation. This is manifested by the diversity of Lagos' spaces and the nature of

its inhabitants in the post-independent era.

Jagua's journey in Lagos starts from the prestigious area known as Ikoyi.

According to how Jagua describes it, Ikoyi is the Utopia of the dystopian city of Lagos.

It is a prestigious neighborhood which is socially as well as officially separated from the

rest of Lagos. It remarkably contrasts with the rest of the city's chaotic areas, especially

the outskirts. On her first days in Lagos, Jagua Nana gets introduced to a British man

who lives in Ikoyi. She explains '' that was the Government Reservation where the white

men and the Africans high up in the civil service lived'' (66). It is the government's

area. It is a secure, well-equipped and perfectly structured space ''where the streets were

straight and smooth, where they played golf on the open sands: a reservation complete
 Hacini 24

with its own police station, electricity base, motorboat beaches'' (66). As Fishman

further inserts about the nature of Ikoyi:

The Garden City model used for colonial Government Reservation

Areas and for British New Towns was explicitly designed for a certain

type of subject: an upwardly mobile worker for whom daily toil in a

factory would be punctuated by evenings and holidays spent in self-

improvement and leisure in a hygienic quiet suburb. (qtd. in

Immerwahr 173)

Its inhabitants consist of the upper class of after-independence Lagos while

before, during the colonial days, consisted only of the British one. Gwendolyn Wrights

summarizes the existence of such structures by noting that: '' While African cities have

grown exponentially since independence, colonial patterns of land use, restrictions,

neglect and adaptation remain in evidence'' (qtd. in Immerwahr 165).

The previously mentioned passages prove that cities were introduced as

settlements constructed by the Western colonial governments. The heritage is

manifested in the adoption of social and urban structural aspects of the European

community in an African context.

In other words, Ikoyi is the urban significance of affluence in Lagos. In Atta

Sefi’s Everything Good Will Come, Ikoyi is described as an area where “men chatted

mostly about cars and money; the women about food prices, pediatric medications,

work politics, and Disney toys” (Nnodim 223). It is privileged for upper class

inhabitants while middle-class and lower-class inhabitants considered Ikoyi as a dream.

Inside the house of the British man, Jagua '' glanced round her with breath suspended.

[because] she had never in her life dreamt of being in such dazzling surroundings'' (233)
 Hacini 25

which contrast with her reality as ''The deep soft carpets and well-padded chairs were

things she saw in films'' (234).

So, middle-class and lower class inhabitants of Lagos could not afford living in

such places like Ikoyi. For instance, Rosa, as one the new comers to Lagos; as well as;

the low income inhabitants of the city, has to live with Jagua Nana for a while because

she cannot find any place to stay in. Besides to the fact that many Lagosians earn very

little income, one more logical explanation for being unable to acquire suitable shelters

is that the government was not able to provide houses for its growing population. The

constant migration and immigration which marks the ethnical diversity of Lagos, as was

stated before, in order to search for jobs and economic opportunities put the planning

authorities into a serious problem. Immerwahr includes that: ''From the 1950s onward,

overcrowding became the salient feature of life in Lagos''(176).

Consequently, the poor immigrants settled in slums ''both for lack of money and

because, according to Awotona, they ‘would rather invest in a house in their village or

“home-town” than in Lagos.’ Slum areas like Idi-Araba and Olaleye-Iponri village were

overwhelmingly populated with those born outside of Lagos (qtd. in Immerwahr 176).

After the defeat of Uncle Taiwo's party in Obanla Constituency Elections, Jagua

becomes under threat. Hence, she gets obliged to leave her room in Central Lagos to

save her life. It is Rosa who warns her and takes her to her place. Rosa takes Jagua to

''the outskirts of Lagos, to the slums of the slums''(227). Such areas which lack the

simplest conditions of life are the consequences of rapid urban growth. Gunle, as Rosa

calls it, is a part of the city which Jagua often heard of but never been to. Besides, the

place seems too far from Central Lagos as ''They changed direction at least three times''

and the taxi took them over a wooden bridge, then and ''after it had put them down they
 Hacini 26

walked along a sandy road for ten minutes''(227). Such traits show how slums are

usually constructed at the borders of the city.

Slums, as defined by the United Nation agency UN-Habitat, are a degraded area

of a city which consists of un-organized housing, lack of amenities and tenure security.

Due to the rising population, the number of slums is increasing. Consequently, a slum

household shelters a group of individuals living under the same roof in a certain urban

area. These areas generally lack many necessary life conditions. First, slums households

are not protective against severe climate conditions. Second, it does not provide easy

access to clean water. Third, slums are narrow areas and this mean not many people can

live together in the same room. Fourth, access to adequate private sanitation or at least

public toilet that could be shared by a logical number of people.. It is almost a universal

phenomenon though not all slum dwellers suffer from the same bad conditions.

However, UN-HABITAT 2006 findings prove that Sub-Saharan Africa's slums are the

most degraded. (UN-HABITAT on slums)

It is also worth noting that Slums are relevant to any large successful cities. It is

economic prosperity which attracts more residents and thus results in the construction of

such areas. Accra, for instance, consists of these life phenomena as the American

anthropologist Marion Kilson, comments:

A visitor walking through the byways of Central Accra senses that he

might be in any comparable residential area of marginal elites and

manual laborers in any West African capital. The smells, sights and

sounds which he encounters are as characteristic of Treicheville[sic] in

Abidjan or Ginger Hall in Freetown as they are of Central Accra: the

deep, open, trash filled gutters, the sizzling smell of frying plantain,
 Hacini 27

the occasional whiff of urine, the small open shops of artisans, the

barber cutting hair under a tree; children chasing home-made wheel

toys; men playing checkers in the shade of a house; women carrying

sleeping infants on their backs and possessions on their heads; the

sharp clank of aluminium pails, the reprimanding shouts of mothers,

the rhythm of highlife pulsating from an open window, the warm

laughter of good fellowship. Nevertheless these superficial sensory

similarities mask wide social and cultural variations in the lives of the

inhabitants of such urban areas. (qtd. in Freud 73)

The difference of the inhabitants of slums marks a difference in its nature and

role in the city. I can notice that Obanla, a slum that plays an important setting in the

game of politics in the novel, is another version of slums. Jagua has to take a long

distance to Obanla, too. Unlike Gunle where, according to Rosa, no one ''poke nose in

your business'' (228), Obanla's inhabitants know each other very well that "any strange

person –black or white- may not go without being instantly identified as a stranger"

(159). The nature of slums and the narrow space lead to the construction of small

communities in which people are as close to each other just like the villagers in rural

areas. The place is apparently inhabited by thieves and law-breakers including Dennis, a

young man with whom Jagua Nana gets involved in a relationship, and his friends. But

''highly reputed practicing barristers, engineers and business men '' (159) too, live there.

That means that assumptions about outskirts consisting only of law-breakers whilst

prestigious places like Ikoyi are privileged for the elite or the upper class are mere

stereotypes. In Obanla there is no police station. However, they have their own rules. So

if anyone commits an unacceptable act, the gang will punish him. They created their

own system.
 Hacini 28

The inhabitants of the skirts, anyhow, did not only make their own moral code.

They even made their own urban structures which are different than other places in

Lagos. On this matter, Onijade comments: "Poorer Lagosians did not just build

differently than the government did; they also used space differently as well" (qtd. in

Immerwahr 177).

While Ikoyi signifies affluence, the skirts were associated with suffering and life

degradation as they lack the simplest modern amenities. When Jagua and Rosa reache

Gunle, the scene of the surrounding reflects a whole different image of Lagos than the

one Ikoyi strikes. The house where Rosa lives in Gunle is described as '' painted grey

and red on the outside… Rosa lived in a room of her own where she said she paid two

pounds a month rent'' (228). Life in Gunle looks so primitive. There are no carpets

covering the floor of the room so if anyone rubs his feet too hard, powdery puffs would

remarkably come out as Ekwensi describes it. Moreover, "The bed was in the same

room, wooden, with a mattress stuffed with the kind of grass cut by prisoners at the

racecourse" (228). There are no ovens in the kitchen so food is cooked on stones and

fire. And what is more shocking to Jagua is realizing that ''any part of Lagos was

without electric light and pump water, but Gunle was '' (235-6) so, the inhabitants used

lanterns to make light at night.

The skirts of Lagos do not look anything like the apartments of Central Lagos or

Government British modeled Reservations in Ikoyi. Nor do they look like red mud

houses in the village of Ogabu. Hallen notes that if slums can be said to have had any

model, it was the Brazilian-style bungalows brought to Nigeria from Brazil by Muslim

and Catholic ex-slaves resettled by the Portuguese in Lagos in the latter half of the

nineteenth century. These bungalows featured a central corridor in which rooms face

each other and bathrooms and kitchens are built outside the actual house, and many in
 Hacini 29

Lagos also included decorative frills and bright colors that come from Brazil as well

(qtd. Immerwahr 176). Similarly, Obanla housings are made of various rooms and there

can be many holes in the walls which fulfill some functions for the inhabitants. When a

police siren arrived to Dennis's place, ''Jagua saw Sabina leap into the next room and

pull up a ladder from somewhere. Up the steps she climbed, like a cat and vanished

through a hatch in the roof'' (161).

On Jagua and Rosa's way to Gunle, the writer mentions that they ''passed by an

open expanse of ground where cattle were being bought and sold by men in white

gowns and white caps ''(228).Those who come to Lagos found themselves obliged to

cope with the city ways and circumstances and come up with new methods in order to

earn money. But because the population of Lagos was very large, it wasn't possible for

all the inhabitants to obtain respectful, or more precisely, formal professions. One of the

characteristics of Lagos, as presented by Ekwensi, is the existence of informal sheds and

small trading spots on almost all its streets, except for Ikoyi. And yet, as Fapohunda

interferes, these economic informal activities were not limited to the slums, but could

exist in every spot of the metropolitan city – rich or poor (qtd.in Immenwahr 177).

One night as Jagua was walking down the street ,or how the prostitutes call it

''the beat'', '' she was forced to pick her way on the edge of the road among the petty

traders selling bread, matches, cigarettes, tea, fried bean cakes…''(62)This was, to the

flâneur, ''The real Lagos '' (62). Whether it is a yam seller who makes comments on

Jagua Nana's look, or a letter-writer who works ''in the Marina just beside the bank, near

the public lavatories'' (83) for whom Jagua pays six pence to write a letter to Freddie, or

traders on the road which Jagua meets occasionally, informal traders represent an

important aspect of Lagos and contribute much for the Lagosian economy (and indeed

many urban economies in developing countries).

 Hacini 30

The informal sector is, apparently, so crucial in Lagosians' life, either for poor

unemployed inhabitants, or officials during the hard times at the end of the month when

their salaries are not sufficient to enable them to purchase goods from formal shops. As

the following passage explains:

Payday was usually on the twenty-six. By the twentieth of the month,

no Lagos man had any more spending money. This was the time when

the men resorted to credit buying and the women trekked across the

bridge instead of going by bus. There was no more question of rushing

to the big Department Store; instead, everyone sought out the cut-price

markets and bought tinned foods from dubious sources. (63)

The informal sector fulfills different crucial functions for Lagosians. It clearly provides

necessary products with cheap prices. Besides, informal vendors are more likely to

extend credit for their customers allowing them to pay on another day rather than the

moment of purchase. In an interview made by Peter Marris with the informal traders of

Lagos city, they often repeated the maxim: ''no credit, no trade" (qtd. in Immerwahr

173).

In addition, the sector provides jobs not only for men but also for women. It is

estimated, according to Fapohunda, that in 1963, 70% of Lagosian women were

involved in petty trading and other related activities (qtd. in Immerwahr 173). Female

traders formed a very important group in society. In Obanla constituency,'' Jagua stood

on a box and looked down on the head of three thousand market women '' (196).

Women are a very important player on the level of economy as well as politics. They

are considered as an important source of products for poor Lagosians and a threat to big

Stores owners.
 Hacini 31

Many men in the 'Senior Service' came to this 'cut-price' market to

squeeze away a few odd pennies from the grasping hands of the big

Department Stores. They bought tea and towels, sugar and coca cola,

coffee, milk and peanuts from these women who could undersell

anyone else because they bought wholesale from shady sources and

were content with little or no profit. (198)

In her book Lagos: The City is the People (1991), Peil notes that ''planning in

Lagos is done by politicians, not planners'' (qtd. in Immerwahr 174). So, the market

women were addressed by Jagua Nana during the political campaign of Uncle Taiwo.

And since they play a crucial economic role, they were promised ''a decent market''

(201) providing that they vote for O.P.1.

It must be mentioned that it is not only products like foods and kitchen tools and

cigarettes that are sold informally, but also the bodies of women. Prostitution, though

ethically unaccepted in many societies, is a very important section of the informal trade.

Besides to the money she saved from her former cloth trade, Jagua is able to pay the

rent of her room, provide shelter for Rosa and help Freddie to reach England using the

money she receives from the men she engages with in extramarital relationships. The

Tropicana Club which is not the only nightclub in Lagos as ''Bouncing of the roofs,

Jagua heard the trumpet choruses from the adjacent club"(13), is described as a sex-

market in which prostitution trade is practiced. Different body ''goods'' are available to

satisfy the needs and tastes of the different customers. So as ''women enticed their

victims … the Tropicana profited'' (14).

The construction of entertainment buildings like the Tropicana nightclub and the

absence of police control implies that prostitution, is apparently, encouraged by the

 Hacini 32

government. Lagos benefits from the trade because it allows for capital circulation since

those who attend nightclubs are usually foreign business men as was early mentioned.

Prostitution, like other geographically unlimited trades, can also be practiced on

the street. Transportation means and roads play an important role in street prostitution.

A prostitute tells Jagua Nana that: ''if trade was bad, all she needed to do was walk

along this road and the men would stop their cars and start up some conversation'' (63).

However, on economically dry nights, men would not take any prostitute as they do not

work according to the ''credit'' maxim.

Some women who migrate to Lagos city are illiterate as the case of Jagua and

Rosa. But the city enables women who lack skills or education to practice prostitution

as an economic activity in nightclubs and on the street. They have to because as Jagua

describes it, it is her bread and butter. Being in an industrialized modern city makes

women understand the need for money as it is their only way to survive in a city where

jobs are not available due to the overcrowding that the city witnesses.

It is included that though the lights, the fancy dresses of the women and the cars

of men, one must not neglect the unpleasant side of Lagos life: the flies in the lavatory _

big and blue and stubborn '' (148). Jagua is deceived by the glamour of modernity just

like the other comers to Lagos. She realized at the end of her journey that "Lagos for her

had become a complete failure" (23). The poorly organized economy and imbalance

make it hard to afford a good life. Besides, the rapid demographic growth affected

Lagos in a negative way. Its reputation was ruined because of the unplanned

constructions done by the inhabitants since the government failed at constructing urban

areas which reflect the image of a real modern city.

 Hacini 33

''For years the slums of Lagos have been notorious,’ reported the West

African Review, ‘and it has been truly said that some of the lean-to-

shelters occupied by large and poverty-stricken families in Lagos are

not fit to house sheep and goats, much less human beings’. Noting that

Lagos ‘is the mirror through which foreigners make their initial

appraisal of Nigeria,’ the Minister of Lagos, Alhaji Yar Adua, declared

to the House of Representatives that central Lagos was ‘humiliating to

any person with a sense of national pride’ (qtd. in Immerwahr. 171).

Obviously, Ekwensi had a future vision as the capital was moved from Lagos to Abuja

in 1991 because of the lack of organization.

 Hacini 34

Conclusion:

Lagos is very well mapped by Ekwensi, though in his time, very few were

interested in urban writing. He describes the very details of Lagos city through the

protagonist of his picaresque novel. He shows how the postcolonial city of Lagos

surpassed other Nigerian regions on the level of urbanization. He smoothly gives

information about the Nigerian history, geography, population and urban growth.

Ekwensi examines the economic sector of Lagos city, especially on the informal

level. Education, health care and transportation take a huge part of his urban and social

critique of his favorite city of Lagos. In his analysis he tries to spot the light on many

different issues including the imbalance of funds provisions within the different parts of

Nigeria. He also points out that the major mistake African governments and,

specifically, the Nigerian postcolonial government, was favoring the industry

agriculture. One of the main reasons it led to the destruction of Lagos city.

From the government reservation to the suburbs, the novelist shows how

degrading life can be in a postcolonial city. The duality and possible degradation

distorts the perfect image in the minds of those who have never been to postcolonial

Lagos. He argues that being a city does not qualify Lagos to the image of the ideal

utopia. He emphasizes the fact that colonial segregation was replaced by a similar

postcolonial one which divided the city based on class and wealth, and that this division

resulted in weakening postcolonial Lagos urbanism.

 Hacini 35

Chapter Two:

Women in the City.

Introduction:

Urban studies, as a separate approach, emerged during the 1870s before the

emergence of the feminist theoretical studies. Thus, feminist geography is not very old.

As a result of Second Wave Feminism, Anglo-American feminist geography appeared

in the early 1970s that is a century after the establishment of urbanism as a field of

study. (Peake 320)

The main enquiry of feminist urbanism, in general, is gender in relation to

western cities especially on the level of social, economic, and political perspectives. In

her research paper ''Gender and the City'', Linda Peake examines the phases through

which feminist geography has gone in order to settle as a theory. At first, the basic

concern of the feminist geographers was comparing between the everyday lives' details

of women and men in the urban context. Then, they gained interest in the examination

of distinctions between sex and gender. Eventually, they ended up developing a feminist

urban theory as a result of the second wave feminism influence and association with

urban-economic-based theories dealing with the daily aspects of urbanites in modern

industrialized societies. They built their theoretical basics in relation to critiques of

capitalism, including mainly the Marxist theory, which deal with the process of

urbanization and its effect on its dwellers. (321)

Most importantly in relation to the study, Urban geographies in relation to Black

feminism emerged as a result of the engagement of feminist geographers in different

contexts such as post-modernism, post-structuralism, psychoanalysis and third wave

 Hacini 36

feminist, tackling, of course, the issue of postcolonial cities and their female dwellers.

The subversion of the theory is mainly concerned with specific groups of women

including domestic workers, sex workers and single mothers. The study field shows an

increase interest in studying female inhabitants in relation to urban environment. It

focuses on urban consumption and women's spaces of leisure in addition to spaces of

urban poverty. (Peake 321)

The field of gender in the city in relation to cities in Global South

commenced, in the 1960s, with studies of rural women's migration to urban

centers, as well as the role of women's migration to urban centers, and also on

the role of women's work in the informal sector in urban areas (Peake 320).

Furthermore, researchers aim to study the representations of women in urban

spaces, especially in relation to their most significant factor, i.e. their sexuality.

They focus on their engagement in prostitution. Feminist geographic studies

also highlight women's multiple socioeconomic and political roles in the

modern context.

It is worth noting, that feminist geography in an urban context, precisely

postcolonial cities, is interested in studying household structures and urban poverty. It

makes an investigation to the survival strategies that women follow in postcolonial

cities in order to cope with economic inequality in patriarchal societies. They emphasize

the fact that urban spaces' nature is gendered and that the urban environment has a

degrading impact on women's lives.

However, Feminist Geography theorists also argue that the social position of

women has improved with the spread of urbanization which is, unavoidably,

accompanied with modernization. |It presents new frameworks in which women can
 Hacini 37

assume new roles. For this, postmodernist feminists believe that urbanization have

offered women economic, social, and sexual freedoms and opportunities to challenge

the already-set system.

The establishment of many urban structures like: Stores, nightclubs and

educational institutions gave women the chance to shift from a private to a public

sphere which allows them to personally and directly draw a picture of a reality that they

used to view through the eyes of men. It also allowed women to leave the nuclear

family and settle in Central downtowns, for instance, which enables them to make

advantage of several opportunities. It further suggests that gender relations may well be

taking place faster in place that were, traditionally, in men's favors. Some feminists,

however, argue that urban planning is set in order to control the city functioning as well

as women. They assume that urbanization is more an ideology than a structural and

technical practice.

In order to explain how the postcolonial city functions, one must understand its

social structure and the struggles which urbanites face on a daily basis. The urban

novelist makes a full enquiry into the details of everyday life of his characters to define

the city. He deals with their psychological as well as physical development. In Jagua

Nana (1961), Cyprian Ekwensi analyses the characters' relationship with their

surrounding, specifically the postcolonial city, to demonstrate an objective explanation

of their choices in relation to many contexts economic, intellectual, social and political.

More precisely, Ekwensi deals mostly through the female characters. He gives a new

role to the African female. Generally, in his novels, women speak loud and act louder in

postcolonial Lagos. By applying feminist geography; one can examine the issues which

African female urbanites deal with in a postcolonial urban atmosphere.

 Hacini 38

So this chapter analyzes the women characters and their lives in postcolonial

Lagos as depicted in Jagua Nana (1962). It tries to focus on the tactics they use to

survive in a patriarchal system and an urban environment. In brief, it studies the positive

and the negative impact of postcolonial Lagos city on their lives.

The Image of Women in Postcolonial Lagos in Jagua Nana:

Jagua Nana is an eponymous novel. At the beginning of the story; Jagua Nana is

a forty-five years old Nigerian prostitute who lives in Central Lagos, in the capital of

the most populous post-independent African country, then (Bloom et al.8). Jagua Nana

is an ambitious, strong, independent and bipolar character. She is contradicted on many

levels. Despite the fact that she is relatively old, she follows the fashion, puts make-up,

adopts a lustful lifestyle and gets involved in many relationships with men from

different backgrounds and age groups. Jagua Nana is fond of music and attends night-

clubs which are the natural habitat for a prostitute. She is physically attractive and loves

to receive attention to her body and style. However, she is not originally from Lagos.

Like so many Lagosians, she migrates from a small village following her thirst for

freedom. Her moving from her village to the postcolonial modern city of Lagos

introduces her to many situations and sudden events and links her to many urbanites.

Thus analyzing her character can show the reader many features of women's life in

relation to the city.

Before moving to Lagos city, Jagua Nana used to live in a small Eastern

Nigerian village called Ogabu and her name was just Nana. It is in the city of Lagos

where she earns the nickname Jagua ''after the famous British prestige car'' (1). She

grows up in a religiously conservative family as her father, David Obi, is a catechist

 Hacini 39

who later becomes a pastor of the local church. Jagua Nana is already Jagua in her

village. She is rebellious against her community's rules and customs and follows a

lifestyle that is different from the style of the village girls.

Jagua was fond of changing her clothes often and _ in those early days

of make-up _ of painting her face. Every few hours she went down to

the waterside and took off her clothes and swam in the clean cool water.

The boys used to hide and peep at her breasts and hips. She knew it and

always teased them. (229)

As the passage depicts, Jagua shows a modern attitude even before actually moving to

the city. She feels herself displaced and not at home in her village.

Jagua Nana, unlike girls of her generation, does not get married at a young age.

In fact, she does not want to get married at all. And ''To the shock of the villagers she

wore jeans and rode her bicycle through the narrow alleys of Ogabu and talked loudly

and her laughter was throaty so that men drew to her side and wanted her'' (229-230). In

addition, her fondness of make-up and fashion and men's company in the village

indicate the early effect of modernity on women including village girls and daughters of

religious men. So, according to the village standards, Jagua Nana is neither the typical

village girl nor the typical pastor's daughter. She is careless about losing respect in her

little community.

But her father, David, feels unsatisfied with her actions and irresponsible way of

life. He, then, decides to marry her off to a ''Coal city man (who) pressed home his

claim and paid for the bride price of one hundred and twenty pounds'' (167).

Here; David plays the typical role of a father in a stereotypical patriarchal community.

David forces his daughter to get married.

 Hacini 40

However, I believe that her father is not only influenced by society. I argue that

the reason behind forcing his daughter to get married is relatively economic. As Claude

Meillassoux argues, such marriage rites, like the bride-price, are for the benefits of the

men since they received cattle, iron bars, or other valuable exchange items -and most

importantly money- when they give their daughters (qtd. in Strobel 110). Then, Jagua

Nana's entourage thinks that a woman's place is her husband's house, and it also uses

women as objects for trade.

Unexpectedly, Nana, the rebellious village girl is forced to get married and have

children. Forced marriage is one of the issues that African women suffer from. Women,

according to the traditional social basics, are made to be housewives and mothers.

However, unlike her father's predictions that she would change after marriage and

become submissive to the society rules, Jagua feels more eager to leave Ogabu and set

herself free. She feels so unsatisfied with her husband's lifestyle who, though ''soon had

a chain of filling stations all over the city and was able to buy a small car […] never

took her to parties and would not dress her well, for fear the money would leak away''

(167). His ideas do not attract her. To her, he is not the ideal man she is looking for

because ''she was Jagua but the man was not Jagwa-ful'' (167). Jagua Nana is not

submissive to the patriarchal rules of her society. She never sees herself beneath men so

she analyses her community standards with a critical eye. She is well aware that forced

marriage represents an issue for women and feels severe pain as her parents, who are

responsible for her marriage, are not there to watch her misery. Besides, she cannot bear

a child. As she is aware that, as N. U. Akpam points out: ''children were the most

important thing in the world… [And] every man and woman must have as many as they

could'' (qtd. in New African 6), Jagua feels like a failure. She blames herself for not

making her marriage successful after she hears about her husband's intentions to getting
 Hacini 41

married for the second time. When Jagua knows that her husband visits his village, or

receives girls in his office to choose a young fertile bride, she stops taking her sterility

medicine. Jagua refuses polygamy and considers her marriage over. The refusal of

polygamy marks an advanced break with the traditional beliefs of African women.

I argue, however, that Jagua Nana does not refuse polygamy because she would

share her husband with another woman. Her inability to bear children and to make her

marriage successful make her feel regret but only temporarily. Her thirst for

independence and freedom turn these painful events to her benefits. Besides, polygamy

would have been beneficial for her if she has chosen it. In Calson's sense, it might be

more prestigious for Jagua Nana to belong to the upper kind of domestic unit than being

the only wife. And if her husband marries again she would have more space and be less

controlled. She would even have control over the other wives. Fortunately, the existence

of another woman in the household would be helpful for the elder wives as chores

would be shared (qtd. in Little 109).

But Jagua Nana uses polygamy besides her age, childlessness and a corrupt

reputation as motives to reach her dream. She has always dreamed to live in Lagos city

''where girls were glossy, worked in offices like men, danced, smoked, wore high-

heeled shoes and narrow slacks and were ''free'' and "fast" with their favors'' (167). So

the above mentioned events empower Jagua Nana to become strong enough to make an

irreversible decision to leave her old life and family. She leaves her husband, family and

unpleasant traditional folkways. ''God knows she wanted to settle down and become the

good wife. But she was bored'' (230), and thus refused matrimony. Her family does not

understand, as C. Brain Cox interferes, ''her thrust into dangerous adventures by her

search for the ideal hero'' (qtd. in New African 190) ,a hero whose characteristics are not
 Hacini 42

available in her greedy ex-husband, so she decides to start her life all over in another

society.

Many critics argued that Jagua Nana's refusal of matrimony, polygamy and

social standards would lead to her falling. But Ekwensi responds to their claims by

showing empathy with Jagua Nana. He questions critics' ideas and arguments of her fall

by saying: ''Fallen from what? She chose not to have a husband. That is not ''falling''. It

is ''independence''. That is how it is regarded by her'' (qtd. in Homaifar 176). His words

reinforce that those incidents are only a pretext for Jagua to achieve her independence.

Subsequently, Jagua Nana migrates to Lagos for the purpose of following her

unlimited ambitions. It is important to mention that before moving to Lagos, she had an

attractive image of the city modern life where restaurants serve the most delicious food,

women follow fashion and people spend the night out having fun and enjoying their

time. After she reaches Lagos, first; she immediately realizes that her ways are too

provincial and out of date, so she needs to rapidly acquire a new sense of fashion.

Second, she changes the way she speaks to have a sense of anonymity as all the

Lagosians do. Jagua starts talking in Pidgin English to avoid reminder of clan and

custom. And most importantly, she realizes that living the luxurious life she has always

dreamed of cannot be easily achieved. Hence, she becomes one of the ''many others

(who) were practically strangers in a town where all came to make fast money by faster

means, and greedily seek positions that yielded even more money'' (2).

The dreamed image of the city as the Promised Land has immediately broken

down and Jagua Nana is shocked by the harsh cruel nature of the city especially at the

level of earning money and a living. To earn money, Jagua breaks away from the

bandleader she meets when she first reaches Lagos, and becomes the mistress of a
 Hacini 43

British white man. The white man was a means through which Jagua becomes a

merchant after he helps her to start her own clothe trade. Consequently, Jagua Nana

becomes financially independent to the point of renting an expensive room of her own

in a compound in Central Lagos. Eventually, she meets Freddie who happens to live in

the same compound.

She engages with Freddie in a relationship. He is a twenty-five years old poor

ambitious English teacher. Their relationship is very complicated. The age gap between

the two partners, the difference in interests and certainly the financial situation always

create a problem. Though there could be no future for their relationship, Jagua insists on

not letting Freddie go, ''She knew Freddie deserved a good girl… But Jagua was too

much in love with him to make a reasonable exit'' (3) As Freddie is poor, he could not

spoil his fashion lover woman. Hence, Jagua takes money from the other men in

exchange of sexual affection. She is a prostitute. The reader may think that prostitution

as a social problem is the main theme of the problem and that Ekwensi draws attention

to this problem from a moral angle. However, the writer represents this theme in

relation to the city and to economic factors.

In the novel, almost all women characters are prostitutes: Jagua Nana, Rosa, Ma

Nancy and other women. In fact, for them, as explained in the novel, is their '' bread and

butter'' (14). In the postcolonial Lagos, prostitution, according to many urbanites, is not

viewed in relation to ethics or religion. It is an economic plan through which women

survive the industrial postcolonial city system. Through the novel, women talk about

prostitution using words like ''trade'' and ''business'' in many passages. Many women

flee their restricted and oppressive primitive tribal system and view the city as an

opportunity to break the laws of the traditional community and become independent,
 Hacini 44

especially on the economic level. It is within the system itself that women fight and

survive.

Women, apparently, follow the Debrouillardise tactic which is an art through

which weak marginalized individuals survive within the oppressive system. Burton

notes in ''Debroy Pa Peche'' (1993) that 'debrouillardise' is: ''the only way in which the

chronically disempowered can survive and turn the system that oppresses them against

itself and use it to their advantage'' (qtd. in Homaifer 174). By applying this on Lagos

society, the marginalized individuals within the system are women. Hence, they resort

to new methods through which they can change their position. They get engaged within

the domain of economy to grant their financial independence in the industrial system

and hence surpass men in some cases. This can be a logical explanation for why Freddie

and Jagua's relationship is built on control and dominance .Jagua earns more money

than Freddie so gender roles are switched and the man becomes submissive.

Obviously, prostitution is not privileged for a certain class or area. It is

practiced in slums like Obanla and Gunle as well as in prestigious spaces like Ikoyi. It is

important to mention however that the development or urban planning in postcolonial

Lagos facilitates such practices. The Tropicana night-club as a representation the whole

city of Lagos which is described in the novel as a ''super sex market'' (12) is the urban

structure where one can understand how prostitution functions.

Nightclubs have two features which are essential for the prostitution trade,

music and fashion. The Jazz music which spread all over the world during the first half

of the twentieth century emphasizes the effect of the city on women. As Jagua ''heard

the trumpet shrieks from the Tropicana'', ''she felt genuinely elated'' (11-12) , unlike in

the British Council where she feels bored and awkward. Besides, fashion seems to be a
 Hacini 45

component that helps the trade to prosper. The ethnic diversity of the postcolonial city

allows the club to provide different types of women who wear provocative dresses to

attract men. Ekwensi explains the link between prostitution and cloth fashion as

follows: '' a dress succeeded if it made men's eyes ogle hungrily in this modern super

sex-market'' (13). Consequently, the more women entice men, the more night-clubs and

prostitution trade prosper.

In an attempt to explain how music plays a part of the 'business', Ekwensi

compares between the use of such aspect in rural and urban areas. Music and dancing in

rural places are related to ceremonies and special occasions. In Ogabu, women dance to

express joy or sadness. They perform their dances in groups which evokes a communal

sense. They dance in order to remind themselves of the community they need to stick to.

On the opposite, the purpose in urban areas is very different. In the Tropicana nightclub,

''the dancers occupied a tiny floor, unlighted, so that they became silhouetted bodies

without faces… '' (12). Women dance together wearing provocative dresses while each

one of them has an individual purpose that is enticing rich men. Dancing in the

Tropicana is a competition over lust and money while in rural areas, like Bagana,

Nancy, for instance, dances perfectly to be honored.

Nancy is another important female character in the novel. She represents the

new generation as she is nineteen years old. Unlike Jagua who is thick, Nancy is ''slim

and bright in the manner of the young Nigerian girls of the day'' (16). She, too, follows

fashion by wearing skirts, dresses, jeans and doing her hair with oil and pomade. Unlike

women who attend night-clubs including her mother, Nancy is well aware and afraid of

the consequences that sexual relationships might lead to. After Freddie's confession

about his feelings towards her, she still refuses to let him touch her. Her words, like

when she says: ''I fear'' (25), indicate how much she is conscious about her behavior.
 Hacini 46

Nancy succeeds in attracting Freddie, Jagua's lover. But Freddie "was driven partly by

impulse and partly by instinct. He only felt that he must be with Nancy, must confide in

her."(16-17). Freddie finds in Nancy the opposite of Jagua. She is young, respectful and

sweet. He wants to marry her not because he loves her but due to the fact that she suits

him.

Though Jagua is disrespectful and sleeps with other men, he cannot get over her.

For this, Nancy has only one explanation. She says ''''Das what I suspect, Freddie. De

woman done give you love medicine, and' you drink de medicine in some sweet soup''

(43). Despite the fact that Nancy is well-instructed and educated, she believes in

witchcraft. Freddie, however, teaches his pupils that magic and sorcery are a mere

illusion. Obviously, some beliefs are shared by women regardless their intellectual

level.

But I believe Nancy does not practice prostitution not only because she

understands the consequences it might lead to but also because her mother is

responsible over her. In fact Ma Nancy, Jagua's rival and ex-friend, is another old

harlot. She uses the connections she gains from prostitution to support her daughter and

send her to England. So, Nancy indirectly benefits from prostitution and is allowed to

follow her lover and marry him there because of Jagua Nana's support for him.

Jagua, too, the heroine of the picaresque novel makes good use of her

unethically earned money. She supports Freddie to fulfill his dream by helping him

going England to complete his law studies. On his return to Lagos, Freddie informs

Jagua that they get married according to the European manner: ''She come an' meet me

for England, and she studyin' like me, so we plan our life together'' (183) and he
 Hacini 47

indicates that with the help of the money she provided him with he and Nancy managed

their life there thanks to Jagua's financial support.

It is also important to mention that Jagua Nana provides shelter for Rosa when

she has nowhere to go. Rosa is among the new comers to Lagos during the pre-

independent days. She suffers to find a room due to overcrowding that is a result of the

village-to-city migration. Jagua and Rosa prove that women do not only compete in the

materialistic postcolonial city. But also they can show solidarity in a cooperative

environment. Rosa, in Jagua's words, '' she chose to be friendly and to show respect for

someone older and more experienced than she was'' (157). Some women help each other

to fight within the system. Rosa can help Jagua Nana in cooking, cleaning and paying

the rent. Their relationship proves the possibility for solidarity in a competitive

environment. And although Jagua Nana is considered by women like Rosa as a high

class prostitution as she says: ''I sure dat you let man go because you be rich women''

(65), Jagua Nana does not consider financial situation differences when dealing with her

friend Rosa.

Jagua Nana gets involved in relationships with many men from different

backgrounds. She takes advantage of her femininity and intelligence in order to solve a

tribal dispute in Freddie's homeland. In the island of Krinameh, Jagua succeeds in

making Chief Ofubara fall for her. Jagua Nana is affected by the city ways that enable

her to interfere in such contexts. Hence, she is way more different than the chief's

wives. He has never known the feeling of the African woman as an equal except with

Jagua Nana. In Chief Ofubara's words, ''I've never met so intelligent a lady'' (122). The

wives of the chief never enter his room unless he calls after them. In contrast, Jagua

seduces him and talks to him as an equal. Jagua plays ''her true role'' (128) but this time

her purpose was tribal resolution rather than money. Ekwesni goes deeper in the human
 Hacini 48

character, and argues that even prostitutes might contribute to the development of their

nation. Jagua's experience in seducing men enables her to ''strip him (Chief Ofubara) of

his title'' (137). Her ability to achieve such a victory and make him agree to make peace

with the Nammes strikes a change in the role of women.

Despite the importance of education for women to play a role in their society,

some circumstances necessitate other primary qualifications. Although Nancy is a

lawyer, Freddie does not seek her help in his campaign. But Jagua, again, interferes on

the political level although she is an illiterate who cannot read a letter. One of the men

she gets associated with is a politician called Uncle Taiwo. He seeks her help in his

campaign to win the election of Obanla Constituency. She uses education and trade as

arguments to strengthen her speech addressing the market women. Eventually, Jagua's

speech is well listened to, however when Uncle Taiwo speaks nobody pays attention.

Jagua Nana is one of the women who provide professional as well as sexual

services depending on the situation. These women are known as femmes libres in the

Francophone countries. They are beautiful, physically very attractive, and economically

as well as socially independent. According to La Fontaine, the company of such a

fashionable woman, like Jagua Nana in this case, is very crucial for the politician. If he

demonstrates in a way that he is acceptable and appreciated by a beautiful strong

woman who is very recognized and known in her environment, he is admired for his

virility and personality (qtd. in Little 113).

Jagua Nana does not substitute women like the Chief's and Uncle Taiwo's on the

political sphere because she seeks competition with them. In fact, ''Because of such

women like … Jagua other women can participate in politics, in fashions and even to

some extent in the running of their families and the state. In short, such women make it
 Hacini 49

possible for other women to participate in public life'' (New African 195). Women like

Jagua Nana are models for women to follow and believe in their ability to participate in

politics.

Actually, Jagua Nana does not only get engaged in politics to be appreciated as

she is an attention-seeker. She also uses her sexual attraction and political awareness to

gain economic prestigious positions. Jagua Nana, with her qualifications, makes a

political speech addressing informal trader women of the market.

It is worth mentioning that women are engaged in other different formal and

informal trade as another debrouillardise tactic. As it was mentioned in Chapter 1, page

30, it is estimated that in 1963 ''70% of Lagosian women were involved in petty trading

and other related activities" (qtd. in Immerwahr 173). Although it is politicians like

Uncle Taiwo who virtually control all the business and politics of postcolonial Lagos,

women of the informal market, who surpassed three thousand as it is, mentioned in the

novel, form an essential element of a ''mass base'' and as Hodgkin (1956) includes, it

cannot be neglected that the women's vote is important at election time. (qtd. in Little

114). And eventually, these Lagosian women really affect the elections results.

Unfortunately, politics in neo-colonial Lagos is conducted by personal motives.

However, market women are not fooled by the promises. They are as politically aware

as they are economically skillful. After the murder of Freddie, the candidate of O.P.2,

they decide not to vote for Uncle Taiwo, Jagua '' knew they (women) voted for party

symbols, not for people'' (218).

There is a reference to many Merchant Princesses in the novel, who earn more

than the market women. These women, as described in the novel, run their own

businesses. They control the market and own limousine cars and fleets of lorries. These
 Hacini 50

women as Jagua notices: '' did not know how to write in English'' (141) which proves,

again, that even illiterate women have the opportunity to achieve their goals in the

postcolonial city. Jagua, too, starts her life in the city as a Merchant and has the dream

to become a well-known Merchant Princess through different methods, one of which is

political interference as ''She would be the mistress of a Councilor. He would use his

influence to establish her as a Merchant Princess… She would give-up her present-style

of living'' (219).

Some women like Jagua Nana and Ma Nancy hold a combination of businesses.

They practice prostitution besides to other activities. Jagua Nana, for instance, knows

how to design dresses and fashionable outfits. Ma Nancy has a shop in which she sells

cookies and bread. Anyway, merchant princesses are considered as the most successful

women and as models to be followed by other women. As Little explains, these women

are able to cope with market economy individually, and to compete successfully with

men as well as other women. (qtd. in Little 109). The Merchant Princesses reach an

economic independence which makes them control their situation in society without

depending on men's help.

The city is a fertile atmosphere for women as it provides them with formal

positions, as well. They are able to hold jobs that were in the past privileged only for

men. In the novel, many women work as nurses, Department Store's assistants, and

secretary of the woman traders. It is true that education helps women to compete with

men on certain formal levels, but the city fortunately offers opportunities for unskilled

and illiterate women as well. But some of these opportunities might lead to unmerciful

situations.
 Hacini 51

In contrast to his positive view, Ekwensi holds a negative opinion towards

prostitution, too. He argues that the materialistic postcolonial society exploits women's

femininity on different levels. He believes that the hunger for money changes the

human social nature and destroys its ethics. Women in their quest for freedom fall in a

second colonization. He argues that they are more exploited in the city.

By contrasting Lagos to the rural community of Ogabu, the writer highlights the

role of the city in changing women's behavior. He argues that it is not only materialism

which pushes women to get corrupt with prostitution but also the erotic atmosphere that

the city implies on its inhabitants. In Ekwensi's words: ''That driving, voluptuous and

lustful element which existed in the very air of Lagos, the something which awakened

the sleeping sexual instincts in all men and women and turned them into animals always

on heat, it was not present here [in Ogabu]'' (135-136). The pornographic attitudes

which the city imposes on its inhabitants make them enchained and change their nature.

The nickname of Jagua Nana which indicates fashion and prestige that the

famous British car reflects prove that ''women are used as commodities in the

materialistic world where money is supposed to buy anything"(New African 207). The

name Jagua evokes a material meaning. It makes it clear that Jagua Nana is degraded to

a sexual object. This is why ''Women like Jagua became automatically the property of

men like the three in the room (been-toes)'' (38) because they are rich enough to

purchase them. Hence, like Roopali Sircar argues: ''within the confines of notions of

culture, Jagua finds herself trapped in a second colonization'' (qtd. in New African 192).

Ironically, Jagua refused to remain with her ex-husband due to polygamy. But she

accepts to go with men who exploit her body under the pretext of modernization. She

follows what Schawz had called the 'illusion d'émancipation'. (qtd. in Little 115)
 Hacini 52

Unfortunately, Jagua Nana reaches an advanced level of being 'colonized' by

modernity to the point where '' unlike so many of them (women), she was not coming to

the Tropicana out of necessity, but because it had become a part of her'' (149). Jagua's

first motive to leave her homeland is not money. She wants to live in a society where

she can be unconditionally free. To her and her friend Rosa, who enters the trade very

young, the lowest circumstances of city life are better than the best luxuries the villages

might provide. It is the sense of freedom and glamour of modern life which everybody

seeks. However, to achieve the 'glamour', she gets captured by the necessity to earn

money, and like Rosa says '' Person who findin' money cannot tire in dis Lagos'' (64).

Women must work harder to fight the system. But within fighting, they end up being

exploited.

Women of the city understand that their bodies can be used to change their

situation. They do not mix feelings and view the matter as 'trade' and 'business'. Money

is so important in the industrialized modern city so human connections and feelings

become of a minor priority because like Jagua says: ''in the Tropicana money always

claimed first loyalty'' (15).So Freddie, though he is her true love, claims second loyalty.

'' In a city where money was the idol of the women, an idol worshipped in every waking

and sleeping moment, sentiment is a mere pastime. And to Jagua, Freddie classified as

sentiment'' (30). The fast city ways resulted in change in human connections structure

and purpose. As Loretta Hawkins argue: '' it has legitimized the new kind of fast-

changing relationship between men and women in which the focus is not on family and

children, as it would traditionally be, but on pleasure and excitement'' (qtd. in New

African 206).

In Lagos, or any other city, money and materialism substitute human

connections and this leads to the moral destruction of families. The capitalist
 Hacini 53

postcolonial city forces its agents to harshly compete for money. Although that in the

city, the man usually takes only one wife, many urban families are only monogamous in

name. As Harell-Bond (1975); Omari (1960) and Aido (1970) argue, it is often accepted

and expected that the husband will have one or more links with women outside the

marriage. Women, too, sometimes have lovers. (qtd. in Little 109). This matter is

embodied in the taxi-driver's family. Ekwensi pictures the wife in the material city as

nagging and heartless. The wife cares about neither her children nor her husband's

needs. Dennis tells Jagua that the woman: '' no care for de pickin', only to dress herself''

(168). She wants a fancy dress to attend a funeral but her husband's financial situation

does not enable him to spoil her. Thus, she has sexual relationships with other men. The

taxi-driver has extramarital relationships too. As his job necessitates interaction with

women, he often gets paid in flesh.

The taxi-driver's wife is indirectly responsible for the death of her husband.

Affected by the prestigious styles and expensive outfits, she pushes her husband to steal.

Although Ekwensi was criticized by feminists for such a choice, the wife's attitudes

picture the effect of material competition which life in postcolonial Lagos puts on its

urbanites and their family connections.

Actually, many women in the novel are associated with violence and crime

driven by the fast city ways. The motives of violent acts among women may vary. Jagua

Nana fights with Nancy for Freddie's love. And she fights with Ma Nancy for the sake

of money lavished by the Syrian guy in the Tropicana club which led them to the police

station. Some violent behaviors, however, combined with social circumstances might

lead to crime. Sabina is a nineteen years old Nigerian girl. She appears briefly in the

novel yet shows the effect of poverty on Lagosians, mainly the young generation.

Sabina is the girlfriend of Dennis, a young thief who lives in the slum of Obanla. When
 Hacini 54

Dennis gets caught by the police for wounding a policeman after the taxi-driver's death,

Sabina takes a revolver. She kills the taxi-driver's wife, and commits suicide.

Prostitution is, unavoidably, an outcome of modernization. The notion of the

city does not only bring the belief in freedom of behavior. It also puts pressure on its

inhabitants to gain fast money in order to survive. And it provides institutions and

buildings in which prostitution can be practiced and organized. However, the idea of

being in random love affairs is not new to Jagua. Back in the village and when girls her

age had legal husbands, ''She considered herself above the local boys, most of whom

she bedded and despised as poor experience'' (230). The difference lies in that she did

not receive money in exchange of love-making.

Moreover, Ekwensi argues that prostitution might lead to dangerous results. He

points to a very crucial issue in one line. Jagua tells Rosa to be careful with men of

Lagos. I think that he refers to the rapes and killings of prostitutes which are very wide

spread in postcolonial Lagos. In Ndibe’s Arrows of Rain, as an example, crime towards

women is a symbol of the inhuman power of political authorities (qtd. in Nnodim 328).

Apparently, the engagement of prostitutes with politicians puts their lives in danger.

They are subject to sexual and physical abuse.

 Hacini 55

Conclusion:

In Jagua Nana (1961), Ekwensi tries to depict the life of women in postcolonial

Lagos. It cannot be denied that African women's situation has improved due to the

opportunities and less-restricted atmosphere provided by modern life standards. Women

prefer large urban areas, like Lagos, in order to escape the patriarchal system that

degrades their roles to sexual ones. In the village, Jagua Nana is only a daughter, and

later becomes a wife. As Jagua Nana is a ''quest heroine'' she refuses to fit in these roles.

By migrating to the city, women become more empowered. The new urban structures

and economic prosperity brought by modernity changes women's perceptions and views

about the roles they can play in any context. They acquire a sense of freedom and thus a

chance to contribute in their community. Unfortunately, some women find out that in

the city, men still rule. So, in order to survive the system they need to counteract

victimization. Some of these tactics, however, might make women fall in a second

colonization. Prostitution, for instance, might allow for women's exploitation on many

levels. It may also put their lives in danger. Ekwensi holds a balanced view about

women's role in society. He believes that women should be freed from the traditional

roles and must have a choice yet he puts emphasis on the fact that women should be

careful in dealing with the system. He also criticizes some aspects in which women get

oppressed, neglected or exploited.

 Hacini 56

Chapter Three:

The City in the Woman.

Introduction:

Throughout history, cities have often been compared with living, precisely

human, organisms. Many figures including Plato, Vitruvius and Leonardo da Vinci

explored the analogy of the city and the human body and character. The urbanite has

served as a recruiting metaphor to describe and explain the complex functioning of the

city. Sickness, for instance, have often been the allegory used to illustrate urban

dysfunction and instability. Expressions like ''Paris is Sick'', proclaimed by le Corbusier

in 1929, or Frank Lloyd Wright's comparison between the cross-section of any city plan

and the section of a fibrous term in 1958 emphasizes the fact that the city has a

metaphorical capacity to act like humans (Hernandez 2).

Tyler Malone points out in his article ''The City as Character'' that one may

commit a mistake by assuming that the city is a mere space. One cannot ignore that

through history, the city resisted being seen as pure architectural entity or a framework

of certain activities. It is true that cities are made cement and furniture, building and

bustle, but there are things that stay still and things that move and change. Those things

that stay still in a city can suddenly, and will consequently, move from one place to

another, grow or get bigger, change due to certain conditions, decay, and, in some cases,

disappear. In brief, ''The city is character; it breathes its own life, speaks in its own

tongue, moves to its own rhythms'' (Malone).

In order to understand the language which the city speaks, one might use

literature as an analysis device. Since literature deals mostly with the human experience

in relation to his environment, the everyday life affects literature and in return gets
 Hacini 57

affected by it. And since life details explain and define the environment as set by its

dwellers, literature uses such little aspects to reach a better understanding of the

surroundings of people, as stated in Akande's article '' The City as a Personage'' that

John Reader observes; ''cities would not exist without people'' (3).And sometimes

people no not only construct the city but they become and represent it.

After interpreting both the urban and social structures of post-colonial Lagos as

presented and described by Cyprian Ekwensi in his postcolonial novel Jagua Nana

(1961) and how these structures affect women's lives, one can notice that the city of

Lagos in the novel is not a mere setting. It is a living and changing character. Lagos city

in Jagua Nana breathes, smells, wakes up and sleeps and most importantly develops,

and affects people's lives. Moreover, the city's spirit resembles too much Jagua Nana.

In this chapter, I argue that Jagua Nana, the main character, is a indentification

of Lagos city. She shares many aspects with the city which allows me to set a link

between the two. I would say that the city is a woman.

Jagua Nana and Lagos City:

In Jagua Nana (1962), history meets fiction where Cyprian Ekwensi narrates the

post-colonial history of Africa and displays the process of modernization and the

changes it created in African societies, specifically, in the city of Lagos, via Jagua

Nana. Because she is the most recurrent character that gets involved in many different

atmospheres with the different types of urbanites, she can be chosen as the most suitable

vehicle through which the reader may perceive the city. Ekwensi sets her as the central

consciousness because as Dhar mentions in ''People of the City: The Anatomy of a New

Urban Novel'': ''she plays the role of an observer, recorder, and self conscious perceiver,

with touches of fine discrimination'' (qtd. in New African189). She observes and
 Hacini 58

comments in a way which explains the nature of postcolonial Lagos. And she represents

the city in every detail or behavior she shows. Jagua Nana can be compared to the city

on the level of historical phases, name changes, dual character and relationship with

people, especially with men.

Obviously, Jagua Nana's life journey can be paralleled with the different phases

that Lagos city has gone through. Her character's development, hence, refers to every

change that Lagos, and generally Africa, has witnessed. The past of Jagua pictures the

reality of African communities in the pre-colonial period. Before coming to Lagos,

Jagua Nana is called only ''Nana''. During the fifteenth century, Lagos was called Oko

by the Yoruba settlers. And later, the name changed to Eko under the rule of the Benin

Kingdom. (Bigon 230)

Through the novel, Jagua and Lagos are always mentioned together. They are

never mentioned separately. As Ekwensi writes:

Someone told her once that if she ever let Lagos for one week, no one

would remember her. But Jagua soon discovered that leaving Lagos as

she had done for more than three months meant- in addition- not

recognizing the city on her return. (144)

That means Jagua's change and Lagos' development are paralleled. If Jagua

changes so will Lagos and vice versa.

She is the daughter of a catechist who later becomes a pastor. This particular

detail indicates the fact that a wave of Christian missionaries preceded colonization.

Jagua was, however, disobedient. She was unsatisfied with her village's folkways.

"Jagua was fond of changing her clothes often and- in those early days of make-up of

painting her face…'' (229). These details show an early effect of modernization. She
 Hacini 59

also wore jeans, rode bicycles, laughed loudly to attract men and had love affairs with

many the local boys. Ekwensi indirectly exposes'' the corruption of the Christian

mission in Africa, a mission undermined by the modern style of life"(Riche,

Bensemanne 40). Nana, as a villager, chooses to follow this hidden modern lifestyle and

acts awkwardly comparing to her surroundings. The villagers were shocked and her

father was unsatisfied with her childish behavior. Thus, he decided to marry her to a

local business-man. Jagua disliked his way of thinking. ''She was Jagua, and the man

was not Jaguaful'' i.e., He was not modern and ''In no way did his ideas of living attract

her'' (230). Lagos, similarly, was affected by the modern features brought by the new

religion. Building churches, for instance, was one of the changes that occurred on

Lagos.

Jagua's childlessness, her husband's decision to take a second wife and the image

of Lagos she had in mind are enough factors to push her to leave her husband as well as

her family and village folkways. The decision to leave her past life refers to the first

step of modern change which occurred on traditional African communities. When Jagua

reaches Lagos, she realizes that ''her provincial ideas were out of date'' (232). The shift

from rural to urban is not only a shift in place but also in time and this shift necessitates

a change in consciousness. The African city, or to be more specific, Lagos; redefined its

norms and structures to cope with the rapid industrialization of the 20 th century. It also

tried to adopt a new type of urban style. Its growing population necessitated a new

planning and construction which changed the by-the-book look of Lagos.

It is worth mentioning that Nana gets the nickname Jagua after moving to Lagos.

Similarly, when the Portuguese landed on Lagos Island in 1472 AD, they changed the

city's name from Eko to Lagos which means Lagoon in Portuguese (Bigon 230). I argue
 Hacini 60

that the change of names from African to European is a crucial feature which further

strengthens the link between the two characters.

In addition, when Jagua was sitting next to Freddie at the British Council, "In the

distance a voice came:

' Times have indeed changed … Yesterday, the legislative council was

composed entirely of white men. They made all the laws and the

governor looked on' [...] The lecture was entitled Some Personal

Recollections on The Passing of White Imperialism in Nigeria. (8)

The previously mentioned passage states that Lagos was colonized by the British

colonial powers. Lagos city came under the British rule in 1861. In the same way, Jagua

had a white lover or more precisely, master during her first days in Lagos. One

morning, while Jagua was walking down the streets of Lagos, two black men who were

wearing servants' outfits followed her. 'We live for Ikoyi… Our master- a white man..

Es looking for some fine lady, special'' (233). The white man was called John Martel.

After a while, John, Jagua's white master, leaves Nigeria and goes back to his wife.

The choice of a British white man as the lover of Jagua in her first days in the

city was not random. This can be interpreted as the following: The white man refers to

the British colonizer, his wife represents Britain, while Jagua personifies Lagos city. So

I can say that the white man's departure signifies Nigeria's independence. Before he

leaves, ''With the allowance he gave her (Jagua) she travelled by Mammy Wagon to

Accra.'' Jagua, hence, starts her own cloth trade and becomes economically

independent. Janet Bujra has examined how some Nairobi prostitutes of the 1920s and

1930s were able to establish themselves as successful entrepreneurs and businesswomen

by catering to migrant male labor. (qtd. in Strobel 177)

 Hacini 61

Similarly, the British colonial government struggled to establish forts and

trading ports on the West African coast from about the mid- 1600s to the mid- 1700s as

part of the wider competition for trade and empire in the Atlantic. It formed national

trading companies to extend trade interests.

John enables Jagua Nana to travel along the coast and acquire skill. Her

economic independence allowed her to buy clothes and luxuries and attract many man.

''She lowered the neckline of her sleeveless blouses and raised the heels of her shoes''

(234). She became very known, '' during that time Jagua was well known to all the

Customs men and Border Police'' (28). Lagos, too, began to experience change with the

existence of the British colonial government. It became the centre of economic activities

of the colonial government.

In the novel, Ekwensi offers an analysis of the political system that emerged in

Nigeria after independence replacing the ex-colonizer. The departure of the white

masters that marked the end of the British colonization was the start of a new kind of

colonization. The British regime was replaced by a similar local one. Inevitably, the

history of Africa is a history of exploitation either from foreigners or Africans

themselves. ''The new rulers blindly imitate their European predecessors in all matters-

social political, public as well as private.'' (3) Hence, the end of Jagua's relationship

with John allowed for different types of Lagosians and non- Lagosians to enter her life

and exploit her in different ways.

Political corruption is considered as a remarkable feature of neocolonialism. An

example of corrupt politicians in the novel is Uncle Taiwo. Jagua has many lovers both

in Accra and Lagos after her white lover left. One of the men she becomes involved

with is a secretary of a major political party called Uncle Taiwo. He represents the
 Hacini 62

greedy powerful violent politician who ''believed only in the power of money'' (143). He

wants to win the elections of Obanla district by misleading the Lagosians and giving

them false promises. His program is applicable to the political campaigns in almost all

African post-independent countries. To win the most seats, he exploited the money of

Lagos as well as Jagua's and the Lagosian women's femininity. As it was mentioned in

chapter two, the Femme Libre is usually associated with political leaders. As Jagua is

beautiful and well-known in Lagos, her company is beneficial for Uncle Taiwo in order

to get acceptance from the people. Uncle Taiwo orders Jagua Nana to address the

women in the market and convince them to vote for him. Jagua Nana is more aware of

the women's needs and her physical appearance guarantees grants her their appreciation.

Eventually, women listen to Jagua's speech and react to it positively while ignoring

Uncle Taiwo's speech. In simple words, as Jagua states it, she was ''a mere tool in his

hands'' (258). The shift of power from the White colonizer to the African politician,

hence, did not mean a change in method or purpose. Uncle Taiwo is exploiting Jagua's

body and Lagos the same way John Martell and the British colonizer did to Jagua Nana

and Lagos, respectively.

Jagua Nana also gets involved in the realm of intellectuals and pictures the role

that intellectuals play in Lagos city in the novel. Freddie, Jagua's true lover who was at

first an ambitious teacher, was no exception of political corruption. He too was involved

in the political competition.

At the beginning of the novel, he is described as a poor teacher who dreams of

travelling to England to finish his law studies and coming back to Lagos. However, he

is not able to finance himself and is not so hopeful that the government of Lagos would

offer him a scholarship. So, Jagua substitutes Lagos government and decides to make
 Hacini 63

good use of her unethically earned money. She supports Freddie and pays for

everything he needs in order to reach England.

Jagua wants to marry Freddie as soon as he completes his studies and comes

back to Nigeria. ''She wanted Freddie because of his youth.'' (5) She knows he will be

able to work and earn money when she is older and incapable of working. Similarly,

Freddie and many young intellectuals like Nancy, for instance, are viewed by Lagos and

Nigeria with an eye full of hope as ''Nigeria's future salvation depended on such trained

people'' (32).

It is worth mentioning that Jagua and Freddie's relationship was identical to that

of Jagua, other urbanites, and Lagos. It was a relationship based on control and

possession. The same attitude of the city is reflected in Jagua's behavior towards her

man. Freddie is aware that ''he had fallen into her [Jagua's] clutches'' (21). She controls

him and wants him only for her. Freddie is not capable of leaving Jagua who, by her

turn, is unable to leave Lagos. Freddie, in Ekwensi's words, ''had an idea that she was

capable of doing it (leaving Lagos to become a merchant Princess) but she would not

leave Lagos.'' (28) Jagua was captured by the atmosphere of Lagos, of Tropicana

nightclub, a minimized version of the city.

Ekwensi explains that "Just as the Tropicana had become a drug in her blood, so

also she had become his (Freddie's) daily dose of anguish, lust, degradation and

weakness of will'' (56). The passage clearly explains the similarity between Jagua and

Lagos. They both affect and change the lives of urbanites that get in touch with them.

The Tropicana, or Lagos, changes Jagua's behavior ''Once inside (the Tropicana) , the

lights, the influential people, the drinks, the flattery, the voluptuous stimulation, the

music, all combined together to change her into something beyond his (Freddie's)
 Hacini 64

reach.''(15) All these factors combined together deceive and bewitch Jagua Nana to

prevent her from leaving Lagos. Nancy Oll, Freddie's newly discovered love, points out

that Jagua might be doing the same to Freddie, i.e., bewitching him so he cannot leave

her. ' I suspect, Freddie. De woman done give you love medicine… Jagua knew dat her

medicine done catch you, so she don' worry at all'' (43-44) after Freddie declares that ''I

got into de habit of Jagua an' I kin not shake de habit. She (Jagua) weaken me too

much'' (43) just like the ''Tropicana had sapper all her (Jagua's) energy'' (28).

It follows from the above mentioned quotes that Jagua's personality traits are the

same characteristics of the city, possessive, jealous and controlling. In a scene when

Freddie was lying in his bed, he heard,

The noisy rhythm of children drumming and singing in the street, the

chugging of railway engine, the harsh triumphant laughter of a man

winning his game of draughts under the mango tree outside… he felt

them all and hated them because he was powerless to control them now

that he wanted some peace. Above them all the mocking voice of Jagua

kept imposing itself on these noises. (39-40)

Freddie feels powerless. He is weakened by both Lagos and his woman. He could

neither control the noises of Lagos nor that of Jagua who is enjoying her time with other

men.

The sense of materialism which the city imposes on its inhabitants is performed

by women. As in Lagos and the Tropicana ''money always claimed the first loyalty

''(15), for Jagua Freddie is a mere sentiment and pastime. She has to go with other men

because that was the law of her survival. Money becomes essential in the industrialized

modern city. And so women depend on the financial status of men in their selection. It
 Hacini 65

is through women like Jagua that the city divides its agents into classes. Freddie is one

of the victims of this class system ''He felt the sharp pain of degradation by the Syrian

from the Tropicana who knew he could 'get' Jagua because he had the money and

therefore insulted him; the false superiority of the three men now in her room…''

(40).The city imposes its rules and classes on its inhabitants. They need to learn more

cues to live and climb the class ladder. And certainly, only rich men could 'get' the city,

as well as Jagua, and enjoy it.

The most dominating feature of the city is that, as Ezekeli Mphahale explains ''It

had legitimized a new kind of fast-changing relationship between men and women in

which the focus is not on family and children, as it would traditionally be, but on

pleasure and excitement''(qtd. in New African 206). Sircar futher inserts that Jagua '' is

representative of this social malaise" (qtd. in New African 206),i.e. She represents this

dominating feature through her behavior and refusal for the set social structure based on

matrimony and familial ties. She is a vehicle of division and classification of men. It is

the rule of the city. To survive, one must earn more and more money. And as

intellectuality is not enough for Jagua or for Lagos to upgrade men, Freddie has no

chance in getting any of them.

Hence, Freddie goes to England not only to finish his studies but also to gain

prestige. When he comes back, he gets involved in politics. With the warning of Jagua

that politics is not for him or intellectuals in general, as Ekwnsi states it:

Politics not for you, Freddie. You got education. You got culture you're

a gentleman an' proud. Politics be game for dog. And in dis Lagos, is a

rough game. De roughest game in de whole worl'. Is smelly an' dirty an'

you too clean an' sweet. I speakin' frank to you. (188)

 Hacini 66

Freddie confesses that he is participating for the sake of money. From this

discussion, Freddie appears to be a traitor for both of Jagua and Lagos. His marriage to

another woman after he exploited Jagua's money and his intention to exploit Lagos

money under the cover of politics strengthens the idea that Jagua is Lagos itself.

Freddie, just like his opponent Uncle Taiwo, falls victim for the filth of politics.

This shows a deviation in purpose. Intellectuals, like Freddie, are supposed to be

Nigeria's future salvation and in the case of Freddie, Jagua's salvation as well.

All men who betray Jagua exploit Lagos. Jagua and Lagos form a unit to which

all these men, the intellectual as well as the politician, and even the thief relate. Freddie,

Uncle Taiwo and Dennis die after they all fall for Jagua, and of course, for Lagos. This

demonstrates how Lagos, indirectly, operates through the body of Jagua.

Another important detail to be stated is that Jagua's body can refer to Lagos and

Africa's lands and resources. Jagua, in Ekwensi's words, wonders: ''How could she

reserve her body for him (Freddie) alone? In Lagos that was not possible.'' (79) Lagos,

as well, doesn't belong to any Nigerian and all people would experience it. Ulli Beier,in

his book Black Orpheus, argue that ''… everybody will come into contact with this

aspect of city life at some time or other- people from the most diverse walks of life form

an integral part of it'' (qtd. in New African 194). By applying that to Lagos, one might

deduce that the existence of many investors makes Lagos a cosmopolitan center that is

sought by different people.

David Mulford, who served as the US Under-Secretary of the Treasury during

the Bush administration, says: "The countries that do not make themselves attractive

will not get investors' attention … This is like a girl trying to get a boyfriend. She has to

go out, have her hair done up, wear make-up'' (qtd. in Runyan 139).
 Hacini 67

The government of Lagos followed an urban plan in order to attract more

investors. Besides, the coast, natural resources and economic prosperity are factors that

are important for investors to launch a project in a certain area. Similarly, Jagua is

beautiful, has a well-shaped body which attracts males' eyes and made them follow her

and invest in her by paying for her rent and buying her dresses and luxuries. In order to

hunt men, she follows the fashion, wears provocative dresses, puts thick make-up and

attends night-clubs in which important investors gather. The investors whom Jagua

seeks to entice are the businessmen who come to invest in Lagos. In Ekwensi's words:

Jagua saw them now as with white collars off they struck a different

mood from the British Council: the 'expatriate' bank managers, the oil

men and shipping agents, the brewers of beer and pumpers out of

swamp water, the builders of Maternity Block, the healers of the flesh.

German, English, Dutch, America, Nigerian, Ghanaian, they were all

here, bound together in the common quest for diversion. (13)

The scenes that Jagua transmit to us ,the image of the men who attend the British

Council, the Tropicana and men with whom she got in love affairs (British, Syrian,

Nigerian…) support what was previously stated. Men from different background and

origins seek the glitter of the city for different purposes. Some seek it for economic

purposes; others come to Lagos for pleasure and lust. Jagua is no exception, of course.

She is sought by Freddie for financial support, by Uncle Taiwo for political help and by

Dennis for professional interfering.

Because of the flooding of people from all parts of the world, Lagos becomes

unable to set a definition for itself. Lagos city is apparently ''lacking a cultural identity

or background against which the dynamics of transition can be measured''. Jagua, in her
 Hacini 68

journey to find herself and set a meaning for her life, lost her family, her husband and

culture and, like the writer points out, the woman becomes ''husbandless, parentless…

Jagua had roamed the Nigerian world … among the sophisticates with hollowness for a

background '' (173).

The moving of people from different backgrounds to Lagos for economic

opportunities, as was discussed in chapter one, results in urban problems. Informal

trade, including prostitution, and unplanned urban constructions lead to the distortion of

the beauty of the postcolonial city. The same happens with Jagua. She allows many men

to enter her life. Amongst these men, a thief called Dennis falls for her. Dennis later

gets caught by the police for injuring a policeman. Eventually, Jagua faces many

problems due to her association with men from suspicious backgrounds.

She knew that if a girl went to the Tropicana every day, that girl is a pawn; a

pawn in the hands of criminals, Senior Service men, contractors, thieves, detectives

,liars , cheats, the rabble, the scum of the country's grasping hands and headlong rush to

'civilization' , 'sophistication', and all the falsehood it implied. (175)

One of the problems which overcrowding and prostitution result in for

postcolonial Lagos and Jagua, respectively, is duality. The duality of Lagos city, by

consisting of prestigious as well as very degraded areas, can be obviously remarked in

Jagua's behavior. Jagua is a very contradicting character. She is sometimes violent and

other times sweet and calm. She is old however acts like young girls. Freddie says: ''

you jealous but you no fit to keep one man '' (69). She accepts to go with men who have

more than two wives but does not accept her ex-husband's second marriage. She refuses

matrimony and polygamy but accepts to have temporary relationships with men who
 Hacini 69

exploit her openheartedly. And most importantly, Jagua is illiterate but she attends

intellectual gatherings and shows awareness of how politics function.

Moreover, the heroine practices prostitution yet shows dissatisfaction with

Freddie's European-style marriage. Jagua considers Freddie and Nancy's marriage as

unacceptable for several reasons. First, as Nancy comes from Freetown, Serra Leone,

her marriage with Freddie is considered as a taboo by the older generation. It is very

clear as Ma Nancy reminds her daughter: ''Don' forget Nancy … We comin' a long way,

from Freetown. An' if you marry dis Nigerian boy, den you mus' forsake your

fadderland'' (48) and Jagua comments on Freddie's marriage saying :'' Nancy is Sa

Leone gal, from Freetown. She no be your country woman'' (183), that inter-tribal

marriage is considered as a taboo for the older generation. The marriage of Freddie and

Nancy reflects an outbreak of traditions and customs. Jagua explains to Freddie that

marriage should happen after consulting the girl's father and paying for the bride price.

Ironically, Jagua Nana refuses non-traditional marriage yet practices out of marriage

relationships openheartedly.

Another aspect which links Jagua nana to Lagos is noticed during her attempt to

solve the tribal conflict between Bagana and Krinameh islands. Chief Ofubara is a

provincial thus, as Ekwensi explains: '' he was more readily infatuated with the idea of

Lagos, of the Tropicana-type woman than with the woman herself'' (126). He is not only

attracted to Jagua Nana as a woman, but also to Lagos inside her.

His thirst for Jagua Nana is accompanied with his thirst for modernization, i.e.

Lagos. Chief Ofubara dreams to make his island as modern as Lagos. All small villages

seek he image of Lagos. Ogabu, Bagana or Krinameh people try to change the structure

of their surroundings and construct buildings, just like those in Lagos, to facilitate their
 Hacini 70

lives. The same can be applied to women. Many women feel jealous of Jagua Nana and

want to look like her. In Freddie's words,'' Whenever she put on anything it became the

fashion in Lagos, and the girls and women came flocking to her and wanting to know

where the article had come from'' (28). An illustration of women's admiration of Jagua's

looks and fashion can be illustrated by the yam seller's comment on Jagua's sheath

dress, painted lips and glossy hair. The yam seller says: '' One day ah will ride motor car

and wear fine fine cloth…'' (12). Apparently, women as well as villages seek to become

and look like Jagua Nana and postcolonial Lagos city.

Finally, corruption leads to the degradation of both of Jagua Nana and Lagos.

After Jagua Nana's association with Uncle Taiwo, her life becomes endangered. Since

the money he spoils her with is debt money, men come and seize her room. With the

help of her friend Rosa, Jagua Nana runs away and reaches Gunle outskirts where the

simplest life amenities are absent.

Similarly, Lagos gets destructed because of political corruption and failure of

planning. Overcrowding and the inability of the government to provide houses for its

inhabitants because money is misused by politicians like Uncle Taiwo, the city becomes

a failure as Ekwensi describes it.

Later, Ekwensi cuts the link between Jagua Nana and Lagos by sending the

former to the village. There, Jagua Nana gets away from prostitution and becomes

responsible over her house. However, Lagos becomes more chaotic. In Rosa's words:

''The roads were all muddy and pitted; the gutters were full, the farms in the suburbs

were overgrown with weeds. Lagos was in a state of chaos that day'' (257).

Scholars argue that Ekwensi shows a naturalistic approach in treating the city.

Because the city cannot be moved, he uses Jagua Nana to transmit his idea. The writer
 Hacini 71

argues that the adoption of modernity and style of Western communities results in the

destruction of African values and structures. He argues that the city offers better

opportunities but sucks the human nature and shadows it with material sophistication.

He believes that there could be a balance in following modernity. Jagua Nana in

her village feels a new kind of freedom. She reestablishes her profession as a designer

and contributes in her community's progress. I argue that Ekwensi highlights the fact

that Jagua Nana reached a better status after the pain she faces in the city. Her

construction in the modern life makes her more aware of her role as a woman and her

ability to make change in her society. He indirectly indicates that the country life

structure is where '' order can be more easily projected and regulated'' (qtd. New African

222). Lagos, hence, lost this order by following foreign structures and ideas.

Conclusion:

As a conclusion, I argue that, in Jagua Nana (1961), the spatial setting that is

postcolonial Lagos can be considered as a living character. The change in postcolonial

Lagos as a result of several transformational phases can be paralleled with the female

protagonist's life stages. The writer creates a link between the two notions, i.e. he

combines the woman and the city in order to form a character that explains a very

crucial era in Nigeria's political, social, urban and economic history.

 Hacini 72

General Conclusion:

The Nigerian Urban novelist Cyprian Ekwensi examines the socio-urban relation

between the postcolonial city of Lagos and women in most of his literary works. In his

novel Jagua Nana 1962, he treats many postcolonial issues related to overlapping

contexts. He explicitly presents the physical structure of postcolonial Lagos and gives

criticism of some urban issues in postcolonial Nigeria including rural-urban shift,

housing provision failure and duality of large urban cities. He also shows features that

characterize postcolonial Lagos, such as the flourishing of informal trade. He focuses on

the position of women in the postcolonial modern context. Ekwensi takes his female

characters more seriously and invests in them with humanity and dignity. He allows his

female characters to grow, change, regret, interfere in socio-political spheres and makes

them compete, or in some cases, surpass men. He raises consciousness towards female

capabilities, by redefining the female as an achiever in multiple spaces – cultural, social,

economic, educational, and political. Hence, Ekwensi gives a clear insight into the

multiple interventions of women in different domains of the city. He argues that the

urban structure allows women to take new paths in order to change positions on the

social ladder. One of which is economic tactics that women follow to reach economic

independence including formal and informal trade and prostitution.

From the analysis of the urban and social features of Lagos city and the examination of

its women inhabitants, I noticed that there are several similarities between postcolonial

Lagos and the main character Jagua Nana on many levels: history, duality, and effect.

Consequently, I deduced that the city is not a mere setting. It is a living character which

plays an essential role in the development of the plot.

 Hacini 73

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Bloom, David., et al. Prospects for Econmic Growth in Nigeria: A Demographic

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 Hacini 74

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 Hacini 75

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