Materials Testing Lab Manual

Jaipur Engineering College & Research Centre Materials Testing Lab
LAB MANUAL
Lab : MATERIALS TESTING LAB
Lab Code : 3ME4-22
Branch : MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Year : 2nd YEAR
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Jaipur Engineering College and Research Centre, Jaipur
(RTU, Kota)
INDEX
PAGE
S.NO CONTENTS
NO.
1 VISION/MISION i
2 PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEOs) ii
3 PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POs) iii
4 COURSE OUTCOMES (COs) iv
5 MAPPING OF COs with POs v
6 SYLLABUS vi
7 BOOKS vii
8 INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS viii
9 LEARNING MATERIALS ix
10 ASSESSMENT OF OUTCOMES x
11 INSTRUCTIONS SHEET xi
(a) Study of various crystals structures through models BCC, FCC,
Exp:- 1 HCP, tetrahedral and octahedral voids. 1
(b) Material identification of, say, 50 common items kept in a box.
Specimen preparation for metallographic examination /micro structural
Exp:- 2 examination-cutting, grinding, polishing, etching. 7
Comparative study of microstructures of different given specimens
Exp:-3 12
(mild steel, gray C.I., brass, copper etc).
Heat treatment experiments such as annealing, normalizing, quenching,
Exp:-4 18
case hardening and comparison of hardness before and after.
Study of Microstructure and hardness of steel at different rates of
Exp:-5 24
cooling. Microstructure examination of white cast iron.
To perform Tensile/Compressive/Shear/torsion test on a given material
Exp:-6 and to determine its various mechanical properties under 31
tensile/compressive/shear/torsional loading.
Exp:-7 To determine Rockwell/ Vickers/Brinell hardness of a given material. 48
To perform Impact test on a given material and to determine its
Exp:-8 54
resilience.
To study and perform Fatigue test on a given material and to determine
Exp:-9 59
fatigue strength of the material.
To perform Bending test and to determine the Young’s Modulus of
Exp:-10 63
Elasticity via deflection of beam.
Exp:-11 Creep testing on creep testing machine. 66
Exp:-12 Study of spring testing machine 71
1. VISION & MISSION
VISION:
 The Mechanical Engineering Department strives to be recognized globally for

outcome based technical knowledge and to produce quality human resource, who can
manage the advance technologies and contribute to society.
MISSION:
 To impart quality technical knowledge to the learners to make them globally

competitive mechanical engineers.
 To provide the learners ethical guidelines along with excellent academic environment
for a long productive career.
 To promote industry-institute relationship
i
2. PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES

1. To provide students with the fundamentals of Engineering Sciences with more emphasis
in Mechanical Engineering by way of analyzing and exploiting engineering challenges.
2. To train students with good scientific and engineering knowledge so as to comprehend,
analyze, design, and create novel products and solutions for the real life problems in
Mechanical Engineering.
3. To inculcate professional and ethical attitude, effective communication skills, teamwork
skills, multidisciplinary approach, entrepreneurial thinking and an ability to relate
mechanical engineering issues with social issues.
4. To provide students with an academic environment aware of excellence, leadership,
written ethical codes and guidelines, and the self-motivated life-long learning needed for a
successful professional career in Mechanical Engineering.
5. To prepare students to excel in Industry and Higher education by Educating Students
along with High moral values and Knowledge in Mechanical Engineering.
ii
3. PROGRAM OUTCOMES
1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems in Mechanical Engineering.
2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, research literature, and analyze complex
Mechanical Engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex Mechanical Engineering
problems and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with
appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and
environmental considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and
research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and
synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions in Mechanical Engineering.
5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex Mechanical
Engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to
assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities
relevant to the professional Mechanical Engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional Mechanical
Engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the
knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
norms of the Mechanical Engineering practice.
9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or
leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings in Mechanical Engineering.
10.Communication: Communicate effectively on complex Mechanical Engineering
activities with the engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to
comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation, make effective
presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
Mechanical Engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a
member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to
engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change
in Mechanical Engineering.
iii
4. COURSE OUTCOMES
Materials Testing lab [3ME4-22]
Class: IIIrd Sem. B.Tech Branch: Mechanical Engineering

Schedule per Week Practical Hrs.= 3 hrs Examination Time = 3 hrs
Maximum Marks = 75 [Sessional/Mid-term (45) & End-term (30)]
On successful completion of this course the students will be able to:

1. To determine strength, hardness of various materials by testing
2. To identify crystal structure of various materials, examine microstructures and improve
material properties by using appropriate heat treatment process
iv
5. MAPPING OF COs with POs
PROGRAM OUTCOMES
COURSE
OUTCOMES
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
I H L H
II H M H
v
6. SYLLABUS
MATERIALS TESTING LAB [3ME4-22]
Class: IIIrd Sem. II Year B. Tech. Evaluation

Branch: ME Examination Time=Two (3) Hours
Schedule per week Maximum Marks = 75
Practical Hrs: (3 Hrs) [Sessional/Mid-term (45) & End-term (30 )]
S.N. NAME OF EXPERIMENT

1 (a) Study of various crystals structures through models BCC, FCC, HCP, tetrahedral
and octahedral voids.
(b) Material identification of, say, 50 common items kept in a box.
2 Specimen preparation for metallographic examination /micro structural
examination-cutting, grinding, polishing, etching.
3 Comparative study of microstructures of different given specimens (mild steel, gray
C.I., brass, copper etc).
4 Heat treatment experiments such as annealing, normalizing, quenching, case
hardening and comparison of hardness before and after.
5 Study of Microstructure and hardness of steel at different rates of cooling.
Microstructure examination of white cast iron.
6 To perform Tensile/Compressive/Shear/torsion test on a given material and to
determine its various mechanical properties under tensile/compressive/shear/
torsional loading.
7 To determine Rockwell/ Vickers/Brinell hardness of a given material.
8 To perform Impact test on a given material and to determine its resilience.
9 To study and perform Fatigue test on a given material and to determine fatigue
strength of the material.
10 To perform Bending test and to determine the Young’s Modulus of Elasticity via
deflection of beam.
11 Creep testing on creep testing machine.
12
13
vi
7. BOOKS
1. Vander Voort, Metallography Principles and Practice, McGraw-Hill, 1984
2. Prabhudev K.H., Handbook of Heat Treatment of Steels, Tata McGraw- Hill, 2000
3. Suryanarayanan, A.V.K., Testing of Metallic materials, Tata McGraw Hill, 1993
8. INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS
vii
8.1. Direct Instructions:
I. Black board presentation.
8.2. Interactive Instruction:
I. Practical on respective equipment.

II. Practical Examples.
9. LEARNING MATERIALS
viii
9.1. Lab Manual
10. ASSESSMENT OF OUTCOMES
ix
10.1 . End term Practical exam (Conducted by RTU, KOTA)

10.2. Viva Voce
10.3. Daily Lab interaction.
11. INSTRUCTIONS SHEET
x
We need your full support and cooperation for smooth functioning of the lab.
DO’s
1. Students must always wear uniform and shoes before entering the lab.
2. Proper code of conduct and ethics must be followed in the lab.
3. Windows and doors to be kept open for proper ventilation and air circulation.
4. Note down the specifications of the experimental setup before performing the experiment.
5. Check for the electrical connections and inform if any discrepancy found to the attention of
lecturer/lab instructor.
6. Perform the experiment under the supervision/guidance of a lecturer/lab instructor only.
7. After the observations are noted down switch off the electrical connections.
8. In case of fire use fire extinguisher/throw the sand provided in the lab.
9. In case of any physical injuries or emergencies use first aid box provided.
10. Any unsafe conditions prevailing in the lab can be brought to the notice of the lab
incharge
DON’TS
1. Do not operate any experimental setup to its maximum value.
2. Do not touch/ handle the experimental setups/Test Rigs without prior knowledge.
3. Never overcrowd the experimental setup/Test Rig.
4. Don’t enter in the lab without permission of lab Incharge.
5. Don’t carry any lab equipments outside the lab.
BEFORE ENTERING IN THE LAB

1. All the students are supposed to prepare the theory regarding the next experiment
2. Students are supposed to bring the practical file and the lab copy.
3. Previous practical should be written in the practical file.
WHILE WORKING IN THE LAB

1. Adhere to experimental schedule as instructed by the lab incharge.
2. Get the previously executed program signed by the instructor.
3. Each student should work on his/her assigned machine at each turn of the lab.
4. Take responsibility of valuable accessories.
xi
5. Concentrate on the assigned practical.
xii
EXPERIMENT 1
Objective: Study of various crystals structures through models of BCC, FCC, HCP,
tetrahedral and octahedral voids.
Introduction: In crystallography, crystal structure is a description of the ordered

arrangement of atoms, ions or molecules in a crystalline material. Ordered structures occur
from the intrinsic nature of the constituent particles to form symmetric patterns that repeat
along the principal directions of three-dimensional space in matter. The smallest group of
particles in the material that constitutes the repeating pattern is the unit cell of the structure.
The unit cell completely defines the symmetry and structure of the entire crystal lattice,
which is built up by repetitive translation of the unit cell along its principal axes. The
repeating patterns are said to be located at the points of the Bravais lattice. The lengths of the
principal axes, or edges, of the unit cell and the angles between them are the lattice constants,
also called lattice parameters. The symmetry properties of the crystal are described by the
concept of space groups. All possible symmetric arrangements of particles in three-
dimensional space may be described by the 230 space groups. The crystal structure and
symmetry play a critical role in determining many physical properties, such
as cleavage, electronic band structure, and optical transparency.
Unit Cell: Crystal structure is described in terms of the geometry of arrangement of particles
in the unit cell. The unit cell is defined as the smallest repeating unit having the full
symmetry of the crystal structure.[4] The geometry of the unit cell is defined as
a parallelepiped, providing six lattice parameters taken as the lengths of the cell edges
(a, b, c) and the angles between them (α, β, γ). The positions of particles inside the unit cell
are described by the fractional coordinates (xi, yi, zi) along the cell edges, measured from a
reference point. It is only necessary to report the coordinates of a smallest asymmetric subset
of particles. This group of particles may be chosen so that it occupies the smallest physical
space, which means that not all particles need to be physically located inside the boundaries
given by the lattice parameters.
1
Primary Metallic Crystalline Structures: There are 14 different types of crystal unit cell
structures or lattices are found in nature. However most metals and many other solids have
unit cell structures described as body center cubic (BCC), face centered cubic (FCC) or
Hexagonal Close Packed (HCP).
Body-Centered Cubic (BCC) structure: The body-centered cubic unit cell has atoms at
each of the eight corners of a cube (like the cubic unit cell) plus one atom in the center of the
cube (left image below). Each of the corner atoms is the corner of another cube so the corner
atoms are shared among eight unit cells. It is said to have a coordination number of 8. The
BCC unit cell consists of a net total of two atoms; one in the center and eight eighths from
corners atoms as shown in the middle image below (middle image below). The image below
highlights a unit cell in a larger section of the lattice.
The BCC arrangement does not allow the atoms to pack together as closely as the FCC or
HCP arrangements. The BCC structure is often the high temperature form of metals that are
close-packed at lower temperatures. The volume of atoms in a cell per the total volume of a
cell is called the packing factor. The BCC unit cell has a packing factor of 0.68.
Some of the materials that have a BCC structure include lithium, sodium, potassium,
chromium, barium, vanadium, alpha-iron and tungsten. Metals which have a BCC structure
are usually harder and less malleable than close-packed metals such as gold. When the metal
is deformed, the planes of atoms must slip over each other, and this is more difficult in the
BCC structure. It should be noted that there are other important mechanisms for hardening
materials, such as introducing impurities or defects which make slipping more difficult.
These hardening mechanisms will be discussed latter.
Face Centered Cubic (FCC) Structure: The face centered cubic structure has atoms located
at each of the corners and the centers of all the cubic faces (left image below). Each of the
corner atoms is the corner of another cube so the corner atoms are shared among eight unit
cells. Additionally, each of its six face centered atoms is shared with an adjacent atom. Since
12 of its atoms are shared, it is said to have a coordination number of 12. The FCC unit cell
consists of a net total of four atoms; eight eighths from corners atoms and six halves of the
face atoms as shown in the middle image above. The image below highlights a unit cell in a
larger section of the lattice.
2
In the FCC structure (and the HCP structure) the atoms can pack closer together than they can
in the BCC structure. The atoms from one layer nest themselves in the empty space between
the atoms of the adjacent layer. To picture packing arrangement, imagine a box filled with a
layer of balls that are aligned in columns and rows. When a few additional balls are tossed in
the box, they will not balance directly on top of the balls in the first layer but instead will
come to rest in the pocket created between four balls of the bottom layer. As more balls are
added they will pack together to fill up all the pockets. The packing factor (the volume of
atoms in a cell per the total volume of a cell) is 0.74 for FCC crystals. Some of the metals that
have the FCC structure include aluminum, copper, gold, iridium, lead, nickel, platinum and
silver.
Hexagonal Close Packed (HCP) Structure:

Another common close packed structure is the hexagonal close pack. The hexagonal structure
of alternating layers is shifted so its atoms are aligned to the gaps of the preceding layer. The
atoms from one layer nest themselves in the empty space between the atoms of the adjacent
layer just like in the FCC structure. However, instead of being a cubic structure, the pattern is
hexagonal. (See image below.) The difference between the HCP and FCC structure is
discussed later in this section.
The HCP structure has three layers of atoms. In each the top and bottom layer, there are six
atoms that arrange themselves in the shape of a hexagon and a seventh atom that sits in the
middle of the hexagon. The middle layer has three atoms nestle in the triangular "grooves" of
3
the top and bottom plane. Note that there are six of these "grooves" surrounding each atom in
the hexagonal plane, but only three of them can be filled by atoms.
As shown in the middle image above, there are six atoms in the HCP unit cell. Each of the 12
atoms in the corners of the top and bottom layers contribute 1/6 atom to the unit cell, the two
atoms in the center of the hexagon of both the top and bottom layers each contribute ½ atom
and each of the three atom in the middle layer contribute 1 atom. The image on the right
above attempts to show several HCP unit cells in a larger lattice.
The coordination number of the atoms in this structure is 12. There are six nearest neighbors
in the same close packed layer, three in the layer above and three in the layer below. The
packing factor is 0.74, which is the same as the FCC unit cell. The HCP structure is very
common for elemental metals and some examples include beryllium, cadmium, magnesium,
titanium, zinc and zirconium.
Crystal’s voids: The vacant space between atoms is called voids. These are also known as
interstitial voids. Voids are of two types:
1. Tetrahedral voids
2. Octahedral voids
Tetrahedral Void: A tetrahedral void will form in four atoms system of these three atoms A,
B, C are placed on a closed packed plane while the fourth atom D on a plane above or below
it. The fourth atom occupies cavity space formed between atoms A, B, C .If the centers of all
four atoms are joint irregular tetrahedral geometry. There are 8 tetrahedral voids in FCC.
Maximum size of foreign atoms that it is into tetrahedral void without distorting parent atom
is 0.225r, where ‘r’ is radius of closed packed parent atom.
Octahedral Void: Formulation of such voids requires at least six atoms of which three atoms
A, B, C are on a closed packed plane and other three atoms D, E, F are above or below these
atoms. When centers of all six atoms are joined, a regular octahedral shape will formed.
Largest size of a foreign atom that may fit into an Octahedral Void is 0.414r, where ‘r’ is
radius of closed packed parent atom.
4
Fig. tetrahedral and octahedral voids
Expected Outcome:
Student will able to know different crystal structures & tetrahedral and octahedral voids.
Comments by student:
5
VIVA VOCE
1. Define unit cell.
2. Differentiate between BCC, FCC, and HCP.
6
EXPERIMENT 2
Objective: To prepare metallic sample for metallographic examination as cutting, grinding,
polishing, etching.
Equipments and materials required:-
1.Metallurgical Microscope.
2.Sample cutting equipment i.e. power hack saw.
3.Polishing , equipment, fine energy paper (10,210,310,410 grit ) double disc polishing
machine having two cloth & valet cloths.
4.Fine abrasive of polishing alumina & paste from of I, II & III grade .
5.Sample specimen.
Procedure:
Preparation of specimen
Specimen preparation (known as polishing) is necessary to study its microstructure as

metallurgical microscope makes use of the principle of reflection of light to obtain image of
metal structure .Satisfactory image of the micro structure can be obtained only when the
specimen has been carefully prepared .Even the most expensive microscope will not reveal
the structure if the specimen has be poorly prepared .The procedure to be followed in the
preparation of a specimen is simple but the technique gets developed only after practice.
The final objective is to procedure a flat, scratch-free and mirror like surface. The procedure
for preparing the specimen for both macro and micro examination is the same except that in
the later case the final surface is more important than in the former. The steps required to
prepare a metallographic specimen are as under.
Selection of specimen
Specimen should be selected from that area of material (plate, casting, etc.) which can be
taken as representative of the material that is being studied.For general study, specimens
should be chosen from locations most likely to reveal the maximum variations within the
material under study. For example ,in case of castings specimens could be selected from the
zones within which maximum/minimum segregation might be expected.In case of study of
failures, specimen should be taken as close as possible to the fracture or to the failure.In
many cases, specimens are required to be taken from a sound area for a comparison of
structure and properties.After deciding the location of the specimen, the type of section to be
examined must be decided.
For a casting , a section cut perpendicular to the surface will show the variation in structure
from outside to interior of the casting . trasverse sections or cross sections taken
perpendicular to the main axis of the material are useful for study of decaburization at the
7
surface of a ferrous material, depth of corrosion, thickness of a protective coating etc.

Longitudinal sections parallel to the main axis of the materialis useful in study of plastic
deformation as shown by grain distortion.The location if surface examined should always be
given in reporting results.
Size of Specimen
For convenience, specimens to be polishedare generally not more than about 12 to 25 mm

square or approximately 12 to 25 mm in diameter.
Cutting of the specimen
After selecting a particular area specimen may be removed from the material by sawing or
cutting using abrasive wheel . the specimen shall be kept cool during the cutting operation.
While cutting,care must be taken to minimize altering the structure of the metal. A material in
the form of wire , rod ,sheet ofr plate may be cut by a shear, a type of cutting tool having two
opposing blades.All cutting operation produces some depth of damage, which will have to be
removed in subseqent preparation steps.
Rough Grinding
After cutting, a soft specimen may be made flat by slowly moving it up and back across the
surface of a smooth file. Soft or hard specimen may be rough ground on a belt,disc or surface
sander. Grinding is accomplished by abrading the specimen surface through a sequence of
operation using progressively finer abrasive Grit size 40 mesh through 150 mesh are usually
regarding as coarse abrasive(for rough grinding),and gritting sizes from 180 mesh through
600mesh as fine abrasives(for fine grinding). Grinding abrasive
Commonly used are silicon carbide (SiC),aluminium oxide ,emery ( Al 2O3– Fe3O4)and
diomond particles . An abrasive grit size 150 or 180 mesh is coarse enough to use on
specimen surfaces cut by an abrasive cutoff wheel. Hacksawed surface is require grit size in
the range of 80 to 150 . To ensure the complete elimination of the previous grinding scrathes
found by visual inspection, the direction of grinding must be changed 45 0 to 900 between
successive grit sizes. Rough grinding is continued untill all scrathes due to the hacksaw or
cutoff wheel are no longer visible and the surface is flat specimens such as fractures sor those
where it is necessary to examine the edges are often plated to obtain good edge retention
prior to thier mounting. Plating can be done electrolytically or with electoless solutions.
Mounting of specimen
Mounting of a specimen is carried out for convenience in handling it during the subsequent
steps of metallographic preparation and examination. For this, the specimen is either clamped
or mounted. Compression mounting involves molding around the specimen by moulding
materials like Bakilite, lucite and acrylic resins by applications of heat and pressure. Epoxy or
polyester resins are used for cold molding.
8
Fine grinding
After mounting , the specimen is finely ground using successively fine abrasives ( grit sizes
180 mesh through 600 mesh)
Abrasive grit size designations in this article are as per the ANSI (American National
standard Institute ) or CAMI (Coated Abrasive Manufacturers Institute ) system units. To
visualize their actual size, thier size in microns (µm) is given in the table given below. For
ready referance/ comprasion , grit numbers as per FEPA (European Federation of Abrasive
Producers ) and thieir are also include in the table.
ANSI/CAMI FEPA
Grit Numbers Size in Microns(µm) Grit Number Size in Microns (µm)
120 116.0 P120 125.0
180 78.0 P150 100.0
240 51.8 P280 52.2
600 14.5 P1200 15.3
800 11.5 P1500 12.6
1500 8.0 P2500 8.4
Polishing
Compared to grinding which is carried out on a belt, disc or surface sander,polishing is

usually carried out by the use of loose abrasive(≤ 6µ m ) embedded in an appropriately
lubricated supporting surface.
The time consumed and the success of polishing depends largely upon the care that was
excercised during fine grinding. The final approximately flat scratch free surface is obtained
by use of a wet roatating wheel covered with special cloth charged with abrasive particles .
During polishing, the specimen is rotated in a direction counter to the rotation of the
polishing wheel. In addition , the specimen is continually moved back and forth between the
center and edge of the wheel, thereby is continually moved back and forth between the center
and edge of the wheel, thereby ensuring even distribution of the abrsive and uniform wear of
the ploishing cloth. The correct amount of applied pressure must be determined by experience
. In general, firm hand pressure is applied to the specimen in the intial polishing step and is
propertionally decreased with succesively finer polishing steps . A wide range of abrasives is
available for polishing. Generally alpha grade of aluminium oxide (in range of particle sizes
from 15 micron to 0.3 micron)is used for rough polishing and gamma grade of aluminium
oxide (0.05 micron particle size ) is used for fine polishing of ferrous and copper based
mateials and cerium oxide for aluminium, magnesium and thier alloys. polishing abrasives
often used are chromium oxide , magnesium oxide and diamond paste ( 6 micron diamond for
rough polishing and 1 micron diamond for fine polishing).
After polishing, the secimen is washed in warm running water , rinsed with methanol or any
other alcohol that does not leave a residue, and dried in a stream of warm air.
9
Etching
The purpose of etching is to make visible structural characteristics of the metal of alloy. The
process shall be such that the various parts of the michrostructure can be clearly
differentiated.This is achieved by use of an appropriate which carries out chemcal action to
polished surface. In alloys composed of two or more phases, the phases are revealed due to
preferational attack by the reagent to them due to differance in thier chemical composition. In
the same way grain bounderies are visible as they are attacked at differant rate than grain
success.
Etching is done by immersing the polished in the reagent or by rubbing the polished surface
gently with a cotton swab wetted with the eching reagent. After etching, the specimen is
again washed thoroughly and dried . Now the specimen can be studied under a microscope.
The selection of the appropriate etching reagent is determined by the metal or alloy and the
specific structure desired for viewing, common etching reagents used for various metals and
alloys are as under.
Expected outcomes: Students will able to prepare metallic sample for metallographic
examination
10
VIVA VOCE
1. What is fine grinding?
2. What is role of Emery paper for preparation of metallic sample?
3. What is Etching?
11
EXPERIMENT 3
Objective: Comparative study of microstructures of different given specimens (mild steel,
gray C.I., brass, copper etc).
Introduction: The examination of microstructure is one of the principal means of evaluating

alloys and products todetermine the effects of various fabrication and thermal treatments and
to analyse the cause of failure. Main microstructural changes
occur during freezing, homogenisation, hot or cold working,annealing, etc. Good
interpretation of the structure relies on having a complete history of
thespecimen.In general, the metallography of metals and metallic alloys is a hard job in the
meaning thatmaterials represent a great variety of chemical compositions and thus a wide
range of hardness anddifferent mechanical properties. Therefore the techniques required for
metallographic examinationmay vary considerably between soft and hard alloys. Moreover,
one specific alloy can contain several microstructural features,
like matrix, second phases, dispersoids, grains, sub grains and thus grain boundaries or sub
boundaries according to the type of the alloy and its thermal or
thermomechanical history. However, some methods of sample preparation and observation
are quite general and apply to all such materials. As a general rule, examination should start
at normal eye vision level and proceed to higher magnification. Simplicity and cost make
optical examination (macro and micro) the most useful.When the magnification and the
depth of focus become too low, the electron microscopes are required.
Microstructure: Microstructure is defined as the structure of a prepared surface or thin foil

of material as revealed bya microscope above 25× magnification. The microstructure of
a material (which can be broadly classified into metallic, polymeric, ceramic and composite)
can strongly influence physical properties
such as strength, toughness, ductility, hardness, corrosion resistance, high/low temperature
behaviour, wear resistance, and so on, which in turn govern the application of these materials
in industrial practice.
Metallography: Metallography is the science and art of preparing a metal surface for
analysis by grinding and polishing, and etching to reveal the structure of the specimen.
Ceramic, sintered carbide or any other solid material may also be prepared using
metallographic techniques, hence the collective term, materialography.
Metallographic and materialographic specimen preparation seeks to find the true structure of
the material. Mechanical preparation is the most common method of preparing the specimens
for examination. Abrasive particles are used in successively finer steps to remove material
from the specimen surface until the needed metallographic surface quality is achieved. A
large number of materialographic preparation machines for grinding and polishing are
available, meeting different demands on preparation quality, capacity, and reproducibility.
A systematic preparation method is the easiest way to achieve the true materialographic
structure.
When the work routinely involves examining the same material, in the same condition, the
12
metallographer wants to achieve the same result each time. This means that the preparation
result must be reproducible. Different materials with similar properties (hardness and
ductility) will respond alike and thus require the same consumables
during preparation. Specimen preparation must therefore pursue rules which are suitable for
most materials.
Microstructure Analysis of Aluminium

Aluminium encompasses a wide range of chemical compositions and product forms that can
bemanufactured by all available metalworking techniques and standard casting processes.
Manufactured forms of aluminum and aluminum alloys include standard mill products (e.g.,
sheet,plate, foil, rod, bar, wire, tube, pipe, and structural forms) and engineered forms for
specific applications produced by extrusion, forging, stamping, powder metallurgy, semisolid
processing,and machining. Aluminum products also include metal-matrix composites with
either particulate or fiber reinforcement.
Aluminum alloys encompass more than three hundred commonly recognized alloy
compositionsand many additional variations developed in supplier/consumer relationships.
Commercial aluminum alloys contain some iron and silicon as well as two or more elements
intentionally added to enhance properties. Aluminium used to study microstructure is
12% Silicon- Aluminium.
13
Using the aluminum-silicon phase diagram, as shown above, the basic process of
solidification and morphology formation is as follows.When the temperature goes below the
liquidus line, the solid-solution phase (α) solidifies first, while most of the copper remains in
liquid form. As the temperature approaches the solidus, the α
solidphase becomes more enriched with Silicon. When the temperature falls below the
solidus temperature in alloys containing less than the maximum solubility (5.65 wt% Si),
solidification is complete to the solid-solution phase condition (α). In alloys containing more
than 5.65 wt% Si, some liquid remains when the eutectic temperature (548 °C, or 1018 °F) is
reached. In this case, two terminal solid-solution phases (α and θ) separate out simultaneously
fromthe molten liquid. Oncooling below the eutectic temperature, a network of eutectic forms
in the residual liquid surrounding the dendrites or grains of primary α.
Microstructure Analysis of Gray Cast Iron

Grey iron is a cast iron alloy that has a graphitic microstructure. It’s named after the gray
color of the fracture it forms, which is due to the presence of graphite.
Grey cast irons are softer with a microstructure of graphite in transformed-austenite and
cementite matrix. The graphite flakes, which are rosettes in three dimensions, have a low
density and hence compensate for the freezing contraction, thus giving good castings free
from porosity.
The flakes of graphite have good damping characteristics and good machinability. In
applications involving wear, the graphite is beneficial because it helps retain lubricants.
Sulphur in cast irons is known to favour the formation of graphite flakes. The graphite can be
induced to precipitate in a spheroidal shape by removing the sulphur from the melt using a
small quantity of calcium carbide. This is followed by a minute addition of magnesium or
cerium, which poisons the preferred growth directions and hence leads to isotropic growth
resulting in spheroids of graphite. The calcium treatment is necessary before the addition of
magnesium since the latter also has an affinity for both sulphur and
oxygen, whereas its spheroidising ability depends on its presence in solution in the liquid
iron. The magnesium is frequently added as an alloy with iron and silicon (Fe-Si-Mg) rather
than as pure magnesium.
However, magnesium tends to encourage the precipitation of cementite, so silicon is also

added (in the form of ferro-silicon) to ensure the precipitation of carbon as graphite. The
ferro-silicon is known as inoculants.
Spheroidal graphite cast iron has excellent toughness and is used widely, for example in
crankshafts.
14
15
The best way to understand the metallurgy is to examine the iron-carbon binary phase
diagram.From the figure above we can make out the phases present in the material taken for
analysis which is cementite, pearlite and transformed leduberite at 3% carbon.
Microstructure Analysis of Brass

Brass is a metal composed primarily of copper and zinc. Copper is the main component, and
brassis usually classified as a copper alloy. The colour of brass varies from a dark reddish
brown to a light silvery yellow depending on the amount of zinc present; the more zinc, the
lighter the colour. Brass is stronger and harder than copper, but not as strong or hard as steel.
It is easy to form into various shapes, a good conductor of heat, and generally resistant to
corrosion from salt water. Because of these properties, brass is used to make pipes and tubes,
weather-stripping and other architectural trim pieces, screws, radiators, musical instruments,
and cartridge casings for firearms.
- Brass has higher malleability than copper or zinc. The relatively low melting point of brass
(900 to 940°C, depending on composition) and its flow characteristics make it a
relativelyeasy material to cast.
- Today almost 90% of all brass alloys are recycled. Because brass is not ferromagnetic, it
can be separated from ferrous scrap by passing the scrap near a powerful magnet.
16
- Aluminium makes brass stronger and more corrosion resistant. Aluminium also causes a
highly beneficial hard layer of aluminium oxide (Al 2O3) to be formed on the surface that is
thin, transparent and self healing.
Expected outcomes: Student will able to understand different microstructure of Aluminium,

Cast iron and brass.
17
EXPERIMENT 4
Objective: Heat treatment experiments such as annealing, normalizing, quenching, case

hardening and comparison of hardness before and after.
Theory:
Annealing:
Annealing, in metallurgy and materials science, is a heat treatment that alters the physical
and sometimes chemical properties of a material to increase its ductility and to make it
more workable. It involves heating a material to above its critical temperature,
maintaining a suitable temperature, and then cooling. Annealing can induce ductility,
soften material, relieve internal stresses, refine the structure by making it homogeneous,
and improve cold working properties
In the cases of copper, steel, silver, and brass, this process is performed by heating the
material (generally until glowing) for a while and then slowly letting it cool to room
temperature in still air. Copper, silver and brass can be cooled slowly in air, or quickly
by quenching in water, unlike ferrous metals, such as steel, which must be cooled slowly
to anneal. Annealing occurs by the diffusion of atoms within a solid material, so that the
material progresses towards its equilibrium state. Heat increases the rate of diffusion by
providing the energy needed to break bonds. The movement of atoms has the effect of
redistributing and eradicating the dislocations in metals and (to a lesser extent) in
ceramics. This alteration to existing dislocations allows a metal object to deform more
easily, so increasing its ductility
Stages:
The three stages of the annealing process that proceed as the temperature of the material
is increased are: recovery, recrystallization, and grain growth
 The first stage is recovery, and it results in softening of the metal through removal
of primarily linear defects called dislocations and the internal stresses they cause.
Recovery occurs at the lower temperature stage of all annealing processes and
before the appearance of new strain-free grains. The grain size and shape do not
change
 The second stage is recrystallization, where new strain-free grains nucleate and
grow to replace those deformed by internal stresses. If annealing is allowed to
continue once recrystallization has completed, then grain growth (the third stage)
occurs
18
 In grain growth, the microstructure starts to coarsen and may cause the metal to
lose a substantial part of its original strength. This can however be regained
with hardening.
Specialized Cycles
Normalization:
Normalization is an annealing process applied to ferrous alloys to give the material a

uniform fine grained structure and make it less brittle. It is used on steels of less than
0.4% carbon to transform austenite into ferrite, pearlier and sorbite. It involves heating
the steel to 20-50 Kelvin above its upper critical point. It is soaked for a short period at
that temperature and then allowed to cool in air. Smaller grains form that produce a
tougher, more ductile material. It eliminates columnar grains and dendritic segregation
that sometimes occurs during casting. Normalizing improves machinability of a
component and provides dimensional stability if subjected to further heat treatment
processes
Process annealing:
Process annealing, also called intermediate annealing, subcritical annealing, Orin-process

annealing, is a heat treatment cycle that restores some of the ductility to a product during
the process of cold working, so it can be worked further without breaking further heat
treatment cycles. The temperature range for process annealing ranges from 260 °C (500
°F) to 760 °C (1400 °F), depending on the alloy in question.
Full annealing:
A full anneal typically results in the second most ductile state a metal can assume for
metal alloy. It creates a new uniform microstructure with good dynamic properties. To
perform a full anneal on steel for example, steel is heated to 50°C above the austenic
temperature and held for sufficient time to allow the material to fully
form austenite or austenite-cementite grain structure. The material is then allowed to cool
slowly so that the equilibrium microstructure is obtained. In some cases this means the
material is allowed to air cool. In other cases the material is allowed to furnace cool.
Quenching:
In materials science, quenching is the rapid cooling of a work piece to obtain

certain material properties. It prevents low-temperature processes, such as
phase transformations, from occurring by only providing a narrow window of time in
which the reaction is both thermodynamically favorable and kinetically accessible. For
instance, it can reduce crystalline and thereby increase toughness of
both alloys and plastics (produced through polymerization).
In metallurgy, it is most commonly used to harden steel by introducing martensite, in

which case the steel must be rapidly cooled through its eutectoid point, the temperature at
19
which austenite becomes unstable give the illusion that the material has been
cooled more rapidly than it really has. Even cooling such alloys slowly in air has most of
the desired effects of quenching.
Process:
Quenching metals is a progression; the first step is heating, i.e. heating it to the required
temperature. Second step is soaking. Soaking can be done by air (air furnace), or a bath or in
a vacuum. The soaking time in air furnaces should be 1 to 2 minutes for each millimeter of
cross-section. For a bath the time can range a little higher within a vacuum, soak is generally
similar to in air. The recommended time allotment in salt or lead baths is 0 to 6 minutes.
Uneven heating or overheating should be avoided at all cost. Most materials are heated from
anywhere to 815 to 900 °C (1,500 to 1,650 °F).
The next item on the progression list is the cooling of the part. Water is one of the most
efficient quenching media where maximum hardness is acquired, but there is a small chance
that it may cause distortion and tiny cracking. When hardness can be sacrificed, whale
oil, cottonseed oil and mineral oils are used. These often tend to oxidize and form a sludge,
which consequently lowers the efficiency. The quenching velocity (cooling rate) of oil is
much less than water. Most commonly, nitrogen is used at pressures greater than atmospheric
pressure ranging up to 20 bar absolute. Helium is also used because of its greater thermal
capacity than nitrogen. Alternatively argon can be used however its density requires
significantly more horsepower to move it and its thermal capacity is less than the alternatives.
Case hardening: Case hardening or surface hardening is the process of hardening the surface
of a metal object while allowing the metal deeper underneath to remain soft, thus forming a
thin layer of harder metal (called the "case") at the surface. For steel or iron with
low carbon content, which has poor to no hardenability of its own, the case hardening process
involves infusing additional carbon into the case. Case hardening is usually done after the
part has been formed into its final shape, but can also be done to increase the
hardening element content of bars to be used in pattern or similar process. The term face
hardening is also used to describe this technique, when discussing modern amour.
Flame and induction hardening: Flame or induction hardening is processes in which the
surface of the steel is heated to high temperatures (by direct application of a flame, or
by induction heating) then cooled rapidly, generally using water; this creates a "case"
of marten site on the surface. A carbon content of 0.3–0.6 wt% C is needed for this type of
hardening.
Typical uses are for the shackle of a lock, where the outer layer is hardened to be file
resistant, and mechanical gears, where hard gear mesh surfaces are needed to maintain a long
service life while toughness is required to maintain durability and resistance
to catastrophic failure.
Carburizing: Carburizing is a process used to casehardening of steel with a carbon content

between 0.1 and 0.3 wt% C. In this process steel is introduced to a carbon rich environment
20
and elevated temperatures for a certain amount of time, and then quenched so that the carbon
is locked in the structure; one of the simpler procedures is repeatedly to heat a part with an
acetylene torch set with a fuel-rich flame and quench it in a carbon-rich fluid such as oil.
Carburization is a diffusion-controlled process, so the longer the steel is held in the carbon-
rich environment the greater the carbon penetration will be and the higher the carbon content.
The carburized section will have carbon content high enough that it can be hardened again
through flame or induction hardening. It is possible to carburize only a portion of a part,
either by protecting the rest by a process such as copper plating, or by applying a carburizing
medium to only a section of the part.
Liquid carburizing involves placing parts in a bath of a molten carbon-containing material,

often metal cyanide; gas carburizing involves placing the parts in a furnace maintained with a
methane-rich interior.
Nitriding:
Nitriding heats the steel part to 482–621 °C (900–1,150 °F) in an atmosphere of ammonia gas
and dissociated ammonia. The time the part spends in this environment dictates the depth of
the case. The hardness is achieved by the formation of nitrides. Nitride forming elements
must be present for this method to work; these elements include chromium, molybdenum,
and aluminum. The advantage of this process is that it causes little distortion, so the part can
be case hardened after being quenched, tempered and machined. No quenching is done after
nitriding.
Cyaniding:
Cyaniding is a case hardening process that is fast and efficient; it is mainly used on low
carbon steels. The part is heated to 871-954 °C (1600-1750 °F) in a bath of sodium
cyanide and then is quenched and rinsed, in water or oil, to remove any residual cyanide.
2NaCN + O2 → 2NaCNO
2NaCNO + O2 → Na2CO3 +CO + N2
2CO → CO2 + C
This process produces a thin, hard shell (between 0.25 - 0.75 mm, 0.01 and 0.03 inches) that
is harder than the one produced by carburizing, and can be completed in 20 to 30 minutes
compared to several hours so the parts have less opportunity to become distorted. It is
typically used on small parts such as bolts, nuts, screws and small gears. The major drawback
of cyaniding is that cyanide salts are poisonous.
Carbonitriding
Carbonitriding is similar to cyaniding except a gaseous atmosphere of ammonia and

hydrocarbons are used instead of sodium cyanide. If the part is to be quenched, it is heated to
775–885 °C (1,427–1,625 °F); if not, then the part is heated to 649–788 °C (1,200–1,450 °F).
21
Expected outcomes:
Student will able to understand different heat treatment process such as annealing, normalizing,
quenching, case hardening.
VIVA VOCE
22
1. Why we done Heat Treatment of material?
2. What is the effect of cooling rate?
3. What is the cooling medium of annealing?
EXPERIMENT 5
23
Objective: To study of hardening of steel and effect of quenching medium on hardness.
Theory:
Hardening of steel is obtained by a suitable quench within or above the critical range. The
temperatures are the same as those given for full annealing. The soaking time in air
furnaces should be 1,2 min for each mm of cross-section or 0,6 min in salt or lead baths.
Uneven heating, overheating and excessive scaling should be avoided. The quenching is
necessary to suppress the normal breakdown of austenite into ferrite and cementite, and
to cause a partial decomposition at such a low temperature to produce martensite.to
obtain this, steel requires a critical cooling velocity, which is greatly reduced by the
presence of alloying elements, which therefore cause hardening with mild quenching.
The quenching is necessary to suppress the normal breakdown of austenite into ferrite and
cementite, and to cause a partial decomposition at such a low temperature to produce
martensite. To obtain this, steel requires a critical cooling velocity, which is greatly
reduced by the presence of alloying elements, which therefore cause hardening with mild
quenching (e.g. oil and hardening steels). Steels with less than o,3% carbon cannot be
hardened effectively, while the maximum effect is obtained at about 0,7% due to an
increased tendency to retain austenite in high carbon steels.
Fig.1. Variation of hardness of martensite and bainite with % of carbon
Water is one of the most efficient quenching media where maximum hardness is required,
but it is liable to cause distortion and cracking of the article. Where hardness can be
sacrificed, while, cotton seed and mineral are used. These tend to oxidize and form sludge
with consequent lowering of efficiency. The quenching velocity of oil is much less than
water. Ferrite and troostite are formed even in small sections. Intermediate rates between
24
water and oil can be obtained with water containing 10-30% Ucon, a substance with an
inverse solubility which therefore deposits on the object to slow the rate of cooling. to
minimize distortion, long cylindrical object should be quenched vertically, flat sections
edge ways and thick sections should enter the bath first. To prevent steam bubbles
forming soft spots, a water quenching bath should be agitated.
Tampering & toughening:
The martensite of quenched tool steel is exceedingly brittle and highly stressed.
Consequently cracking and distortion of the object are liable to occur after quenching.
Retained austenite is unstable and as it changes dimensions may after, e.g. dies may alter
0.012 mm. It is necessary, therefore, to warm the steel below the critical range in order to
relieve stresses and to allow the arrested reaction of cementite precipitations to take place.
This is known as tempering.
 150-250˚C.The object is heated in an oil bath, immediately after quenching, to

prevent relative cracking, to relieve internal stress and to decompose austenite without
much softening.
 200-450˚C. Used to toughen the steel at the expense of hardness. Brinell hardness
number is 350-450.
 450-700˚C. The precipitated cementite coalesces into larger masses and the steel
becomes softer. The structure is known as sorbite, which at the higher temperatures
becomes coarsely spherodised. It itches more slowly than torsite and has a Brinell
hardness number 220-350. Sorbite is generally found in heat-treated constructional
steels, such as axels, shafts, crankshafts subjected to dynamic stresses. A treatment of
quenching and tempering in this temperature range is frequently referred to as
toughening, and it produces an increase in ratio of the elastic limit to the ultimate
tensile strength.
The reactions in tempering occur slowly. Reaction time as well as temperature of

heating is important. Tempering is carried to an extend under pyrometric control in
oil, salt (e.g equal parts of sodium and potassium nitrates for 200˚C-600˚C) or lead
baths and also in furnaces in which the air is circulated by fans. After the tempering,
the objects may be cooled either rapidly or slowly, except for steels susceptible to
temper brittleness. Temper colors formed on a cleaned surface still used occasionally
as a guide to temperature. They exist due to the interference effects of thin films of
oxides formed during tempering, and they act similarly to oil films on water.
Alloys such as stainless steel forms thinner films than do carbon steels for a given
temperature and hence produce a color lower in the series.
For example, pale straw corresponds to 300˚C, instead of 230˚C (table 1)
Temper colour Temperature ˚C Objects
Pale straw 230 Planning and slotting tools
25
Dark straw 240 Milling cutters and drills

Brown 250 Taps, shear blades for metals
Brownish-purple 260 Punches, cups, snaps, twist drills, reamers
Purple 270 Press tools, axes
Dark purple 280 Cold chisels, sets for steel
Blue 300 Saws for wood, springs
Blue 450-650 Toughening for constructional steels
For turning, planning, shaping tools and chisels, only the cutting parts need hardening. This is
frequently carried out in engineering works by heating the tool to 730˚C, followed by
quenching and cutting end vertically. When the cutting end gets cold, it is cleaned with stone
and the heat from the shank of the tool is allowed to temper the cutting edge to the correct
color. Then the whole tool is quenched. Oxidation can be reduced by coating the tool with
charcoal and oil.
Changes during tempering

The principles underlying the tempering of quenched steels have a close similarity to
those of precipitation hardening. The overlapping changes, which occur when high carbon
martensite is tempered, are shown in fig.2 and as follows:-
 Stage 1: 50-200˚C. Martensite breaks down to a transition precipitate known as c-

carbide (Fe2,4C) across twins and a low carbon martensite which results in slight
dispersion hardening , decrease in volume and electrical resistance.
 Stage 2. 205-305˚C. Decomposition of retained austenite to bainite and decrease in
hardness.
 Stage 3.250-500˚C. Conversion of aggregate of low carbon martensite and c-carbide
into ferrite and cementite precipitated along twins, which gradually coarsens to give
visible particles and rapid softening, Fig .3.
 Stage 4.carbide changes in alloy steel at 400-700˚C. In steels containing one alloying
addition, cementite forms first and the alloy diffuses to it. When sufficiently enriched the
Fe3C transforms to an alloy carbide. After further enrichment this carbide may be
superseded by another and this formation of transition carbides may be repeated several
times before the equilibrium carbide forms. In the chromium steel, changes are: Fe3C—
>Cr7C3—>Cr23C6. In steels containing several carbide – forming elements the reaction are
often more complex, and the carbides which decompose are not necessary followed by
carbides based on the same alloy elements. The transformation can also occur in suitable
gradual exchange of atoms without any appreciable hardening; or by resolution of existing
iron carbides and fresh nucleation of coherent carbide with considerable hardening that
counteracts the normal softening that occurs during tempering. In some alloy steels,
therefore, the hardness is maintained constant up to about 5000 0C or in some cases it rises
to a peak followed by a gradual drop due to breakdown of coherence of the carbide
particles. This age hardening process is known as secondary hardening and it enhances
high temperature creep properties of steel ( e.g. steel E in fig.2). Chromium, for a
example, seems to stabilize the size of the cementite particles over a range 200-500 0C.
26
Vanadium and molybdenum form a fine dispersion of coherent precipitates (V 4C3Mo2C) in

a ferrite matrix with considerable hardening. When over-ageing starts the V 4C3 grows in
the grain boundaries and also forms a Widmanstätten pattern of plates within the grain.
Figure 2 - Tempering curves for 0.35% C steel and die steel
a) As quenched. Laths with high density of dislocation.

b) Tempered 300˚C. Widmanatätten precipitation of carbides within laths.
c) Tempered 500˚C. Recovery of dislocation structure into cells with laths.
d) Tempered 600˚C. Recrystallization cementite rebucleatedequioxed ferrite boundaries.
e) High C twinned martensite.
f) Tempered 100˚C. fine e-carbides across twins.
g) Tempered 200˚C. coherant cementite along twins, c-carbides dissolve.
27
h) Tempered 4000C. breakdown of twinned structure. Carbides grow and spheroidise.

Figure 3. Low carbon lath martensites have a high Ms temperature and some tempering often
occurs on cooling, i.e. auto tempering.
Quenching:-
The ‘quenching and partitioning’ process has been developed to produce high strength steel.
After austenitisation and interrupted quenching and austenite transforms partly to martensite. The
remaining austenite is stabilized by carbon partitioning from martensite. After final quench the
tampered martansite gives a high strength level. The process design is limited by reactions
competing against the carbon partitioning, i.e. carbon precipitation and isothermal bainite
transformation. For a given chemical composition a vast scope of adjustable mechanical
properties are investigated as a function of a process parameters. The corresponding micro
structure is characterized by light and electron microscopy and XRD measurements.
Supplementary information on the process kinetics is obtained by dilatometry. Silicon shows
more effective in retarding cementite precipitation than aluminum. Retained austenite occurs in
filmy constitution between BCC laths as well as blocky grains.
Quenching:- It is the process of rapidly cooling the metal from the solution or austenitizing
treating temperature, typically from within the range of 815˚C – 1100˚C (1500˚F to 2012˚F) for
steel. High-alloy and stainless steel may be quenched to minimize grain boar dray carbides or to
improve the ferrite distribution but most steel including carbon, low-alloy, and tool steel, are
quenched to produce controlled amounts of martensite in the microstructure. Successful hardened
usually means achieving the required microstructure, hardness, or toughness while minimizing
residual stress, distortion, and the possibility of cracking.
The a quench medium is usually a liquid such as water and depends on the harden-ability of the
particular alloy, the section thickness and shape involved, and the cooling rates needed to achieve
the desired microstructure. The most common quench media are either liquid or gases.
The liquid quench commonly used include:
 Oil that may contain a variety of additives
 Located liquid polymers
 Water that may contain salt or caustic additives
28
Gas type quench medians may also be used, such as inert gases including helium, argon, and nitrogen.
These quench gasses are sometimes used after austenitizing in a vacuum.
The ability of a quench to harden steel depends on the cooling characteristics of the quenching
medium validity and quantity. Quenching effectiveness is dependent on the steel chemical
composition, type of quench or the quench use conditions. The design of the quenching system and
the thoroughness with which the system is maintained also contribute to the success of the process.
The reason of the quenching system process is to cool steel from the austenitizing temperature quickly
enough to form the desire microstructural phases, sometimes bainite but often martensite. The basic
quench function is to control the rate of heat transfer from the surface of the part being quenched.
Quenching process:
The rate of heat extraction by a quenching medium and the way it is used substantially affects quench
performance. Variations in quenching partices have resulted in the assignment of specific names ti
some quenching techniques-
 Direct quenching
 Time quenching
 Selective quenching
 Spray quenching
 Fog quenching
 Interrupted quenching
Expected outcomes: Students will able to understand hardening of steel and effect of
quenching medium on hardness.
29
VIVA VOCE
1. What do you understand by cooling medium?
2. What is rapid cooling?
3. What is hardening?
30
EXPERIMENT 6 (a)
Objective:
To conduct tensile test in ductile material and to determine the following;
(i) Ultimate tensile stress (UTS)
(ii) Yield stress (YS)
(iii) Breaking stress
(iv) % Elongation
(v) Youngs modulus (E)
(vi) % Reduction in area
Theory:
The tensile test is widely used to provide basic design information on the strength of
materials and as acceptance test for specification of materials. In the tensile test, a tensile
specimen as per agreed standard is subjected to continually increasing uni-axial tensile force
while simultaneous observations are made of the constructed from the load, elongation
measurement. The following parameters are found from stress-strain curves.
(i) Elastic limit: The limiting load beyond which the material no longer behaves elastically
(recovery of original dimensions when load is removed).
(ii) Ultimate tensile stress: Maximum load divided by the original cross sectional area of
specimen.
(iii) Yield stress: Stress required producing a small specified permanent deformation (0.2 %
permanent strain)
(iv) % Elongation: It is measured of ductility of material. It is obtained by measuring the

difference in length before fracture & after fracture & dividing by the original length.
(v) Modulus of elasticity: It is a measure of stiffness of material. The greater the modulus
the smaller the elastic strain from the given application of stress. The slope of the initial
position of stress-strain curve is the modulus of elasticity or Youngs modulus.
Equipment required:
(i) Universal testing machine
(ii) Tensile test specimens
(iii) Extensometer dial gauge
31
(iv) Steel scale, Vernier caliper
(v) Support blocks
Fig. Universal testing machine
1. Upper cross head
2. Extensometer with dial gauge
3. Tensile specimen
4. Inter mediate cross head
5. Bottom cross head
6. Load dial gauge
7. Speed control valves
Procedure:
1. Measure the initial diameter (D1) and mark the initial gauge length (L1) on the specimen.
32
2. Fix the upper end of the specimen inside the shackles of the upper cross head and bring the
shackle of the intermediate cross head into contact with bottom of the specimen and the
bottom end is fixed inside the shackle.
3. Mount the extensometer dial gauge (L.C.= 0.01 mm) on the lower cross head bring the
indicator of external dial gauge, elongation scale and load dial gauge to zero reading .
4. Start the machine and note the elongation (count the number of division on dial gauge ×
L.C.).
5. When the load crosses the elastic point or yield point (this could be observed by the rapid
movement of indicator of the extensometer dial gauge) note the reading on the elongation
scale. Continue loading decreases the area of specimen and fails at particular load. Note the
breaking load and elongation.
6. Plot a graph of load V/s elongation. The results are tabulated as given below.
Expected outcomes:
Table of tensile test result:
Table 1
S. No. Material Initial Initial Final Final Original Final

gauge diameter gauge diameter cross area A2
length (L1) (D1) mm length (D2) mm section mm2
mm (L2) mm area A1
mm2
1.
2.
3.
33
Table 2
S. No. Load (N) Elongation Actual Stress = Strain = Youngs

(No. of reading Load / ∆L / L1 modulus
division n × L.C. Original E = Stress /
‘n’ of dial mm ∆L cross Strain
gauge) section area N/mm2
N/mm2
1.
2.
3.
Precautions:
1. The rate of loading should be uniform to get correct value of various parameters.
2. The machine (UTM) should be calibrated if deviations are found out.
Calculation:
Initial diameter of specimen = D1 mm
Final diameter of specimen = D2 mm
Initial gauge length = L1 mm
Final gauge length = L2 mm
Initial area of specimen (A1) = πD21/4 mm2

Final area of specimen (A2) = πD22/4 mm2
( L2 – L 1 )
% Elongation = × 100
L1
34
A 1− A 2
% Reduction in area = × 100
A1
Yield stress = Yield load / Original area of cross section, N/mm2
Ultimate tensile stress = Maximum load / Original area of cross-section, N/mm 2
Breaking stress or Failure stress = Breaking load / Original area of cross-section, N/mm2
Practical importance:
The basic data on mechanical properties of a ductile metal are from a tension test, in which a
suitably designed specimen is subjected to increasing axial load until it fractures. The general
behavior of materials under load can be classified as ductile or brittle depending on whether
or not the material exhibits the ability to undergo plastic deformation. Yielding occurs when
elastic limit has been exceeded and produces permanent change of shape which may prevent
the part for functioning properly and longer. In ductile metal under static loading condition,
yielding rarely results in fracture because the metal strain hardens as it deforms.
Comment by student:
35
EXPERIMENT 6 (b)
Objective:
To conduct compression test on brittle materials.
Theory:
There will be no change in cross section or height of specimen. On reaching the max
compression load, the specimen suddenly fractures.
Equipment required:
1. Universal testing machine
2. Cylindrical test specimen
4. Vernier calipers
5. Compression plates (top and bottom)
Procedure:
1. Fix the lower and upper compression plate above the bottom cross head and below the
intermediate cross head.
2. Measure the initial diameter (D1).
3. Place the compression specimen at the center of bottom plate and bring the top of
specimen in contact with the top plate by moving the intermediate cross head downwards.
5. Load the specimen in intervals of 200 kg for brittle material like cast iron. The experiment
is continued till the specimen attains max load for fracture.
Expected outcome:
Table:
S. No. Material Initial Failure load
cross-sectional area(A1) F
1.
2.
3.
Calculation:
36
Initial diameter of specimen: D1
π 2
Initial area of specimen (A1): D
4
Maximum compressive stress at failure: Failure load / A1 (N/mm2)
Comment by student:
EXPERIMENT 6(c)
37
Objective:
To determine ultimate shear strength in single & double shear for ductile material.
Theory:
Shear stress is caused by a force which acts parallel to an area of cross section and tends to
produce sliding of one portion with respect to another portion. If the force is resisted by
failure through a single area then the material is said to be in single shear. If two areas resist
the fracture, then the material is said to be in double shear.
In single shear, shear strength = failure load / area of cross section of specimen
In double shear, shear strength = failure load / (2 × area of cross section of specimen)
Equipment required:
1. Universal testing machine
2. Shear shackles for single and double shear
3. Vernier/Micrometer
4. Shear specimen
Procedure:
38
1. The diameter of specimen is measured using Vernier / Micrometer.
2. The specimen is then inserted inside appropriate shear shackles and the specimen with
shackles is placed inside the shear center plate.
3. The entire assembly is placed on the lower cross head of UTM.
4. The adjustable intermediate cross head is then moved down till it makes contact with the
top of the center plate.
5. The machine is started and the load is applied gradually.
6. The load at which two specimen brakes in single shear / double shear is recorded from the
load dial gauge.
7. The reading is tabulated as shown.
Expected outcomes:
Table of results:
S. No. Material Area of Max. Shear load Max. Shear strength

cross- (N) N/mm2
section
(mm2) Single Double Single Double
1.
2.
3.
Calculation:
In single shear, shear strength = 4P/ пd2
2
In double shear, shear strength = 2P/пd
Where d = diameter of specimen in mm, P = failure load in N
Comment by student:
EXPRIMENT 6 (d)
39
Objective:
Study of torsional testing machine and to determine
(A) Torsional shear strength (T)
(B) Modulus of rigidity of the material (G)
Apparatus:
1. A torsion testing machine equipped with ‘angle of twist’ measuring system.
2. Torsion testing specimen.
Torsion Test:
A torsion testing test commonly measures the following five properties:
(a) Modulus of rigidity which is the ratio of the shear stress to the shear strain, while the
material is in the elastic state.
(b) Limit of proportionality which is determined by plotting a torque-twist curve, similar to

the stress strain curve in tensile testing.
(c)The maximum torque which is the greatest force used to twist the object before the
proportional limit is reached. It occurs well before the fracture point.
(d) The modulus of rapture which is the point at which nominal surface stress occurs. It is
calculated from the normal elastic formula as through all the material being tested remained
elastic throughout the test.
(e) The total twist for fracture which is formed as the total number of twist or parts of a
recorded on a scale?
Torsion test is carried out on a torsion testing machine; the twisting action is applied to one
end of the test piece while the other end of the test piece is held stationary.
A turning or twisting movement at the fixed end of the test piece is registered by a system
provided along with the machine.
Small, hand operated machine are used for test on small test pieces. When materials in larger
sizes are tested, a motor-driven test machine is used.
40
Fig. 1
Theory:
The ability of a material to resist twisting moment (torque) is determined by a torsion test. In
torsion test, the specimen of a solid circular section is taken. It is held in a torsion testing
machine at one end and the other end is given the torque .this torque causes twist in the
specimen.
In the fig 1, the twist is shown by deformed dotted lines, which were rectangular grids before
application of torque. The torque is increased gradually and the corresponding angle of twist
(q) is measured. The angle of twist is measured by a graduated dial different values of torque.
The shear strain (Y) can be calculated by:
Y = S/Lu = rq
where;
S= the unit shearing displacement in unit length (Lu)
Lu= unit length of rectangular grid,
R= outer radius of a solid shaft,
q=the angle of twist per unit length.
41
Fig.2
The torque is read on the dial of the machine from the observed data. The torque v/s twist
diagram is plotted as shown in fig 3. Its variation is linear up to point A which implies that
the elastic limit is A.
Fig.3
Torsion Testing Machine:

The torsion testing machine is designed for conducting torsion tests on metal and other hard
material. The torque applied on the specimen is measured by a pendulum dynamometer and
the angle of twist by an angle –measuring disc. The machine is basically consists of two units
i.e., driving unit and measuring unit joined together on a frame.
42
43
(A) Driving unit: The unit consists of a gear motor and worms and worm gear reduction
gear box. The motor unit is mounted on the top of the gear box and connected through a
chain and sprocket assembly. The worm gear shaft carries a spring loaded angel measuring
disc and driving chuck. This chuck is suitable for holding test specimen. The assembly of
motor and reduction gear is mounted on a trolley, which is supported on four ball bearings,
which move in the guides of the machine frame. On the rear side of the reduction gear box, a
wire rope is attached which moves down over a pulley and arrives a weight underneath the
frame to apply tension load on the specimen during the test. A removable handle is provided
to rotate the motor shaft during specimen mounting operation.
(B) Measuring panel: The driven chuck, having a square opening to accommodate the test
specimen is mounted on a pivot shaft supported on a ball bearings fixed in a housing clamped
to the measuring panel. On the other side of the pivot shaft inside the panel a torque
balancing mechanism, consisting a knife edge .V-block, yoke hangers and a lever are
mounted. A pendulum dynamometer is connected to this mechanism to measure torque. A set
of annular weights (3 parts for a 3 range machine) is provided for this pendulum to select the
desired range of the machine. The movement of the pendulum is transmitted to the dialer
point through a rack and pinion mechanism to show the torque applied on the specimen. The
position of the knife edge etc on the pendulum drive mechanism should never be disturb as
till lead to error in calibration of the machine. The damper is provided in the dynamometer
mechanism to protect it when sudden shock load caused, because of breakage of test
specimen on load. The damper allows the pendulum to return to its normal position slowly.
A torque indicating dial is mounted on the front side of the measuring panel. The range
setting dial located at the backside of the torque indicating dial is to be adjusted to particular
range depending upon the weight placed on the dynamometer pendulum. It is done by
moving the range selector lever.
Procedure:
1. Note down the gauge length and diameter of test piece.
2. Now fix the torsion specimen in the specimen holders of the machine.
3. Adjust the torque range scale by moving the range selector lever.
4. Adjust the driving mechanism with the help of geared motor handle and select the
direction of motor rotation also.
5. Now start the motor. Thus the test piece is twisted.
6. Take different readings of yield point by indication of torque (load) pointer.
7. Now continue the torque application till the specimen fractures and take readings at
certain interval.
8. Repeat above steps for another test specimen.
Observation:
1. Torque range=………. Kg-cm
2. diameter of specimen (d) =……. mm
44
3. gauge length of specimen = …… mm

Expected Outcomes:
S. No. Torque(T) Angel of twist Torsional shear Modulus of

(Kg-cm) Degree radian stress(t) rigidity(G)
(kg/mm²)
Calculations:
From the observed data, a plot T-q curve is drawn. The effect of torque is to create shear
stress in the specimen.
(A) The torsional shear stress (t)
t = 16T/Õd³
Where t= Torsional shear stress (kg/cm²) or (kg/mm2)
T= torque (kg-cm) or (kg-mm)
d= outer diameter of the circular specimen (cm)
(B) The modulus of rigidity of the material (G)

T/J= t/R= Gq/L
G=TL/Jq
Where J=section modulus=Õd4/34(polar moment of inertia)
q= angel of twist (radian)
L=gauge length of the specimen (cm)
Comments by Student:
45
VIVA VOCE
1. What is the significance of tensile testing?
2. Which property in a tension test is an indication of stiffness of material?
3. Define the term: Elastic limit, Yield point, Resistance and Toughness
4. What is breaking stress? How it is different from maximum stress?
5. What is the difference between proportionality limit and elastic limit?
6. State Hooke’s law.
7. Draw the compression Vs strain of brittle material & ductile material and indicate the
differences.
8. List some uses of the compression test.
9. Explain compression fracture of mild steel and cast iron.
10. Why is compression test is difficult to perform compare to tension test?
11. What is significance of shear testing?
12. Give 3 examples of shear load in mechanical engineering application.
46
EXPERIMENT 7
Objective:
To perform Rockwell & Brinell hardness testing on the given specimens.
Theory:
Hardness: The ability of a material to withstand scratching, wear and abrasion, or
penetration by a harder body is known as its hardness.
The fundamental physics of hardness is not clearly understood. A number of different

arbitrary ‘definitions’ of hardness form the basis for the various hardness tests in use. Hence,
the information convey by a hardness test depends upon the definition of hardness upon
which that test is based. Some of these are:-
(i) Indentation hardness: Resistance to permanent indentation under static or dynamic

loads.
(ii) Rebound hardness: Energy absorption under impact loads
(iii) Scratch hardness: Resistance to scratching
(iv) Wear hardness: Resistance to abrasion
(v) Hardness concerning machinability: Resistance to cutting or drilling
Hardness tests:
(A) Indentation or Penetration tests:
(1) Brinell hardness test: For determining hardness of metallic materials, to check the
quality level of product or uniformity of samples of a metal, or uniformity of the results after
some treatment on the metal. This test is not recommended for extremely hard metals.
(2) Rockwell hardness test: This test is used in situation similar to Brinell test but mostly
used when a quick and direct reading is desirable. This test is also applicable for the testing of
materials having hardness beyond the scope of Brinell test.
(3) Vickers hardness test: This test is used when a very accurate results of hardness
regarding metals needed as for research work. It is slow as compared to Rockwell test. It may
be used to determine hardness of metals varying in thickness from thin sheets to large
sections.
(4) Knoop’s Hardness test: In situations demanding determination of hardness of a metal

over a very small area and that would produce a small indentation such as thin sheets, plated
surfaces, exceptionally hard and brittle materials, very shallow-carburized or nitride surfaces.
47
(5) Monotron Hardness Test: In situations demanding quick hardness determination of both
metallic and non-metallic surfaces especially over the entire range of hardness of metals.
(B) Scratch Tests:
(1) Moh’s hardness test: The Moh’s scale of mineral hardness is a qualitative ordinal scale
characterizing scratch resistance of various minerals through the ability of harder material to
scratch softer material.
(2) Turner’s sclerometer hardness test: The sclerometer also known as the Turner
sclerometer is an instrument used to measure the scratch hardness of materials. This test
consists of microscopically measuring the width of a scratch made by diamond under a fixed
load, and drawn across the face of the specimen under fixed conditions.
Apparatus:
1. Rockwell & Brinell hardness tester
2. Different types of weights (60 kg,100kg,150kg,187.5kg,250kg)
3. Indenter:
- 1/16” ball indenter (For RHB Scale)
- Diamond indenter 1200 (For RHA, RHC scale)
- 2.5mm diameter Ball indenter (for Brinell P/D² =30)
- 5.0mm diameter ball indenter (for Brinell P/D² =10)
4. Brinell microscope
Procedure:
(A) Brinell Hardness Test:
1. Specimen is placed on the anvil, the hand wheel is rotate so the specimen along with the
anvil moves up and contacts with the ball.
2. The desired load is applied hydraulically (by oil pressure) and the ball presses into the
specimen.
3. The diameter of the indentation made in the specimen by the pressed ball is measured by
the use of micrometer microscope having a transparent engraved scale in the field of view.
4. The indentation diameter is measured at two places at right angles to each other, and the
average of the two readings is taken.
5. The Brinell hardness number (BHN) which is the pressure-per unit surface area of the
indentation in kg/m² is calculated as follows:-
48
BHN =Load/(Area of impression/indentation)
=2P / [πD {D-√(D²-d²)}]
Where,
P = Load applied on indenter (kg)
D = diameter of ball (mm)
d = diameter of indentation (mm)
NOTE:
(1) Load applied (P) for steel ball dia. 2.5 mm & F/D²=30 condition is 187.5 kg [i.e. P=187.5
kg, D=2.5 mm]
(2) Load applied (P) for steel ball dia. 5.0 mm & F/D²=10 condition is 250 kg [i.e. P=250 kg,
D=5.0 mm]
(B) Rockwell Hardness Test:
1. Specimen is placed upon the machine anvil.
2. Hand wheel is turned, thereby raising the test piece up against the indenter till the needle
on dial reads zero. This applies minor load. (Here minor load=10kg)
3. Major load is applied by pressing the crank provided on the right-hand side of the machine.
4. Crank is turned in the reverse direction thereby withdrawing major load but leaving minor
load applied.
5. Hand wheel is rotated and the test piece (specimen) is lowered. At this stage, the hardness
of the test piece material can be directly read from the dial scale.
NOTE:-
1. There are two scales on a Rockwell testing machine, i.e. B-scale and C-scale. B-scale uses
a steel ball intender whereas a diamond cone penetrator is employed for measuring hardness
on C-scale.
2. B-scale is for testing materials of medium hardness such as low and medium carbon steels
in the annealed condition. The working range of this scale is from 0-100.
3. C-scale is used for testing materials harder than B-scale (RHB-100). C-scale is commonly
used for testing the hardness of alloy cast irons.
4. In Rockwell hardness testing, the minor load for all cases is 10 kg whereas major loads are
changes for both B-scale and C-scale.
Use of Brinell microscope:
49
The microscope is simple and meant for measurement of the diameter of the ball impression
when conducting Brinell hardness test. The microscope is kept over the ball impression in the
test piece. The diameter of the impression can be measured with the microscope by gradually
focusing and obtaining sharp image for accurate reading. After measuring the diameter of the
impression, the concerned table may be referred and the appropriate hardness number
obtained from the table as per scale.
(B) Rockwell Hardness Test:
1. Successive impressions should not be superimposed on one another nor be made too close
together when making hardness determinations.
2. Measurement should not be made too close to the edge, or on a specimen so thin that the
impression comes through the other side.
3. The care required in preparing the surface is greater for Rockwell than for the Brinell test
because of smaller Rockwell impression.
4. The surface of the specimen should be flat and free from spring action.
5. Since impression is small it is desirable to take several readings in order to get a

representative value for hardness.
Precautions:-
(A) Brinell Hardness Test:
1. The Brinell test should be performed on smooth, flat specimens from whom dirt and scale
have been cleaned.
2. Successive impressions made too close to one another tend to produce high readings
(unless there is overlapping) because of work hardening.
3. The test should not be made on the specimens so thin that the impression shows through
the metal nor should impressions made too close to the edge of a specimen.
Expected Outcomes:
Brinell hardness no. of given specimen is……………….
Rockwell hardness no. of given specimen is………………….
Practical Importance:
Using the Rockwell Hardness Test for Metal Applications. A metal's hardnessindicates its
resistance to permanent shape changes when a compressive force is applied. Naturally, it is
50
an important characteristic, and measuring hardness enables a manufacturer to choose an

appropriate material for an application.
The Brinell hardness test method as used to determine Brinell hardness, is defined in
ASTM E10. Most commonly it is used to test materials that have a structure that is too coarse
or that have a surface that is too rough to be tested using another test method, e.g., castings
and forgings.
Comments by Student:
51
VIVA VOCE
1. What is Hardness?
2. What is the significance of minor load in Rockwell method of hardness testing?
3. What are the advantages and limitations of Rockwell method of hardness testing?
4. Where are Rockwell hardness test and Brinell hard test employed?
5. Which method hardness is employed to check hardness of thin strips?
52
EXPERIMENT 8
Objective:
To determine the impact energy and specific impact factor for ductile materials such as mild
steel by conducting:
(i) Charpy impact test
(ii) Izod impact test
Theory:
Impact test is done to determine the behavior of ductile material such as mild steel,
aluminium, copper etc., when subjected to high rates of sudden loading. It measures the
energy absorbed in breaking the specimen by a single blow or impact. Notched bar impact
test uses a test specimen having a notch which is supported as a beam and subjected to
impact from a moving mass having sufficient kinetic energy to break the specimen. The
energy absorbed by the specimen is measured by the loss in kinetic energy of moving mass.
Charpy Impact Test:

Specimen with U notch supported at both ends as a single beam is broken by a falling
pendulum striking the face opposite to and immediately behind the notch. The energy
absorbed by specimen is determined by subsequent rise of pendulum as a measure of impact
strength or notch toughness and expressed as Joules J (N/mm2).
Izod Impact Test:

Specimen with V notch is fixed at one end which acts like a cantilever and broken by a
falling pendulum striking the face having the V- notch. The energy absorbed is determined by
the rise of pendulum as a measure of impact strength and expressed as Joules.
Equipment:
1. Charpy /Izod impact testing machine
2. Charpy impact testing specimen with U-groove
3. Izod impact test specimen with V-groove
4. Vernier scale
53
Fig. Pendulum impact testing machine
Fig. Specimens and Loading configurations for

(a) Charpy test and (b) Izod Test
54
Procedure:
1. Raise the pendulum and fix it to the pendulum notch, place a thick wooden plank on the
stand below the pendulum pipe.
2. Keep the reading pointer at 300 J on the outer scale (max reading for Charpy test) & 164 J
on the inner scale (max reading for Izod test). Release the Charpy/Izod lever and allow the
pendulum to swing freely. Arrest the movement of pendulum by applying the pendulum
brake. See the indicator reading so that it will be zero. If not there will be zero error.
3. Now again raise the pendulum & fix it.
4. Now fix the specimen inside the clamping device as follows. Charpy- specimen should be
kept as simply supported beam with the U-notch being opposite to direction of pendulum
movement. For Izod test the specimen is placed vertical such that V-notch is just above the
horizontal surface of clamping device and the notch is facing the pendulum. Fix the specimen
firmly which should act as cantilever, by tightening clamping screws.
5. After ascertaining that there are no persons in the range of swinging pendulum, operate the
Charpy/Izod lever. Now the pendulum will swing freely and the specimen will be smashed.
6. Stop the swinging pendulum by applying the pendulum break.
7. Note the reading on the dial corresponding to the pointer. Readings to be taken start from
zero reading on the scale. The value gives the impact energy directly in joules. Specific
impact factor is calculated by dividing impact energy by cross section area below respective
notches.
Expected Outcomes:
Table: Measurement of impact energy & specific impact factor
Charpy impact Test
S.No. Material Breadth Depth below Cross-section area Impact Specific

b1 (mm) the notch d1 below the notch Energy I1 Impact
(mm) A1 b×d (mm2) ( Joules) factor = I1/A1
J/mm2
1.
2.
3.
55
Izod impact test
S.No. Material Breadth Depth below Cross-section area Impact Specific

b2 (mm) the notch d2 below the notch A2 Energy I2 ( Impact factor
(mm) b×d (mm2) Joules) = I2/A2 J/mm2
1.
2.
3.
Precaution:
The notch shall be carefully prepared so that no grooves appear at the base of the notch.
Notched bar impact tests are used to determine tendency of a material to behave in a brittle
manner. The results obtained help in selecting materials which are resistant to brittle fracture
by means of transition temperature curves (variation of impact strength v/s temperature).
56
Viva Voce
1. What is ductile to brittle transition and how it is checked?
2. For impact test, why are notched specimen used?
3. Discuss the significance of impact tests compared to static tests.
4. What is meant by notch sensitivity?
5. What are the differences between Charpy and Izod test?
6. In what units are results of impact test usually given?
7. Which physical property of material is determined by means of impact test?
8. Explain impact fracture in case of ductile material.
57
EXPERIMENT 9
Objectives:
To study and perform Fatigue test on a given material and to determine fatigue strength of the
material.
Theory:
Failure due to repeatedly applied load is known as fatigue. The physical effect of a repeated
load on a material is different from that of a static load. Failure always being brittle fracture
regardless of whether the material is brittle or ductile. Mostly fatigue occurs at stress well
below the static elastic strength of the material. If the applied load changes from any
magnitude in one direction to the same magnitude in the opposite direction, the loading is
termed completely reversed, whereas if the load changes from one magnitude to another (the
direction does not necessarily change), the load is said to be a fluctuating load.
A specimen of circular cross-section is held at its ends in special holders and loaded
through 2 bearings equidistant from the center of the span. Equal loads on these bearings are
applied by means of weights that produce a uniform bending moment in the specimen
between the loaded bearings. The specimen is rotated by a motor. Since the upper fibers in
tension, it is apparent that a complete cycle of reversed stress in all fibers of the beam is
produced during each revolution. A revolution counter is used to find the number of cycles
the specimen is repeatedly subjected to the load. For simply supported beam, maximum
bending moment is at the centre. Bending moment M=F×L/4 and bending stress σ =M/Z
where L is the length of the specimen and Z is the sectional modulus. In rotating cantilever
beam type, the specimen is rotated while a gravity load is applied to the free end by means of
a bearing. For cantilever specimen the maximum bending moment is at the fixed end,
M=F×L and σ =M/Z.
The testing technique is subjected to a series of identical specimens to loads of different

magnitude and note the number of cycles of stress (or load) N necessary to fracture the
specimen. The data are plotted on a graph sheet, the stress S being plotted on y-axis and the
number of cycles N on X-axis. This is known as stress-cycle (S-N) diagram and the fatigue
limit can be determined from the diagram. Fatigue limit or endurance limit is the stress below
which a material can be stressed cyclically an indefinitely large number of times without
failure. The fatigue strength is the stress at which a metal fails by fatigue after a certain
number of cycles.
58
Specimens:
All specimens should be taken from the same rod; each specimen should receive same kind
of machining and heat treatment. The specimens for tests of the metal have no sharp stress
raisers. The surface of the specimen is polished.
Fracture Appearance:
Under repeated loading, a small crack forms in a region of high localized stress, and very
high stress concentration accompanies the crack. As the load fluctuates, the crack opens and
insufficient cross section left to carry the load and the member ruptures, the failure being
fatigue failure. Therefore fractured surface shows two surfaces of distinctly different
appearance.
(a) A smooth surface where the crack has spread slowly, and the walls of the crack are
polished by repeated opening and closing. This surface usually shows characteristic beach or
clam shell markings.
(b) A crystalline or fibrous surface where sudden failure occurred.
Equipment required:
1. Fatigue testing machine
2. Micrometer caliper
Procedure:
59
1. Measure the diameter d and the length L of the specimen.
2. Securely fasten the specimen in the chucks of the testing machine.
3. Set the load and check whether the counter is set to zero or not, then start the machine.
4. Note the number of cycles N, the specimen experiences before fracture.
5. Repeat the above test on the other specimens with gradually reduced loads.
6. Draw the S-N diagram and obtain the endurance limit.
Observations:
Material =
Diameter =
Length of the specimen L (mm) =
Section modulus Z (mm3) = πd3/32
Expected outcomes:
60
S.No. Load F No. of Cycles, Bending moment Stress σ = M/Z
(N) N M = (F×L)/4 N/mm2
N-mm
1.
2.
3.
Usually the purpose of a fatigue test is to determine the lifespan that may be expected from a
material subjected to cyclic loading
EXPERIMENT 10
61
Objective:
To perform Bending test and to determine the Young’s Modulus of Elasticity via deflection
of beam.
Theory:
If forces act on a piece of material in such a way that they tend to induce compressive stresses
over one part of a cross section of the piece and tensile stresses over the remaining part, the
piece is said to be in bending. The common illustration of bending action is a beam acted on
by a transverse loads; bending can also be caused by moments or couples such as from
eccentric loads parallel to longitudinal axis of a piece.
In structures and machine, bending may be accompanied by direct stress, transverse shear or
torsional shear. For convenience, however, bending stresses may be considered separately
and in tests to determine the behavior of materials in bending, attention is usually confined to
beams.
M σ E
Euler’s equation for bending stress: = =
I y R
Where; M = Max. bending moment
I = Moment of inertia
σ = Bending stress
E = Elastic modulus
R = Radius of curvature of neutral fibre
y = Distance of a fibre from neutral axis
The modulus of elasticity is calculated as follows:
The maximum deflection for a point load acting at the center of the beam is given by
δ = WL3/ 4EI or E = WL3/ 48 δI
Procedure:
1. The length, breadth and depth of the specimen were measured.
2. The specimen was placed on the UTM platform and on simply supported position.
3. The top platform of UTM was brought down such that the load was applied at the centre of
the specimen.
62
4. Before the application of the load the dial gauge was fixed to measure the deflection.
5. The load was applied in increment of 200Kg and the deflection in the dial gauge was noted
until the specimen fails.
6. The graph of load Vs deflection is plotted, and w/ δ was obtained from the initial linear
portion of the curve.
Observations:
Breadth of specimen, b = …………………..mm
Depth of specimen, d = …………………..mm
Length of specimen, L = …………………..mm
Calculations:
Maximum bending stress, σb = 3WmaxL / 2bd2 N/mm2
Moment of Inertia, I = bd3/ 12 mm4
Modulus of elasticity E = WL3/48 δI
From graph of load vs deflection, W/δ is found out.
Table of load vs deflection
S. No. Load in Deflection in Deformation in
63
kg N dial indicator mm × least count
1.
2.
3.
Expected outcomes:
The maximum bending stress for the given specimen = …………………………..
The modulus of elasticity of the material = …………………………
EXPERIMENT 11
64
Objective:
Creep testing on creep testing machine.
Theory:
Creep is defined as time-dependent plastic deformation (elongation) of the metal at a constant
tensile load. It is also defined as high temperature progressive deformation at constant stress.
"High temperature" is a relative term dependent upon the materials involved. Creep rates are
used in evaluating materials for boilers, gas turbines, jet engines, ovens, or any application
that involves high temperatures. Understanding high temperature behavior of metals is useful
in designing failure resistant systems. A creep test can be studied by measuring
the permanent extension, after various time intervals of test-pieces maintained at a constant
temperature.
Measurements of strain are then recorded over a period of time as in figure 1. After the
initial instantaneous extension, it shows that creep occurs in three stages:
Stage 1 (Primary creep): This stage occurs at the beginning of the tests, and creep is mostly
transiently, not at a steady rate. Resistance to creep increases until stage 2 (secondary creep)
is reached.
Stage 2 (Secondary creep): The rate of creep becomes roughly steady. This stage is often
referred to as steady state creep.
Stage 3 (Tertiary creep) : The creep rate begins to accelerate as the cross sectional area of the
specimen decreases due to necking or internal voiding decreases the effective area of the
specimen. If stage 3 is allowed to proceed, fracture will occur.
In many cases, the three parts of the curve are not clearly distinguishable. To obtain a
complete picture of the creep properties of a material, it is necessary to construct creep curves
for a range of stresses over a range of temperature. Such curves as shown in Figure 2 usually
show that, as the applied stress decreases the primary creep is also decreases, secondary creep
is prolonged, and the possible extension during tertiary creep tends to increase. Very low
applied stress may mean that tertiary creep did not occur even after lengthy service life.
65
Specimen and Equipment

1. Creep measurement apparatus
2. Vernier caliper
3. Stopwatch
4. Specimens - plastic
Procedure:
1. The original gauge length, thickness and width of the specimen was measured and
recorded in the table.
2. Then, the maximum load that can withstand by the specimen was measured.
3. The force lower than maximum load of the specimen was used in the creep test.
4. After that, specimen was placed to the creep test machine to obtain the result.
5. The force-time graph of creep test been observed on the monitor of the test’s equipment.
6. Step 3 to step 5 was repeated until the typical creep curve of strain versus time at constant
stress was obtained.
7. When the typical creep curve of strain versus time at constant stress was obtained, the
machine was been stopped.
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8. The result and graph obtained had been saved and recorded.
Expected Outcomes:
67
68
One of the error occurred when doing the experiment is that the size measure and the real size
of the specimen is not precise, thus making the error happen. Another factor that most likely
to cause the experiment to has an error from the theory result is that the specimen is not
carefully cut from its required shape. It make the specimen have a small unnecessary cut that
make the specimen comes to fracture stage faster than usual.
Moreover, temperature of the surrounding also affects the experimental result. This
is because at high temperatures the entire creep process can occur in a matter of seconds.
69
EXPERIMENT 12
Objective:
To study the spring testing machine and determine –
a) Max torque (T)
b) Max shear stress (fs)
c) Spring index(c)
d) Stiffness of spring (k)
e) Modulus of rigidity of spring material (G)
Resources required:
1. string testing machine
2. open coiled helical spring (compression type)
3. closed coil helical spring
4. scale (mounted on spring testing machine)
5. vernier caliper
Theory:
1. Stiffness of spring (k):- spring stiffness is defined as load that causes unit deflection
k=w/δ
Where k=spring stiffness (kg/mm)
w= applied load (kg)
δ=deflection (mm)
The nature of load vs deflection curve decides whether the behavior of spring is linear or non
linear. Mostly closed coiled helical spring have linear nature.
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2. Spring index(c):-
c=D/d
Where D=mean dist of coil spring
d=spring wire dist (mm)
c=spring index
3. Max shear stress:-
t=Π /16.d³.fs
Where t=w.r.
Fs= 16.t/Πd³
4. modulus of rigidity of spring (g):-
δ=64.w.R³.n/G.d³.d
δ= 64.w. (D/2)³.n/G.dd³
δ= 64.w.D³.n/8Gdd³
δ=8.w.D³.n/G.d.d³
δ=8w.c³n/Gd
G=8w.c³.n/δ
G=8.k.c³.n/d
Spring testing machine:
It is used for determining the behavior of spring while in compression or tension up to a max
capacity if 2000kg.
The machine consist of a base unit inside which is housed a weighting sys. The machine
consist steel closed head and steel base .the hydraulic jack of 10tone capacity is fixed to base.
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A dial in front of a base unit is a load indicator which indicates the load being applied to to
spring under test. The deformation undergone by spring can be observed from graduated
scale on which a pointer move in case spring being tested under compression, it is to be
placed between compression plates, and in case spring to be tested under tension it is located
under upper tension book and lower tension book.
Two vertical pillars are held by bracker supported a beam whose position can be altered, if
required. A pointer fixed on this beam slides over fixed scale.
The motorized pumping unit, which is of plunger type housed in the base unit and is driven
by a single phase 220v ac supply electric motor.
The pumping unit is a separate unit connected to the jack by means of [pressure tube. the
general construction of machine is robust and leak proof.
The machine is fitted with a handle wheel control marked slow and fast, which enables the
sale of aplplicati0n of load to be varied the machine is equipped with facilities for hand
pumping in case of [power failure.
72
Procedure:-
1. Note down the diameter of spring wire coil and no of turns for tension spring as well as for
compression spring
A. for testing a spring in compression:-
2. Make both the end of spring truly plane than place them centrally on lower plate.
3. Press the green button on starting switch and tighter the pressure control value
4. Now coil will start flowing into lower chamber of machine in which a top plate will rise
slowly. Release pressure slowly by unscrewing release value when the piston shell comes
down. Repeat the process 2 and 3 times.
5. Now check that load indicator reading and also reading on graduated scale.
6. Slowly increase load on spring by valve and note down reading of deformation with each
increment of load.
For testing spring in tension:-
1. Mount spring under test machine between upper n lower tension books.
2. Now repeat step 3 to5 as in compression test.
Observation table:-
For compression string:-
1. Mean coil diameter of string (D) =
2. Diameter of compression spring wire (d) =
3. Actual no of turn of spring (n) =
4. Active no of turns of spring (n’) = (n-1) =
5. Initial load (w)
6. Initial deflection (δ) =
73
S. Load Spring Spring Modulus of Deflection(δ) Max Max shear

no. index stiffness rigidity of mm torque stress
(w),kg
c=D/d k=w/δ spring material t=w.r f=16.t/Πd³
kg/mm G=8.k.c³.n/d kg mm²
Kg-mm
B) for tension spring;-
1. Mean coil diameter of spring (D) =
2. Diameter of tension spring wire (d) =
3. Actual no of turns (n) =
4. Actual no of turns (n) = (nact) =
S. Load Spring Spring Mod. Of Deflection(δ) Max Max shear

no. index stiffness rigidity of mm torque stress
(w),kg
c=D/d k=w/δ spring t=w.r f=16.t/Πd³
kg/mm material kg mm²
Kg-
G=8.k.c³.n/d
mm
Calculation:
74
For Tension Spring:
Di=
spring index c=D/d
Do=
spring stiffness k=w/δ kg/mm
D mean= (di+do)/2 =
Modulus of regidity (G) = 8.k.c³.n/d kg/mm2
Max torque T=w.r Kg-mm
d=
Max shear stress (fmax)=16.t/Πd³ kg mm²
For Compression Spring:
Di=
spring index(c)=D/d
Do=
spring stiffness k=w/δ kg/mm
Dmean=Di+Do/2 =
Modulus of regidity(g)=8.k.c³.n/d
d=
maximum torque(T)=W.R.
Max shear stress f=16.t/Πd³ k
Expected outcomes:
75
A) For Compression Spring
1. Spring index (c)=
2. Spring stiffness (k)=
3. Mod of reg(G)=
4. Max torque (T)=
5 Max shear stress (fmax)=
B) For Tension Spring:-
1. Spring index (c)=
2. Spring stiffness (k)=
3. Mod of reg(G)=
4. Max torque (T)=
5. Max shear stress(fmax)= 16.t/πd3 =
Precaution:
1.Keep the machine protected from dust and durt
2. Do not overload equipment
3. Level the test machine before starting using leveling screw
4.Use machine manually in case of power failure and avoid use of electric operation in case
of low or high voltage for safety of electric motor and other electric gadgets.
Comments by Students:
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Jaipur Engineering College & Research Centre Materials Testing Lab

Lab : MATERIALS TESTING LAB

Lab Code : 3ME4-22

Branch : MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Year : 2nd YEAR

Department of Mechanical Engineering

1. VISION & MISSION

 The Mechanical Engineering Department strives to be recognized globally for

 To impart quality technical knowledge to the learners to make them globally

2. PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES

1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

Materials Testing lab [3ME4-22]

Class: IIIrd Sem. B.Tech Branch: Mechanical Engineering

On successful completion of this course the students will be able to:

5. MAPPING OF COs with POs

MATERIALS TESTING LAB [3ME4-22]

Class: IIIrd Sem. II Year B. Tech. Evaluation

S.N. NAME OF EXPERIMENT

1. Vander Voort, Metallography Principles and Practice, McGraw-Hill, 1984

3. Suryanarayanan, A.V.K., Testing of Metallic materials, Tata McGraw Hill, 1993

8.1. Direct Instructions:

I. Black board presentation.

8.2. Interactive Instruction:

I. Practical on respective equipment.

9.1. Lab Manual

10. ASSESSMENT OF OUTCOMES

10.1 . End term Practical exam (Conducted by RTU, KOTA)

11. INSTRUCTIONS SHEET

2. Proper code of conduct and ethics must be followed in the lab.

6. Perform the experiment under the supervision/guidance of a lecturer/lab instructor only.

BEFORE ENTERING IN THE LAB

WHILE WORKING IN THE LAB

5. Concentrate on the assigned practical.

Introduction: In crystallography, crystal structure is a description of the ordered

Hexagonal Close Packed (HCP) Structure:

Fig. tetrahedral and octahedral voids

2. Differentiate between BCC, FCC, and HCP.

Equipments and materials required:-

2.Sample cutting equipment i.e. power hack saw.

Specimen preparation (known as polishing) is necessary to study its microstructure as

surface of a ferrous material, depth of corrosion, thickness of a protective coating etc.

For convenience, specimens to be polishedare generally not more than about 12 to 25 mm

Cutting of the specimen

Compared to grinding which is carried out on a belt, disc or surface sander,polishing is

1. What is fine grinding?

2. What is role of Emery paper for preparation of metallic sample?

Introduction: The examination of microstructure is one of the principal means of evaluating

Microstructure: Microstructure is defined as the structure of a prepared surface or thin foil

Microstructure Analysis of Aluminium

Microstructure Analysis of Gray Cast Iron

However, magnesium tends to encourage the precipitation of cementite, so silicon is also

Microstructure Analysis of Brass

Expected outcomes: Student will able to understand different microstructure of Aluminium,

Objective: Heat treatment experiments such as annealing, normalizing, quenching, case

Normalization is an annealing process applied to ferrous alloys to give the material a

Process annealing, also called intermediate annealing, subcritical annealing, Orin-process

In materials science, quenching is the rapid cooling of a work piece to obtain

In metallurgy, it is most commonly used to harden steel by introducing martensite, in

Carburizing: Carburizing is a process used to casehardening of steel with a carbon content

Liquid carburizing involves placing parts in a bath of a molten carbon-containing material,

2NaCNO + O2 → Na2CO3 +CO + N2

Carbonitriding is similar to cyaniding except a gaseous atmosphere of ammonia and

1. Why we done Heat Treatment of material?