Title: Effects of disfluency on educational outcomes

Psychology HL
IB candidate code: jtf218
Date of Submission:21.03.2023
Word count: 2066

Psychology Internal Assessment

Effects of disfluency on educational outcomes

Table of Contents

Introduction 3

Exploration 5

Results and Evaluation 8

Bibliography 10

Appendices 11
Introduction

The Level of processing theory of memory was proposed by Craik and Lockhart in the year 1972 and states
that memory is a byproduct of depth processing therefore it does not necessarily distinguish between short
and long-term memory instead focusing on the depth of the processing of information and the way it
impacts how well the information is remembered. The types of processing proposed by the model are
shallow processing and deep processing. The ability to recall information is dependent on the level of
processing spanning from being able to recall the information well to not being able to recall the processed
information.
Shallow processing is divided into structural processing and phonetic processing. This level of processing
information is considered to create shorter lasting, not detailed memories than deeper levels of processing.
Structural processing is based on the appearance and physical qualities of something while phonetic
processing occurs when we encode the sound of the thing we're processing. Information processed on the
phonetic level leaves a stronger memory trace than the information processed on the structural level.
Deep processing happens when information is processed along with additional meanings and related
information which leads to a stronger memory trace. More detailed processing of information leads to
long-lasting, stronger memory
I will be replicating the study on the effect that disfluency in the material has on information recall is due to
the deeper level of cognitive processing, therefore, taking on the Level of processing theory. The study I have
chosen was conducted in 2011 by Diemand-Yauman, C., Oppenheimer, D. M., & Vaughan, E. B. “Fortune
favors the Bold (and the Italized): Effects of disfluency on educational outcomes” and was a laboratory
experiment with an independent measure design and random sampling that selected 28 people, ages ranging
between 18-33, from the Princeton University paid subject pool.
The experiment group was provided with the material in a disfluent font with a between-subject design
providing each participant with a different font and the control group was given the material in a fluent font.
The material consisted of three fictional alien species with seven listed features. 90 seconds were given to
memorize the material and then distraction tasks were provided for 15 minutes before testing began with
questions related to the material. Control groups' accuracy was 72.8% while the experimental groups was
86.5%.
This investigation will be targeting adults attending University between the ages of 25-30 therefore it will
differ from the benefits to education described in the original study. The aim of this study is to see whether
there is a correlation between the level of disfluency and the number of correctly answered multiple-choice
questions among bilingual young adults.

The Independent variable:

The independent variable will be disfluency – that is, whether the materials given to the participants are
written in easy or hard to read fonts.

the experimental group will be given materials written in the fonts Pacifico and Comic Sans MS in gray

while the control group will be given materials written in Verdana. All of the materials in the controlled

group will be written in the size 13: Verdana,, while the materials for the experimental group will be

written in font size 10: Pacifico, Comic Sans MS

The dependant variable:

The dependent variable of this investigation will be the number of multiple-choice questions that will be
answered correctly by participants of both groups. The multiple-choice questions will test the participants'
knowledge of the characteristics of the creatures described in the materials provided. The test will assess their
memory by the number of multiple-choice questions answered correctly after 10 minutes of distraction
activities from being given the materials.

Null Hypothesis:

There will be no significant difference in recall between participants from the experimental group given
materials in a disfluent font and the control group when answering the multiple-choice questions.

Alternative Hypothesis:

Participants in the group given materials in the disfluent fonts will be able to recall more of the
characteristics listed in the given materials when answering the multiple-choice questions.
Exploration

Design:

My design will be independent measures. I chose independent measures because my goal is to determine if
disfluency affects the ability to encode information therefore two groups are necessary for a difference to be
detected. The age range I chose for the participants is not broad enough for age to play a factor in the ability
to process and memorize materials. I will be gathering ratio data and as the unit of measurement, I will be
using the number of multiple-choice questions answered correctly by the participants.

Materials:

- Informed consent forms

- Instructions
- descriptions of three fictional species with a total of 18 features
- two distraction tasks
- 18 random multiple choice questions regarding the features
- Debriefing documents.

The study must be ethical, so the participants must be informed about the study and agree to take part in it.
Our instruction needed to be the same for both groups of participants.
I created three descriptions of fictional species which ensured that the participants had no prior knowledge
about the material. Each description consisted of six features making a total of 18 features. The descriptions
followed six specific types of features consisting of eye color and number, diet, height, hair color, sleeping
pattern, and habitat.
For my 10 minutes of distraction tasks, I wanted to use puzzles of moderate difficulty as well as a map that
will require the participant to assign the country border to the country name. The tasks require focusing
which will take the minds of the subjects off of the previously memorized material weakening its memory
trace.
The questions have to be understandable, directly relating to the random six features of the described
species.
The participants will be provided with the debriefing document immediately after the end of the experiment
written in clear language directly explaining the experiment.

I will control the instructions by providing the participants with the same directions.
I will randomly select time periods throughout the same day to ensure accurate representation as our
experiment targets marketing and advertising. Conducting the entire experiment in one day will ensure a
consistent weather pattern as this may also affect the ability to focus and process the material.
The gender and age of the participants will be controlled to exclude the possibility of memory performance
depending on the gender or age of the person. I have therefore selected 11 male and 11 female participants in
each group within the ages 25 to 30. To ensure that the participant variability is controlled I will be
randomly assigning the participants to the groups to avoid the researchers' bias and I will only select
participants that do not possess diagnosed learning disabilities. All of the participants will be university
students, therefore, ensuring that all of the subjects live in similar conditions.

Groups:

Condition 1 (control group): Participants will be given materials written in a normal, easy-to-read font and asked
to memorize the provided materials.
Condition 2 (Experimental group): Participants will be given materials written in a complicated, disfluent font
and asked to memorize the provided materials.

Participants:

The target population will be University students in the age range of 25-30 in Wrocław, Poland.
As I do already have a preexisting group, that I will be gathering participants from as it meets the
requirements I am looking for, opportunity sampling will be used to gather 22 participants in the age range
of 25-30 with 11 men and 11 women all speaking English on the intermediate level and attending
Universities in Wrocław, Poland. There will be an even mix of males and females. These participants will
make a good sample as they will be both male and female and present a variety of cultures, ages, and
university courses.
Since I am using an independent measures design I will need to control participant variability.
The gender and age of the participant will be controlled to ensure a balance as well as to minimize the
potential differences in information processing and memorizing abilities that may be present in older as well
as younger people. The type material is modeled after a field in biology which should not influence my study
since none of the participants' study in this field, therefore, they all have similar experience in memorizing
this type of content. I will be using English during this experiment therefore I will make sure to select
participants that can communicate in this language without any major barriers by asking for their english
proficiency level.
We do not believe that there is any chance of undue stress or harm for the participants as the experiment will
be carried out in a secluded and causal environment and the people volunteered to participate as well as
signed informed consent forms. We will also debrief the participants immediately after the experiment to let
them know what we were looking for, and then when we have our results to let them know what we found.
They may withdraw their results if they want to.

Procedure:

- Approach University students from my circle of friends via text or email proposing participation in
the experiment. the message/email will have the consent forms, instructions, and time slots
attached. After gathering 22 participants I will randomly allocate them into two groups and
schedule them based on the timeslots selected
- The informed consent forms will be collected
- The participants will be told the instructions and given the description of the three species with 90
seconds to memorize the features listed
- After the time is up the sheets with descriptions will be taken from the participants and the first
part of the experiment will end
- The participants will be given the puzzles and the map and the timer will be set for 10 minutes for
the participant to get distracted with the tasks
- When 10 minutes is up the distraction tasks will be taken away and the multiple-choice questions
sheet will be handed to the participant
- The participant will have no specific time set for the completion of the sheet and the sheet will be
handed over once the participant is satisfied with their answers.
- The participants of the experiment will be debriefed immediately after the data is collected and
analyzed.
Results and Evaluation

After the participants completed the multiple answer questions the papers have been collected and checked
by the researcher according to the mark scheme. The number of correctly answered questions was counted
and a mean of correctly answered questions from both groups has been calculated. The results show that the
group given materials in a fluent font gave the correct answer to 60% of the questions while the participants
from the experimental group correctly answered 76.4% of the questions. This difference is significant as
participants in the disfluent group recalled 16.4 percentage points more than the participants in the fluent
group. A Whitney U test was performed on the data to see if the results were in fact statistically significant.
The U-value came out to 8.5 and the p value to 0.0078 which with p<0.05 means that the result is
statistically significant. Therefore we accept the alternative hypothesis, the participants in the group given
materials in the disfluent fonts will be able to recall more of the characteristics listed in the given materials
when answering the multiple-choice questions.

The number of correctly answered questions differed between the control group and the experimental
group with the experimental group being able to recall more information from the provided materials. The
results of this experiment are compatible with the results from the study i have replicated confirming the
existence of a positive correlation between a higher level of disfluency and the ability to memorize
information. Disfluency does cause the information to be processed on a deeper level which leads to better
retention of the information. The Whitney U test also confirms that the differences observed are not
coincidental and are in fact statistically significant, showing that the depth of processing in the two groups
had been different. There was also no statistically significant difference between the two types of fonts in the
disfluent condition which suggests that the specific type of disfluency may not play a big roll and it is rather
the fact that there are more cognitive processes involved when reading materials in a disfluent font as it
stimulates the brain more causing the information to be processed deeper then when using regular fonts.
Bibliography
- Diemand-Yauman, C., Oppenheimer, D. M., & Vaughan, E. B. (2011). Fortune favors the Bold
(and the Italized): Effects of disfluency on educational outcomes. Cognition, 118(1), 111–115.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2010.09.012
Appendices

Letter of informed consent

Hello, I (Zuzanna Król) am performing an experiment as part of my Internal Assessment from

my IB Psychology class. We are investigating the depth of processing and what factors may
influence it. By signing this document you agree to participate in the experiment.

If you agree to become a participant in this experiment you should know:

- You may withdraw yourself from the experiment at any time

- All of the data collected will be anonymous and fully confidential
- You will receive the description, purpose and the results of the experiment after all of
the results have been obtained and evaluated
- The experiment will take about 15-20 minutes to complete.

If you agree to take part in the experiment you are required to fill in the following information
that will be needed for you to qualify as a participant.

Gender:

Age:

English Fluency Level:

Mother tongue:

Do you have any diagnosed Learning disabilities :

Yes No

I, _______________________________, understand the nature of this experiment and

agree to participate in it. I give consent for data obtained from my participation to be used by
the researchers as part of the study.

Signature:___________________________________

Date: _____________________________

If you are interested in receiving the results of the study write down your email below.

__________________________________________________________________
Material for the disfluent group

You have 90 seconds to memorize the material below

Shnuxel

● 2 feet tall

● eats salt and carrots

● has green fur

● has 4 brown eyes

● sleeps during the night

● lives in the swamp

Tapilog

● 9 feet tall

● eats yellow, tall flowers

● has no fur

● has 2 yellow eyes

● sleeps during the day

● lives in the desert

Norgeltus

● 5 feet tall

● eats dry leaves and pollen

● has orange fur

● has 1 blue eye

● Does not sleep

● lives in the cities

Material for the fluent group

You have 90 seconds to memorize the material below

Shnuxel
● 2 feet tall
● eats salt and carrots
● has green fur
● has 4 brown eyes
● sleeps during the night
● lives in the swamp

Tapilog
● 9 feet tall
● eats yellow, tall flowers
● has no fur
● has 2 yellow eyes
● sleeps during the day
● lives in the desert

Norgeltus
● 5 feet tall
● eats dry leaves and pollen
● has orange fur
● has 1 blue eye
● Does not sleep
● lives in the cities
material for the disfluent group

You have 90 seconds to memorize the material below

Shnuxel
● 2 feet tall
● eats salt and carrots
● has green fur
● has 4 brown eyes
● sleeps during the night
● lives in the swamp

Tapilog
● 9 feet tall
● eats yellow, tall flowers
● has no fur
● has 2 yellow eyes
● sleeps during the day
● lives in the desert

Norgeltus
● 5 feet tall
● eats dry leaves and pollen
● has orange fur
● has 1 blue eye
● Does not sleep
● lives in the cities