Journal Pre-proof

Battery energy storage systems and SWOT (strengths, weakness, opportunities, and
threats) analysis of batteries in power transmission

A.G. Olabi, Tabbi Wilberforce, Enas Taha Sayed, Ahmed G. Abo-Khalil, Hussein M.
Maghrabie, Khaled Elsaid, Mohammad Ali Abdelkareem

PII: S0360-5442(22)00890-8
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2022.123987
Reference: EGY 123987

To appear in: Energy

Received Date: 2 January 2022

Revised Date: 26 March 2022
Accepted Date: 10 April 2022

Please cite this article as: Olabi AG, Wilberforce T, Sayed ET, Abo-Khalil AG, Maghrabie HM, Elsaid
K, Abdelkareem MA, Battery energy storage systems and SWOT (strengths, weakness, opportunities,
and threats) analysis of batteries in power transmission, Energy (2022), doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.energy.2022.123987.

This is a PDF file of an article that has undergone enhancements after acceptance, such as the addition
of a cover page and metadata, and formatting for readability, but it is not yet the definitive version of
record. This version will undergo additional copyediting, typesetting and review before it is published
in its final form, but we are providing this version to give early visibility of the article. Please note that,
during the production process, errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal
disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.

© 2022 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

 Credit Author Statement
All authors have contributed equally to this paper.

of
ro
-p
re
lP
na
ur
Jo
 Battery Energy Storage Systems and SWOT (Strengths, Weakness, Opportunities, and
Threats) Analysis of Batteries in Power Transmission
A. G. Olabi1,2,3*, Tabbi Wilberforce3*, Enas Taha Sayed4,5, Ahmed G. Abo-Khalil1, Hussein
M. Maghrabie6, Khaled Elsaid7, Mohammad Ali Abdelkareem1,2,5
1
Dept. of Sustainable and Renewable Energy Engineering, University of Sharjah, P.O. Box 27272, Sharjah,
United Arab Emirates
2
Sustainable Energy & Power Systems Research Centre, RISE, University of Sharjah, P.O. Box 27272, Sharjah,
United Arab Emirates
3
Mechanical Engineering and Design, Aston University, School of Engineering and Applied Science, Aston
Triangle, Birmingham, B4 7ET, UK
4
Center for Advanced Materials Research, University of Sharjah, PO Box 27272, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
5
Chemical Engineering Department, Minia University, Elminia, Egypt
6
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, South Valley University, Qena 83521, Egypt
7
Chemical Engineering Department, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843-3122, TX, US.
*Corresponding authors: A.G. Olabi (aolabi@sharjah.ac.ae) and T. Wilberforce (t.awotwe@aston.ac.uk)

f
oo
Abstract

r
-p
Sustainable energy storage medium has increased significantly in recent times. Air
re
contamination, which is widely considered to be harmful to an ecological niche, has fuelled the
growth of sustainable energy sources. On the other hand, adopting sustainable energy
lP

technology can create significant issues for keeping the grid stable. With variations in the
output of renewable energy sources, storage is essential for power and voltage balancing.
na

Storage of electricity is necessary for energy management, frequency control, peak shaving,
load balancing, periodic storage, and backup production in the event of a power outage. As a
ur

result, storage technologies have received increasing attention and have evolved into something
Jo

more than a need in today's world. This article provides a thorough assessment of battery
energy storage systems. In addition to describing the features and capabilities of each type of
battery storage technology, it also discusses the benefits and drawbacks of each innovation
when contrasted to other storage mediums. There are comparative charts with many features
of each storage technique provided and descriptions of the various uses of energy storage
methods. Furthermore, The current work discussed the batteries' strengths, weaknesses,
opportunities, and threats (SWOT) analysis in power transmission.

Keywords: Battery Energy Storage, Renewable Energy, SWOT Analysis, Environmental

Pollution.

1
1. Introduction
The world continues to explore other viable media of power generation due to the current
depletion of fossil reserves and challenges that comes thereof. Issues in relation to the BP –
Gulf oil spill coupled with the clarion call for a total decline in toxic gaseous emissions have
all contributed to the need for an alternative to fossil commodities [1, 2]. The economy of all
vibrant countries across the globe revolves around the medium at which energy demand for the
country is harnessed. Fossil fuel in the late 1970s was the backbone for most emerging
economies. Oil, coal, and gas were the key medium of harnessing approximately 85 percent of
energy for various applications [3]. Today the demand for energy has skyrocketed due to
growth in population for most countries worldwide coupled with the industrial revolution [4,

f
oo
5]. This high demand for energy directly correlates to the depletion of the ozone layer, leading
to global warming and water and air pollution, which directly affects human health [6, 7]. It’s

r
been reported that the carbon dioxide concentration from 1995 to 2015 saw an appreciable
-p
increase from 360 – 400 ppm [8]. A paradigm shift from this current situation to an
re
environmentally conducive medium of harnessing energy should be of paramount interest.
Intermittency associated with some of these sustainable mediums of harnessing energy implies
lP

that energy storage must also be carefully considered from a holistic point of view [9, 10].
na

Daily fluctuations in some of these renewable sources will require energy storage for large-
scale purposes. With smart cities that utilize reliable smart grids springing up, the demand for
ur

sustainable power systems is urgently needed. Futuristically, the energy generation from
sustainable sources coupled with its storage from an object point of view is the best option for
Jo

powering these smart cities. Solar [11, 12], geothermal [13, 14], wind [15-17], etc., has massive
prospects in achieving these goals, but harnessing energy from these sources is highly
unpredictable because of the impact of weather conditions on these energy-generating mediums
[18]. To enhance reliability, integrating electrical energy storage systems to some of these
energy generation mediums is recommended because this approach ensures frequency
regulations of the grid and better power quality etc. [19, 20]. Load leveling and shaving are
two effective strategies to smooth the fluctuations in the energy requirements [21-23]. Load
leveling aims to reschedule the loads to minimize the extra energy required in the peak periods
and the extra energy in the off-peak periods (Fig. 1a) [22]. While peak shaving relies on storing
energy in off-peak periods and reusing it in the peak periods (Fig. 1b) [22].

2
 f
r oo
-p
re
lP
na
ur
Jo

Fig 1: a) Load leveling b) Peak Shaving [22] (License No. 5172930316620).

3
Electrical energy storage units are needed to ensure the grid is stable, flexible, release energy
quickly while supply is secured. More research activities on the different energy storage
systems are being investigated globally (Fig. 2) [23] to meet this target.

f
r oo
-p
re
lP
na
ur
Jo

4
 f
r oo
-p
re
lP
na
ur
Jo

Fig. 2: Classification of energy storage.

5
For storing large energy storage capacities, pumped hydroelectric storage coupled with
compressed air energy storage (CAES) are often recommended due to their ability to attain
power to a capacity in GW with low initial capital cost [24, 25]. Pumped hydro energy storage
generates electrical energy from the water kept at a higher height. In the event that electrical
energy demand is low, the electricity produced from the pumped hydro energy storage is
utilised in pumping water back to the upper storage unit, while during peak times, the water at
the elevated height is allowed to flow downwards to run some turbines in order to produce
power [26]. With 60 – 85 percent conversion efficiency subject to the hight of the water
reservoir and water being stored volumetrically, pumped hydroelectric remains a force to
reckon within the energy storage industry. Compressed air energy storage is recommended due

f
to its ability to store electrical energy in the capacity of 100 MW. This energy storage medium

oo
has higher energy conversion and high storage capacity hence ideal for operations under

r
varying loading criteria [25, 27]. Compressed air energy storage works on the same principle
-p
as conventional gas turbines. Compressed air energy units are developed to uncoupled
re
expansion as well as compression cycles for a conventional gas turbines into different stages
but ensure the energy is maintained in the form of elastic potential energy for compressed air.
lP

A compressed air energy storage system is made up of five parts, namely generator, air
compressor, storage unit as well as system controls. In order to decrease the moisture in the air
na

that is being compressed, after–coolers coupled with intercoolers are utilized. Storage unit is
ur

included in the system for keeping the air that is being compressed. Rock caverns in impervious
rock structures and salt caverns coupled with porous media storage units are some
Jo

recommended storage unit options. Compressed air energy storage is designed such that excess
electricity is stored during off peaks by compressing air into storage units. During peak times,
electrical energy is produced from the air compressed with the aid of a high-pressure turbine.
These types of energy storage units are designed to have a longer storing period, cheaper initial
financial commitments, and higher storing efficiency within the range of 70 to almost 90
percent. Flywheel storage units are ideal for storing energy [25, 28]. For this energy storage
medium, a spinning mass with an angular momentum aids in the storage of energy. Electric
motor supports the spinning of the flywheel. During peak times, electricity is produced from
the motor due to the rotation of the flywheel. The performance for the entire system is
dependent on rotor speed coupled with its size [29]. Motor/generator is responsible for the
power rating. The primary merit of this medium of energy storage is the longer lifespan coupled
with its efficiency being very high (exceeding 95 percent). The unit is suitable for higher power
but shorter duration purposes. Therefore, this energy storage system can deliver power during

6
intermittency for a shorter period or during the transition from one power medium to another.
High self-discharge, high capital cost, and lower energy density are some limitations associated
with this storage medium [30]. These disadvantages make flywheels ideal for a restricted range
of purposes. A summary of notable energy storage systems is captured in Tables 1 and 2. While
Table 3 shows a comparison among the different types of battery energy storage systems.

f
r oo
-p
re
lP
na
ur
Jo

7
Table 1: Comparison of operating characteristics for varying energy storage systems.
Energy storage type Lifespan (years) Cycle time Performance(%) Energy density(Wh/L) Power density (W/L) Ref
(Cycle)
Pumped hydro energy 35 to 60 10000 to 40000 65 – 85 0.499 to 1.499 0.499 to 1.499 [31]
storage approximately approximately
Compressed air energy More than 20 7000 to 12000 40 – 54 2–6 0.499 to 2 [32,
storage for large scale 33]
purposes

f
Compressed air energy More than 23 Over 30,000 - More than Compressed Compressed air energy [34]

oo
storage for small scale air energy storage for storage for large scale

r
purposes large scale purposes purposes

-p
Flywheel energy storage Approximately 15 More than 20,000 Approximately 20 to 85 1000 to 2000 [25]

re
90 to 95
Thermal Energy Storage 30 - Approximately 80 – 120 - [35]

lP
30 to 60
Superconducting 30 Over 100,000 90 - 97 0.2 – 0.25 approximately 2500 [32]

na
magnetic energy storage
Capacitor Slightly above 5 More than 50,000 Between 60 to 70 Approximately 0.05 100,000 [36]

ur [37]
Jo
Supercapacitor 10 to 30 Over 100,000 Approximately 95 10 - 30 Over 100,00 [38]

Battery Lead acid 3 to 15 250 to 1500 50 to 90 50 - 80 90 to 700 [32,

Energy battery 39]
storage
Lithium ion 5 to 20 600-1200 85 to 95 200-400 1300 to 10000 [39,
battery 40]
Sodium 10 to 15 2500 to 4500 80 to 90 15 to 300 120-160 [39, 41,
Sulfur 42]
battery

8
 Nickel 3 to 20 3500 83 15 to 80 80 – 600 [32]
Cadmium [42]
battery

Vanadium 5-10 Over 12,000 80 to 90 20-70 Less than 2 [39, 43,

Redox 44]

Zinc 5 to 10 Over 200,000 Approximately 60 30 to 65 Less than 25 [45]

Bromide to 75

f
oo
Table 2: Comparing different electrical energy storage systems from a cost perspective.

r
-p
Energy storage type Power investments ($/kWh) Energy capital cost ($/kWh) Operational coupled Ref.

re
with cost in
Maintaining the

lP
system ($/kWh)

na
Pumped hydro energy storage 25000 to over 42,000 5 to 100 0.005 [32]
Compressed air energy storage for 300 to 900 1 to 120 0.004 [46]

ur
large scale purposes
Compressed air energy storage for 1300 to 1550 200 to 250 low [47]
Jo
small scale purposes
Flywheel energy storage 250 to over 350 10,000 to 14000 Approximately 0.004 [48]
Thermal Energy Storage 100 to 400 3 to 30 - [49]

Superconducting magnetic energy More than 470 to 489 500 to 72000 0.001 [47]
storage
Capacitor 200 to 400 500 to 1000 13 [47]

Supercapacitor 100 to 300 300 to 2000 0.005 [38]

Lead-acid battery 300 to 600 50 to 100 50 [32]

9
 Battery
Energy Lithium-ion battery 1200 to 3900 600 to 2500 - [50]
storage Sodium Sulfur battery 1000 to 4000 350 80 [41]
[42]

Nickel Cadmium battery 600 to 1500 400 to 2400 More than 20 [32]
[42]

Vanadium Redox 600 to 1500 150 to 1000 70 [43]

f
oo
[44]
Zinc Bromide 400 150 to 1000 - [32]

r
-p
Table 3: Strength, weakness, opportunity, and threat evaluation for varying energy storage systems.

re
lP
Energy storage type Strength Weakness Opportunity Threat Ref
Compressed air energy - Higher capacity. - Requires underground Useful in distributed • Popularity pertaining to [32]

na
storage - cheap in terms of storage unit. storage thermal power plants.
per kW. - In the event that turbines • Unstable prices of fuel.
- No need for
ur
are utilized in the process,
Jo
power electronic Gas is required.
converters.
- Storage losses
are insignificant.
- Keeping energy
over a period of
over a year.
Pumped hydro energy - Higher capacity. - Limitations due to -The technology can be • When distributed storage [51]
storage - cheap in terms of location. utilised for offshore wind is chosen, this feature may
per kW. - Higher initial capital farms as well as with a become outdated.
cost. lower reservoir under the • As a result of
surface of the ocean. environmental harm, there

10
 - No need for - Environmental is growing public
power electronic challenges resistance.
converters.
- Longer life span.
- Dependable.
Battery Energy Storage - Distributed - Higher initial capital cost Because of emerging • The selection process is [47]
storage. - Shorter lifespan technology, the BES will made more difficult by the
- Reliable - In a colder environment, most likely be a distributed continual development
structure. this technology may system. stage.

f
- Higher energy become an issue. •

oo
Environmental issues.
efficiency. • Limitations pertaining to

r
- Higher energy raw materials.

-p
density.
• •

re
Hydrogen energy - Distributed - Lower Efficiency. Dedicated Challenges pertaining to [52]
storage storage. - High initial capital converters. power electronics.

lP
- Environmentally cost.
friendly - Requires stable

na
loading conditions.

ur
Jo

11
Tables 1 and 2 show various types of energy storage systems coupled with their unique usage,
unique characteristics, and weaknesses. Flywheel energy storage, for instance, tends to exhibit
higher efficiency and higher power density than other energy storage systems [53]. One of the
key limitations of this energy storage type is its higher self-discharge rates. There are other
issues like higher initial capital and safety issues. For compressed air energy storage systems,
they are useful in grid-scale potential, longer lifespan, lower operating conditions, and the cost
of maintaining the system is fairly low. Self-discharging for compressed air energy storage is
fairly low [31]. It must, however, be noted that the system efficiency is moderate. The main
downside to this technology is the need for an ideal storage location. On the other hand,
batteries are very popular technology due to the flexibility associated with their usage, limited

f
maintenance work required, high efficiency, and very reliable. The main limitation has to do

oo
with environmental challenges, the type of materials needed, and cost. There are others like

r
lower energy density and issues pertaining to shelf life as well [54]. The supply and usage of
-p
power happen simultaneously. Therefore, it is imperative that energy produced can meet this
re
variation in terms of energy needed. Therefore, the primary focus of this study is to enumerate
and elaborate on the current state of battery energy storage technology as well as their prospect
lP

in terms of application. The study will further advance the scope of study to capture challenges
that come with these storage units and mitigation strategies for some of them. Furthermore, A
na

SWOT “Strength, Weakness, Opportunities, and Threats” analysis of the batteries in energy
ur

transmission is also elaborated.

Jo

2. Battery Energy Storage

Rechargeable storage systems are useful energy storage units, storing energy in chemical form.
Today, several types of batteries with their innovative concepts suitable for specific purposes.
These innovations often have various features, including varied sizes coupled with chemical
parts incorporated into them. Some characteristics of each are summarised in Table 1 and
Table 2. Previous years have seen significant advancements in battery technology, especially
in the Li-ion and Vanadium Redox Batteries (VRB). The need for batteries in smart grid and
electric vehicle applications is a major driver of battery commercialization. In electric power
industry, the Na2S battery was the most popular choice up to the year 2014 [55, 56]. In recent
years (Fig. 3), battery storage has progressively drifted away from Sodium Sulfur
batteries but toward its equivalents, namely, lithium-ion and redox flow batteries (RFBs),
owing to the considerable advances in operational characteristics and price reductions.
Because the installed capacity of Li-ion batteries is anticipated to grow quickly in the next

12
years, it is anticipated to be the dominating battery storage solution futuristically. Flow batteries
are gaining in favor as a form of energy storage at the utility-scale. Aside from pricing
variations, each battery type has its own operational performance and characteristics that
distinguish it from the others. As a result, one kind of battery may be particularly ideal for a
specific storage purpose. Hence, a variety of battery systems will be of immense benefit to the
energy storage industry.

f
r oo
-p
re
lP
na
ur
Jo

Fig. 3: (a) The projected installed battery capacity between 2012-2014 [55], and (b) the
annual energy additions of the different batteries between 2003 and 2018 [57].

2.1 Various types of batteries

Using different chemical processes, a battery converts chemical energy to electrical one, which
is how it functions [58]. In lithium-ion batteries, ions are inserted and extracted reversibly via

13
cathodic and anodic electrodes, which is the basis of device operation [59]. The inclusion of an
electrolytic solution as well as a mechanical separator between anodic and the cathodic
electrode facilitates movement of ions. By oxidation coupled with reduction, electric energy is
produced [60]. Wider limits of varying pairings of anodic, cathodic, as well as electrolyte
materials that are obtainable for various cell reaction rates are useful in the expansion of
several batteries, example lithium-ion, lead-acid, sodium–sulfur, as well as vanadium redox
batteries. Lithium-ion batteries are rechargeable ones. Due to its higher energy density per unit
of weight or volume and excellent efficiency, rechargeable Li-ion battery is now widely
utilized in portable devices [5, 34]. Nevertheless, usage of the Lithium-ion battery in stationary
energy storage purposes is restricted due to the higher price of the battery (around $1000/kWh).

f
It is necessary to keep the price of the storing process less than $200/kWh in order for

oo
renewable energy to be maintained without assistance from the government. Several battery

r
technologies have been used for commercial purposes, considering a variety of factors such as
-p
cost, life-span, efficiency, power, and energy density [61, 62]. In this study, we divided battery
re
systems into three categories based on their level of development for stationary applications.
We also included a detailed explanation of each battery to help readers better grasp how it
lP

operates. The operating principles of each unit will be shown in more detail, as well as their
current status and the difficulties they face in the field of applied chemistry.
na

- Primary batteries
ur

Primary batteries for portable electric gadgets are easy, simple, and repair free since they are
Jo

generally not recharged after use and are frequently discarded after use. Depending on the
membrane they utilise, primary batteries come in two categories: aqueous and non-aqueous
[63]. These are widely available in various units, including AA, AAA, C, and D, with popular
types including alkaline, zinc-carbon, and lithium.

- Secondary batteries

Secondary batteries are cells that can be recharged. Car ignition and portable electronic gadgets
are just a few of the everyday uses for which they are being developed. They are also being
developed as energy medium specifically for automotive purposes. These batteries are
becoming more popular in domestic power storage as more households generate their energy
[64]. The invention of electrodes that can perform better despite a large number of deep
charging/discharging conditions made it feasible to commercialize secondary cells [65, 66]. In

14
the following sections and subsection, we will focus on rechargeable (seconady) battery energy
storage systems.

2.1.1 Zinc based batteries

Electrochemical energy storage is widely considered as a critical innovation for ensuring the
stability of the power grid in a carbon-neutral world. Batteries are a viable answer to the
increasing need for energy storage, which is seen in both mobile and fixed uses. When looking
at the world as a whole, next-generation batteries must be constructed from harmless and
plentiful raw materials that have a great potential for reuse. Massive research and development

f
efforts, coupled with steady improvements, have driven prices of lithium-ion batteries lower

oo
when compared to other storage units [67]. Zinc batteries (ZB) are considered a promising

r
alternative to lithium-ion batteries in the post-lithium age [68]. The Ragone plot in Fig. 4
-p
compares the specific energy and power densities for different zinc batteries. Zinc is a frequent
re
material present in Earth's crust. It may be found on all seven continents and is widely produced
all around the globe at a reasonable cost [69].
lP
na
ur
Jo

15
 f
r oo
-p
re
lP
na
ur

Fig. 4: A Ragone plot showing energy as well as power properties of various Zn-based cell
Jo

chemistries is shown above (alkaline zinc-MnO2, zinc-air, nickel-zinc, and silver-zinc). For
the sake of comparability, both legacy lead-acid as well as current lithium-ion systems are
presented [69] (License No. 5220061002771).

In addition to being inexpensive and non-toxic, zinc has a higher theoretical capacity and a
lower standard electrode potential [70]. Zinc is also a good conductor of electricity. What's
more, zinc metal maintains excellent performance in aqueous electrolytes (alkaline to neutral
to mildly acidic). Its electrodeposition has been shown to be a very efficient procedure with
more than 90% [71]. Accordingly, zinc-based rechargeable battery (ZBRB) is anticipated to
emerge as the most promising new energy storage device because of its excellent
characteristics, such as higher specific capacity, cheapness, etc., [72]. Nevertheless, the poor
coulombic efficiency and the fast decrease in battery capacity of rechargeable alkaline
Zn/MnO2 batteries impede their commercialization [73, 74]. In 2018, Ma et al. equally

16
explored zinc-ion battery with Co(III)-rich Co3O4/Zn gel electrolyte that reduced separator
degradation during operation of zinc-ion batteries [75]. Research on zinc-ion batteries has
progressed to full as well as broad level in past years, and reaction process of zinc-ion batteries
has progressively revealed. Articles of ZBRBs that have been documented in past few years
are shown in Fig. 5(a). This chart shows several investigations on ZBRBs is being conducted,
and that percentage of mild aqueous ZBRBs (the orange region) continues to grow in
importance as well. Due to its efficiency, novel ZBRB that is built using acid electrolyte
emerged after 2019. This suggests that aqueous ZBRB is progressively becoming more
appealing, as well as potentially ideal futuristically. The ragone plot for different rechargeable
electrochemical units is highlighted in Fig. 5(b) as function of their capacity. While aqueous

f
zinc batteries cannot contend with lithium-ion batteries taking energy density into account,

oo
their power density has advanced to a point where they may be used in supercapacitors (SCs).

r
-p
re
lP
na
ur
Jo

Fig. 5: a) Summary of research works on ZBRBs b) Comparative study between zinc-based

battery and other energy storage units [76].

Industrial utilization of ZBRBs continue to be a challenge due to the following factors: (1)
uneven discharge of zinc forms dendrites, which can pierce separator as well as cause a short
circuit [77]; 2) electron transfer [78, 79]; (3) Quasisolid gel electrolyte [80]; and (4) Irreversible
dissolution [79]. These issues may be resolved by increasing electrolytes and the addition
of functional additives that are appropriate for the situation. As a result, investigation and
summary of electrolytes are very important. Traditionally, ZBRBs were primarily concerned
with the evolution of electrode materials and energy storage mechanisms, after which they
turned their attention to zinc anode. The electrolyte of ZBRBs, on the other hand, does not have
a systematic concept of regularity.

17
The electrolyte is essential component of the battery because it acts as bridge between
anodic and cathodic electrode, allowing ions to move between two electrodes. Alkaline Zn–
MnO2 batteries and marketed aqueous zinc-based batteries are among aqueous electrolytes that
have reasonably been established [81-83]. The hydrogel electrolyte's chemical characteristics,
which are extremely plentiful and changeable, enable the creation of energy storage devices
with specific purposes. Figure 6 depicts reaction processes and battery types of several zinc-
based batteries used in alkaline, mild, and acid electrolytes. It will be possible to classify the
fundamental processes of zinc-based batteries by the kind of electrolytes used. Figure 7 depicts
a high-level summary of operating concepts of major aqueous zinc-based chemical systems.

f
r oo
-p
re
lP
na
ur
Jo

Fig. 6: The mechanism action of ZBRBs in various electrolytes is described [84] (License
No. 5174260363195).

18
 f
r oo
-p
re
Fig. 7: Half-cell reactions in (a) zinc-air batteries/alkaline membrane, (b) zinc-ion batteries
lP

with ZnSO4 electrolyte, as well as zinc flow batteries subject to (c) systems in which energy
coupled with power are uncoupled and (d) systems in which energy and power are coupled
na

[85] (License No. 5174260582059).

ur

2.1.2 Lead battery concept

Jo

Lead–acid battery is considered a mature technology due to its wide application range. Usually,
a lead-acid battery is composed of three components: lead dioxide (PbO2), metallic lead (Pb),
as well as sulfuric acid solution (H2SO4) (Fig. 8). Thermoplastics are typically used to house
the lead-acid battery [86]. Eq. (1) highlights the chemistry behind lead-acid batteries [87],
which is written as:

Pb + PbO2 + 2H2SO4 ⇔ 2PbSO4 + 2H2O E0 = 2.04 V (1)

19
 f
r oo
-p
Fig. 8: Diagram of lead-acid battery [88].
re
The nominal cell voltage for this energy storage device is 2.05 V which is relatively high [89].
lP

The electrolyte comes as an acidic medium that plays a role in discharge operation. During a
discharge, HSO4 ions move to the negative electrode and react with it to generate H+ ions
na

coupled with lead sulphate. Lead dioxide interacts with electrolyte at positive electrode,
resulting in formation of lead sulphate crystals as well as water [90, 91]. With each passing
ur

cycle of discharge, lead sulphate in electrolyte degrades to lead sulphate, a poor conductor,
Jo

and the electrolyte becomes more diluted. During charging, current is applied and thus
opposite responses occur [92]. In addition, when water is electrolyzed into hydrogen and
oxygen, additional charging will lead to water loss. However, over-potential at which this
happens is reasonably high that water loss may be managed by adjusting charging voltage [93].
Appropriate choice of grid alloys and charging conditions for flooded batteries reduces water
loss to lower levels that requires only a periodic addition of water to batteries for maintenance
purposes. Oxygen diffuses rapidly from the positive to the negative pole in the gas phase, while
it takes considerably longer in liquid electrolytes. With the help of oxygen, the lead sulphate is
formed. Notable prerequisites for encased cells include a selection of grid alloys etc.
Additionally, one-way valves must be installed in cells to allow for tiny amounts of hydrogen
release while simultaneously preventing air from entering cells [94]. Table 4 presents a
summary of materials used for lead-acid batteries.

Table 4: Materials used for the development of lead-acid batteries.

20
 Composition Weight (%) Ref.
Pb 20 [95]
PbO2 30 [96]
Polypropylene 15 [97]
H2SO4 12 [95]
Glass 1 [95]
Others 1 [97]
Water 16 [96]

2.1.3 Li-ion batteries

Li-ion batteries are a sophisticated battery that Sony initially produced in the early 1990s for

f
use in portable electronic devices [98]. During charging, Li+ undergoes deintercalation [99],

oo
and the situation is reversed during discharging (Fig. 9). Benefits of lithium-ion batteries over

r
other kinds of batteries include a higher energy density, highly efficient, extended cycle life,
-p
and being environmentally conducive. Li-ion batteries are also considered to be suitable
re
batteries for automotive purposes [100]. The fast growth of electric vehicles (EVs) and plug-
in hybrid vehicles (PHEVs) has resulted in significant advancements in Li-ion batteries, which
lP

now provide a strong technological basis and commercial foundation for energy storage
purposes. For grid purposes, the technology development and standardization of Li-ion battery
na

manufacturing processes are particularly significant [101, 102]. Researchers are looking for
ur

improved types of these energy storage units to enhance efficiency, safety, and price [103,
104]. Substantial enhancements have been made in chemistry and materials science,
Jo

particularly in anode materials, cathode materials, and electrolytes [105-109].

21
 f
r oo
-p
re
lP
na
ur
Jo

Fig. 9: a) Internal structure of a lithium ion (Li-ion) battery's b) An electrochemical model of

a Li-ion cell shown in one-dimensional [110].

Materials utilised in Li-ion batteries and their percentages vary according to battery's size,
application, and kind of cathode employed [111]. For example, according to data gathered from

22
several battery recycling companies, materials utilised as well as their percentages in a typical
Li-ion portable battery are lithium cobalt oxide (27.5 %), steel (20.2 %), graphite (16 %),
polymer (14 %), copper (9 %), aluminum (5.5 %), nickel (4.3 %), and electrolyte (3.5 %).

2.3.3 Nickel–Metal Hydride (Ni–MH) Batteries

The history of these batteries can be traced to the 1960s. They have now been on the market
for more than 20 years [86]. A nickel-metal hydride battery is comprised of metal hydride
anodes. An electrolyte is often used as a barrier between anodic and cathodic electrodes. As
shown in Fig. 10, the battery chemistry of Ni–MH batteries is summarised as follow:

MH + NiOOH ⇔ M + Ni(OH)2 (2)

f
r oo
-p
re
lP
na
ur
Jo

Fig. 10: Diagram of Nickel-metal hydride batteries [112] (License No. 5173191011275).

For Ni–MH batteries, both electrodes are porous architectures with larger surface area,
resulting in lower internal resistance and high-rate capabilities. The cathode is often made by
impregnating or pasting nickel compounds onto foam nickel or porous sintered base, while the
anode is typically made of perforated nickel foil or grid that has been coated with a hydrogen-

23
storage alloy before fabrication. Because of their high energy as well as power (40–110 Wh/kg
and 200–1200 Wh/kg, respectively) [113], nontoxicity etc are being used in wireless
communications, uninterrupted power supply, as well as the automotive industry.

2.1.4 Metal air batteries

Metal-air batteries as explained earlier as a particular kind of cell that uses metal anodes and
air at the cathode in its operational processes [114]. Looking at Fig. 11, it is observed that
metal-air battery has an anode made of metal and a cathode. The membrane medium is often
an excellent hydroxonium ion conductor [9, 115]. There are a variety of metal-air battery
chemical pairings to choose from. One of them is the lithium-air battery. Zinc-air (Zn-air)

f
batteries that are now theoretically viable having an energy density of about 475–655 Wh/kg

oo
[116].

r
-p
re
lP
na
ur
Jo

Fig. 11: Metal air battery performance a) Rechargeable metal-air battery schematic b)
Polarization plots for Zn air battery c) Power density plots for metal-air battery d) cyclic
performance of metal-air battery [117].

2.3.5 Sodium Sulfur batteries

Many well-written evaluations on the significance of rechargeable sodium-sulfur batteries in

portable devices and their potential for powering transportation are captured in several

24
publications [56, 118]. The use of sodium as an anode, the second lightest and smallest alkali
metal after lithium, provides a lower-cost alternative to lithium that is readily accessible in
areas all over the globe. It is thus understandable that interest in Na-based batteries (Figure 12)
has surpassed that in Li-based batteries [119]. The operational temperature range for Na – S
batteries is often exceeding 300oC coupled with molten electrodes and solid β alumina
electrolyte. The electrochemical chemical reaction in Na – S batteries, coupled with their cost,
makes them suitable for grid-scale purposes. The main issue pertaining to this energy storage
medium is the size of the sodium atom and the sodium ion. This makes them susceptible to
forming instability in the electrodeposits and dendrites. This results in a reduction in
electrochemical conversion performance. Sodium ions are bigger as well as less reducing

f
compared to lithium ions. This attests to their sluggish nature in terms of transport coupled

oo
with their kinetics of electrochemical processes within the cathodic electrode [120-122].

r
Finally, products of sodium reductions with sulphur are soluble compared to products of the
-p
same reaction with lithium. These features suggest that a viable Na–S cell will have to confront
re
several drawbacks and common ones faced by Li–S batteries.
lP
na
ur
Jo

25
 f
r oo
-p
re
lP
na
ur
Jo

Fig. 12: (a) Diagram of sodium-sulfur batteries during galvanostatic cycling (b) Constant
voltage–charge diagram for Na–S cells with varying volume fraction of SiO2–IL–ClO4 in the
electrolyte noted and maintained at 30 …5.0 V for one hour. (c) Ionic conductivity of sodium-
sulfur batteries with varying volume fraction [122].

A conducive cathodic substrate capable of overcoming insulating nature for both fully charged
as well as discharged products is needed in the progress of a room–temperature rechargeable
sodium-sulfur battery [123]. Sulfur integrated into microporous carbon having smaller pore
sizes and higher surface areas have been reported [124]. When sulfur is utilised in Li – S, they
exhibit two discharged plateaus. An investigation conducted by Xin et al. [125] argued that
smaller sulfur species are capable of being formed in microporous carbon substrates; hence
when reduced with lithium-ion, they are not capable of forming soluble higher-order LiPS

26
[125]. Despite this information is factual, there are issues pertaining to thermodynamic
evaluation that requires further investigations. Schaefer et al. [126] attempted to reduce
magnitude for destabilizing electric fields around the anode via tethering anions to slower-
moving supports [127].

2.3.6. Sodium Nickel Chloride

Na-NiCl2 batteries similarly utilise a beta-alumina electrolyte, but the cathode is made up of
nickel chloride [128]. Na-NiCl2 batteries are also useful in lithium-ion batteries. When sodium
is discharged, it interacts with nickel chloride, resulting in the formation of nickel metal. The
unit works at a low temperature. The energy density is good as well demonstrator batteries

f
have been placed for utility energy storage, and a small number of batteries have been deployed

oo
for other uses (Fig. 13).

r
-p
re
lP
na
ur
Jo

Fig. 13: The chemical reactions coupled with primary parts of sodium-nickel chloride battery
[129] (License No. 5173200296918).

2.1.5 Nickel Cadmium batteries

These types of batteries are suitable for commercial purposes due to their robust characteristics
when subjected to harsh mechanical and electrical conditions [130, 131]. They are
recommended as utility energy storage, but there are issues pertaining to cost. Nickel-metal

27
hydrides exhibit higher efficiency than nickel-cadmium batteries. Still, both are made with
pocket plates of steel having sintered nickel electrodes as their active material (Fig. 14).

f
r oo
-p
re
lP
na

Fig. 14: Parts of Nickel-Cadmium battery [130].

ur

2.3.8 Nickel-zinc (Ni-Zn) batteries

Jo

When it comes to delivering a rapid discharge rate, nickel-zinc batteries are the most often
recommended type of battery. Nickel zinc batteries provide this function at a cheap cost. They
are regarded as successful because of their high specific power coupled with their efficiency
and the fact that they are inexpensive and have a minimal environmental effect [132].
Nevertheless, there are several disadvantages to using this structure: The drawbacks of zinc
batteries include the fact that zinc is a self-corrosive substance; and Ni-Zn batteries are
susceptible to drying out; hence they demonstrate poor discharge few cycles of operation.

2.1.6 Flow batteries

A novel storage technology with high futuristic prospects is flow batteries. They are designed
for longer-term storage at an industrial scale level [133]. These types of energy storage devices
are designed purposely for transforming electrical energy to chemical energy via the charging

28
of an electrolytic medium coupled with the release of the energy being stored. Storage of the
electrolytes is carried out exteriorly in tanks. The electrolytes are moved via the cell that
transforms the stored energy to electrical energy, as shown in Figure 15.

f
oo
Fig. 15: Pictorial view of flow batteries (a) schematic diagram, and (b) site view of actual

r
cells [134] (License No. 5174261107912).
-p
re
There is high scalability of the quantity of the electrolytes which has a direct correlation to their
capacity. There are two different loops designed to allow the passage of 2 electrolytes in flow
lP

batteries. These compartments are separated with a microporous separator often referred to as
ion conducting electrolyte (membrane). There is oxidation at the anodic electrode during
na

discharging, while reduction occurs at the cathode. A reverse scenario happens when the cell
ur

is charging. The applications of flow batteries are enormous. They compliment the demerits of
electrochemical batteries [132].
Jo

The redox flow technique has several advantages: no self-discharge rate, minimal deterioration
during deep discharge, a long lifespan, and low maintenance needs. On the negative side, it has
a high initial cost and is experiencing technological development difficulties. When all the
aforementioned advantages are considered, redox flow batteries are an appealing option for
large-scale electrical energy storage systems (10 kW–10 MW). In recent years, several
academics and manufacturers have introduced flow batteries for stationary purposes due to
their favorable features in terms of low self-discharge rate, acceptable energy prices, long cycle
life, and good reaction time. It is necessary, nevertheless, to make additional efforts in order to
enhance their operational characteristics [135].

29
2.1.6.1 Vanadium flow batteries
Vanadium redox flow batteries (Fig. 16) are advanced flow batteries. With a cell voltage
within 1.4 to 1.6V, all chemical reactions are developed subject to the movement of electrons
between vanadium ions under varying oxidation requirements [135]. This is noticeable,
especially on the negative electrode V3+ when the cell is charged, leading to a transition to
V2+. Should the cell discharge, the ions of V2+ is transformed to V3+. This is also common on
the positive electrode. When the cell is charged or discharge, hydroxonium ions are swapped
between the 2 electrolytic storage cell units.
Negative electrode: V2+ ⇌ V3+ + e− (3)
Positive electrode: VO2+ + 2H+ + e− ⇌ VO2+ + H2O (4)

f
Overall reaction: VO2+ + 2H+ + V2+ ⇌ VO2+ + H2O + V3+

oo
(5)

r
-p
re
lP
na
ur

Fig. 16: Illustrative representation of a) flow battery b) Vanadium flow batteries [136]
Jo

(License No. 5174261349592).

The standard open-circuit voltage for a vanadium redox battery is nearly 1.26V. The voltage
tends to increase to 1.6 V when charged to full capacity a system having 2M VOSO4 in 2.5M
H2SO4 membrane [137]. Vanadium redox flow batteries are functional in temperatures with 10
to 40oC [138]. There is a decrement in terms of the solubility of VOSO4 as the sulfuric acid
concentration increases. The performance of vanadium redox battery is capable of attaining
efficiency of 85 percent after more than ten thousand cycle life. Due to the fact that species for
the vanadium used are the same but possess varying oxidation conditions, the vanadium redox
flow batteries do not exhibit issues pertaining to cross contaminations. These unique features
allow the membrane to be reused, resulting in longer cycle life and a decrement in the price of
the battery system. Discharging coupled with recharging in vanadium redox flow battery is
very fast due to the robust chemical reactions of the redox couples [139]. There are a few

30
limitations for vanadium redox flow batteries in terms of their functionality. These types of
batteries exhibit lower specific energy density. The performance of the vanadium redox flow
batteries have direct correlations to the concentration for the vanadium ions in the sulfuric acid
solutions [140]. An increment in the concentration exceeding 2M within sulfuric acid as
electrolyte results in the development of V2O5 precipitates at varying temperatures exceeding
40oC. Today much research is being conducted to enhance the stability coupled with the
solubility of vanadium in an aqueous solution. There is a possibility of enhancing vanadium
stability via the addition of organic as well as inorganic chemicals as stabilizing agents. The
main downside when dealing with Vanadium redox flow batteries has to do with the
concentration of vanadium in the electrolyte. Issues pertaining to higher oxidizing states for

f
V5+ must also be evaluated to ensure the entire unit is charged to full capacity because this

oo
scenario easily supports the quick degradation of the membrane [141]. V5+ reduces the type of

r
material suitable for the membrane as well as the electrode that is positively charged. Today,
-p
Selemion™ anion exchange membranes or Nafion® cation exchange membranes are being
re
considered as the material of choice. Despite the good merits associated to vanadium redox
flow batteries in terms of load levelling as well as their applications in uninterruptible power
lP

supply (UPS), issues pertaining to cost continue to persist. Vanadium as a material is very
costly. Furthermore, Nafion membrane is expensive, hence there is a need for an alternative
na

[142]. Through research, novel types of perfluorinated membranes have been developed to
ur

mitigate cost with acceptable performance [143]. Further research activities to improve the
electrochemical characteristics for these materials in terms of lower vanadium ion permeation,
Jo

improved chemical stability as well as resistance to oxidation towards V5+. The cost of these
cells is likely to even decrease further with an appreciable increase in cell performance. Design
of the entire electrode is also crucial in enhancing the electrochemical characteristics of the cell
as well as ensuring the cost of the system is reduced to the barest minimum. The electrodes are
expected to undergo some optimization processes like having higher surface area, good
porosity, lower electronic resistance, and higher electrochemical activity towards the reactions.
To reduce the resistance as well as power loss, it is expected that the membrane has higher
ionic conductivity and faster ionic transport. Reducing the membrane cost has a direct
correlation to the advancement of the technology. For existing designs, there is the
development of a parasitic current due to the electrodes in the cell being supplied with pumped
electrolyte in parallel leading to a loss in energy coupled with self-discharge. As a result of the
voltage difference between the stack cell leading to the materials corroding, there is also

31
capacity loss [136]. Designing vanadium redox batteries with the sole aim of reducing leakage
currents has a correlation to the electrochemical efficiency of the cell, which reduces the cost.

2.1.6.2 Zinc bromide batteries

These types of flow batteries are classified as hybrid batteries. As depicted in Fig. 17, these
batteries come with one reservoir for storing the electrolyte for positive electrode reactions,
whiles the negative electrode reactions occur on the other one. Zinc – bromide are the main
constituents of these electrolytes. When charging, the zinc is plated from the electrolytic
solution to the negatively charged surface. The bromide is transformed to bromine on the
positive electrode surface and is kept in an electrolytic tank. The zinc is, however, electroplated

f
oo
to conductive electrodes. When discharging, the zinc is dissolved in the electrolyte, hence
reversing the process [144].

r
-p
re
lP
na
ur
Jo

Fig. 17: Zinc bromine batteries [144] (License No. 5173491017840)

Zinc bromide batteries (ZBR) batteries have characteristics comparable to VRB batteries.
Nevertheless, as compared to VRB batteries, ZBR batteries have a much greater energy density
(30–85 Wh/Kg). Their cell voltage is nearly 1.8 V, and their discharge lifetime may be up to
10 hours. Furthermore, they are suitable for seasonal storage owing to their low self-discharge
rate coupled with their ability to store the battery wholly drained (100 percent depth of
discharge (DoD)) without causing any harm [24]. The largest ZBR power facility in the world

32
is situated in Kazakhstan, with a rated power of 25 MW as well as energy capacity of 100MWh.
The system is expected to have a lifespan of 20 years and be capable of withstanding 15000
charge and discharge cycles.

2.1.6.3 Polysulphide bromide batteries

Polysulphide redox flow batteries (Fig. 18) are subject to chemical reactions between two salt-
based membranes, i.e., sodium bromide and sodium polysulphide. The voltage for the cell is
nearly 1.5 V. A membrane separates the two electrolytes and supports the exchange of Na+
ions. This kind of flow battery has a fairly lower efficiency of between 60–75 percent due to
the pumping needs. Additionally, when a reservoir collapse, poisonous bromine gas is

f
oo
expelled, resulting in detrimental environmental concerns. Due to its rapid reaction time [145],
polysulphide batteries (PSB) are well suited for voltage and frequency control purposes.

r
Currently, there is no large-scale production facility for PSB batteries available. Regenesys
-p
Technologies attempted to construct a high-capacity PSB battery facility at a 15-megawatt
re
power station in the United Kingdom. However, several financial and technical limitations
lP

prevented the facility from fully operational [146].

na
ur
Jo

33
 f
r oo
-p
re
lP
na

Fig. 18: Diagram for varying structures for polysulfides redox flow batteries (PSRFBs) a) all
ur

liquid, b) Solid/liquid, c) Semi/solid, d) Liquid/gas [147].

Jo

2.1.6.4 Advanced Redox flow cells

Although redox flow batteries for stationary EES applications have received a great deal of
attention in recent years, their poor electrochemical characteristics remain a primary issue. The
usage of sophisticated RFB systems has been investigated to overcome this issue, as will be
explored more in this section.

2.1.6.5 Organic/Inorganic aqueous system

As explained earlier, one of the main issues of BES is the cost coupled with their possible
scalability for various applications. To achieve this purpose, it is been recommended that a
metal-free organic /inorganic aqueous battery unit is considered [148]. They are designed to
have a lower open circuit potential of 0.92V at a state of charge of 90%. This, however, implies
the potential for higher reversible electrochemical efficiency coupled with good galvanic

34
discharge kept at more than 90 percent discharge at 0.5 Acm-2. The notable outcomes are due
to the higher reversibility of reaction within the aromatic π-system of anthraquinone
disulphonic (AQDS), higher rate of kinetic characteristics, and stability. Additionally, the
presence of hydroxyl group to AQDS is likely to enhance the cell voltage coupled with
solubility [149]; hence a metal-free flow units are cheaper and possess better electrochemical
efficiency for large-scale purposes.

Traditional aqueous redox-based batteries have a lower energy density because the
electrochemical windows of the aqueous electrolytes are small, coupled with the concentration
of redox species in the electrolytes is being lower. This is because electrolytes contain a

f
lower concentration of redox species. There would be a larger variety of redox couples

oo
available when the electrolytes have wider electrochemical windows, notably high voltage
redox couples as well as multi-electron transfer redox species. The use of non-aqueous redox

r
-p
flow battery (NRFB) systems might make this feasible [150]. The electrolyte and supportive
ions used in aqueous with non-aqueous redox flow batteries are the primary differences
re
between the two types. Strong acids, such as H2SO4 and HCl, are employed as the electrolyte
lP

in aqueous RFB, where protons move across the membrane to preserve electrical neutrality. It
has been shown that NRFB systems may be improved by using an organic solvent to disperse
na

redox species (metal-ligand complexes) while adding ionic liquids to enhance the ionic
conductivity [151]. Generally, NRFB systems have higher operating voltages (more than 2 V)
ur

than aqueous-based RFB systems. Several research activities have been performed in an
Jo

attempt to address shortcomings of NRFB system. Following are two main methods that are
based on these findings and are described more below.

Initial, a metal-ligand complex is used as membrane in NRFB, which is the first method. Metal
participates in a redox reaction, whereas its solubility in an organic solvent is determined by
the ligand present on the surface of the metal complex. Consequently, if the metal-ligand
combination is properly tuned, it may offer a high working voltage while still maintaining
adequate solubility, leading to an increased energy density. Among many potential
possibilities, the vanadium complex redox system has received much research [152-154].

2.5.2 Aqueous lithium flow battery

35
Aqueous lithium batteries (ALBs) are a potential replacement for traditional lithium-ion
batteries (LIBs) for large-scale purposes because they overcome many of the drawbacks of
standard LIBs. There is a crucial resolution to the safety of flammable organic electrolytes, as
well as the need for a stringent production process is curbed. In addition, the cost of electrolyte
solvent and salts are low. Furthermore, the ionic conductivity of the aqueous electrolyte is
larger compared to that of organic electrolytes. Aside from that, aqueous lithium batteries are
environmentally beneficial due to their association with an aqueous electrolyte. Although
lithium is the most appealing anode material for batteries in the aqueous lithium battery (due
to the fact that Li metal has the largest mean charge capacity (3,860 mAh g-1)), the effective
usage of Li is still a tough proposition to achieve a higher energy density in the battery system.

f
In addition to utilising air cathode in a Li-air battery system, the usage of water as the cathode

oo
in a Li-water battery system has been contemplated as an alternative. The Li-water battery, on

r
the other hand, is not rechargeable since water loss happens as a result of the creation of H 2
-p
and O2 during discharge as well as charge processes, accordingly, and cannot be replenished.
re
According to [154, 155], an aqueous Li-flow battery, which utilizes water-soluble redox
couplings in the positive electrode, has recently been developed. Figure 19 shows an example
lP

of this.
na
ur
Jo

Fig. 19: The electron transfer process, as well as the design of an aqueous lithium flow
battery [154].

2.1.6.6 Waste-Li-liquid flow battery

According to the need for cheaper units, waste-Li-liquid (WLL) flow battery, has lately been
suggested, as illustrated in Fig. 20 [156]. Using this method, the lithium metal is recovered

36
from spent lithium-ion batteries. As part of the WLL battery pack, the cathode that is charged
coupled with the discharge cathode parts are kept apart. These materials can be in either a liquid
phase, solid phase, or a combination of both liquid and solid phases.

f
r oo
-p
re
Fig. 20: Illustration of waste Li - liquid flow battery made up of waste battery material,
lP

lithium metal, and water [156].

na

It has been disclosed that by employing a hybrid electrolyte strategic plan, Li metal was sourced
by charging liquid solutions made up of waste Li-ion battery materials, and the harvested Li
ur

metal was discharged with water as the cathode, resulting in a voltage of 2.7 V vs. Li +/Li0 at
Jo

0.1 mA cm-2 when harvested Li metal was discharged with water as the cathode (Fig. 21). The
discharged byproduct, LiOH, may be recycled for use in the extraction of lithium metal.
Cathodes for WLL battery systems may be made from a variety of liquid solutions, as well as
their voltage against Li metal can be adjusted by varying proportions of different solvents,
solutes, redox couplings, including counter anions in the solution.

37
 f
r oo
-p
re
lP
na

Fig. 21: (a) Disassembled battery, (b) Waste battery materials, (c) Charge voltage curve, (d) Li
metal on the surface of stainless steel (e) Comparative study of discharge [156].
ur

3. Environmental Impact of Batteries

Jo

Batteries have the potential to harm the earth through the production, usage, storage, treatment,
disposal, as well as recycling processes, among other things. Because of their wide range of
uses, a huge number of batteries of various kinds and sizes are manufactured throughout the
world, resulting in a variety of health and environmental problems. A variety of negative effects
and dangers caused by batteries are addressed in more detail in the following subsections.

3.1 Materials used in battery manufacture

Several metals coupled with non-metals are required in significant quantities for battery
manufacturing. Among these metals, lead (Pb), lithium (Li) etc., [156]. Resource availability
and economics are impacted by increasing battery manufacturing industry because of the
mining of metal supplies. Furthermore, some of these minerals are valuable (Ag) and utilised
as money. It will be necessary to produce extra amounts of minerals to meet the increased
38
demand for metals [157]. The mining sector itself has significant ecological as well as societal
problems, particularly in developing nations with weak or corrupt regulatory supervision, and
these issues are likely to worsen as demand pushes prices higher in the future. In terms of cost,
copper prices have risen three-fold in the previous 2 years. According to [158], the
manufacturing of Pb-A batteries accounts for about 85 percent of global lead consumption.
Figure 22 depicts the pace of lead extraction globally. Based on a study by Sun et al. [159], the
overall worldwide use of lithium (Fig. 23) for battery production was about 35 percent in 2015,
increasing to 46 percent in 2017, driven mainly through battery production demands.

f
r oo
-p
re
lP
na
ur
Jo

Fig. 22: Global production of Pd [160] (License No. 5173531045479).

39
 f
oo
Fig. 23: Lithium production a) depending on country [161] b) Globally [162].

r
-p
Nickel is used in batteries only to a small extent, accounting for approximately 3% of total
global output. Approximately 5% of worldwide mercury use is accounted for batteries. This
re
figure is on the decline as a result of technological advancements and environmental concerns
lP

[163]. Battery manufacturing accounts for about 75 percent of worldwide Cd production [34].
According to Dupont et al. [164], antimony used in the manufacture of Pb-A batteries
na

accounted for about 27 percent of global use in 2010.

ur

3.2 Impact of the harmful effect of batteries on human health and ecosystem
Jo

Metals and non-metals used in battery production may endanger human health via a variety of
routes of exposure, including inhalation, skin or ocular exposure, consumption, or intravenous
administration. For instance, people often take the lead via ingestion, breath, and dermal
absorption [165], Cd through ingestion coupled with inhalation [166], and mercury through
breathing, intake, and skin contact. According to Mousavi et al. [167], heavy metals such as
lead, cadmium, mercury, arsenic, and chromium have toxic effects on human health, while
heavy metals in generally pose a threat to global health [168, 169]. In addition to variables such
as the exposure route, duration coupled with the frequency of exposure, amount of ingested
dosage, and chemical species, metal toxicity is influenced by factors such as the age of an
individual and their gender, genetics, and dietary condition. In 2016, data revealed that Lead
exposure resulted in deaths of 495,550 people and a loss of 9.3 million disability-adjusted life
years as a result of long-term effects on health, with the greatest impact on those living in lower
to middle-income nations. As a result of mining coupled with industrial operations, several

40
potential routes for metals and metal complexes to reach the soil, groundwater, and surface
waters have been identified. In addition, dust or evaporated matter (such as gases from burning
trash during recycling) from different phases in the transportation, processing, and recycling
processes reach the environment and pollute the environment. Because of their toxicity,
quantity, and endurance in the surroundings, as well as the enormous projected increase in the
production of batteries, wastes from battery manufacturing and recycling pose a significant and
increasing threat to human health [170].

Metals, nonmetals, electrolytes, hard rubbers (or ebonite), and plastics may be generated
throughout the various phases of mining, shipping, manufacturing, and recycling operations of
batteries. Such materials contribute to solid waste, wastewater, greenhouse gas emissions,

f
oo
particle emissions, and hazardous gases [171]. Environmental hazards such as lead fumes and
particles may be discharged into the atmosphere during recycling procedures for Pb-A batteries

r
-p
[171]. Due to the high CO2 emissions produced by lithium-ion batteries [172], any general
environmental evaluation of batteries must take into account the CO2 emissions produced by
re
the batteries throughout their mining, shipping, manufacturing, and recycling operations,
lP

among other things.

3.3 Disposal and reuse of batteries

na

There are large amounts of batteries generated in a variety of shapes, sizes, and applications;
ur

in 2000, global consumption for batteries was approximately $41 billion, with $16.2 billion in
primary and $24.9 billion in secondary [173], and this consumption increased to $65 billion in
Jo

2008, then $71 billion in 2010, with rapid growth anticipated [173, 174]. In 2010, alkaline and
lead-acid batteries represented more than half of main as well as secondary battery markets,
respectively. Alkaline batteries account for about 80 percent of all portable batteries
manufactured in the United States, with a total yearly output of 10 billion units [175]. It is
projected that global battery revenues would reach $120 billion in 2019, growing at a pace of
7.7 percent per year. Figure 24 shows the yearly sales of plug-in cars in every country in the
globe from 2011 to 2017. The batteries used in electric cars are available in many shapes and
sizes [176]. During the period 2011 to 2017, the number of plug-in cars sold increased
significantly and at a fast pace, as shown in this graph.

41
 f
r oo
-p
re
lP

Fig. 24: Overview of sales of plug in vehicle [176].

na

Even while almost all batteries represent a threat to the ecosystem and health if they are not
appropriately handled , particularly securely, certain kinds of batteries are more hazardous than
ur

others because of their metal content. According to Bernardes et al. [177], there are a variety
Jo

of alternatives for disposing of batteries at the end of their useful lives, including stabilisation,
landfill, burning, and reuse. In the U. S., many alkaline and zinc-cadmium batteries are
discarded into landfills rather than being reutilised [178]; in China, many expended batteries
(excluding lead-acid batteries) are handled as household waste hence disposed of in landfills.
In the European Union, a huge portion of batteries is discarded rather than being reused; and
in the United Kingdom, a huge proportion of batteries is discarded off. Since the collecting
mechanism for old batteries in China is inadequate, current rates of used battery recycling in
China have been less than 2% [179].

Improved recycling processes and techniques have been developed to comply with more
strict environmental rules [180]. Often these batteries are recyclable, albeit at a high cost, with
the aid of chemically coupled with mechanical methods [180] for re-use in battery
manufacturing and other applications. The recycling of old batteries lowers manufacturing
costs and raw material usage, thus reducing environmental effects [181], but the costs of

42
complicated recycling keep rising. Figure 25 illustrates, as an example, the recycling of Zn and
Mn from alkaline and Zn-C batteries.

f
r oo
-p
re
lP
na
ur

Fig. 25: Recovery of Zn and Mn from old alkaline and Zn-C batteries [182] (License No.
Jo

5173650196775).

We have discussed the recent progress of the most common batteries and the associated
environmental impacts in the previous part. The following section will discuss the strengths,
weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) analysis of batteries application in energy
transmission.

4. SWOT Analysis of Battery in power transmission

Storing energy at a higher scale, especially in the power generation sector, will significantly
transform the electricity grid industry. Solely depending on the baseload power capable of
ramping up when demand is high, the battery usage will ensure the power required for any
application is produced closer and stored when demand is low. This section will explore the

43
SWOT analysis of batteries. SWOT analysis is designed to establish the merits of various
scenarios and its corresponding challenges. SWOT analysis is useful in the monitoring of a
business environment and prompting extension of certain instances [183]. SWOT matrix has
been applicable in several areas, mainly to determine a prudent analysis of a scenario [184].
The strength, which is one of the key categories of the analysis highlights the positive impact
of the scenario compared to others. The weakness is the negative factors that lead to
unfavorable scenarios. Opportunities are the external influence that can impact the scenario
positively futuristically. The external impact that could alter the performance leading to
insecurities, is captured under insecurity [185]. Fig. 26 captures the classification of battery
energy storage systems linked to a transmission and distribution system, while Fig. 27 presents

f
an overview of SWOT Analysis of batteries.

r oo
-p
re
lP
na
ur
Jo

Fig. 26: Application of battery energy storage systems in relation to power transmission and
distribution.

44
 f
oo
Fig. 27: SWOT Analysis of battery

r
-p
re
4.1 Strength Analysis
lP

4.1.1 S1: Voltage Support

na

The devices used for producing, transmitting, and utilization of electrical energy come with
some capacitive and inductive characteristics leading to a reactive flow of power. The provision
ur

of voltage support in this case, a battery is capable of offsetting this reactive power while
Jo

ensuring the voltage is restored and maintained within the ideal range. This approach is capable
of ensuring the system is constantly stable [186, 187]. Battery energy storage units can serve
as voltage support by acting as dynamic reactive power supplies. The battery can also inject
and absorb reactive power with the distribution and transmission network. The capability for
the control unit algorithm to react swiftly to the voltage changes makes them ideal for this
purpose. Furthermore, the four-quadrant operation for power converter systems ensures battery
energy storage systems constantly control reactive power nearly independent of the energy
stored. Again, it is worth noting that voltage support occurs locally because reactive power
cannot be transferred over longer distances [188, 189].

4.1.2 S2: Frequency regulation

Issues about mismatch between the production of energy and the load can result in grid
frequency changes. The presence of a battery can effectively respond to this increment or

45
decrement of the grid frequency by charging or discharging hence ensuring the grid frequency
is maintained within the acceptable range [187]. This is sometimes referred to in some books
as load following. Resources ensuring ‘load following’ change their output in correlation to the
change in balance occurring between electric supply and demand for a specific location. The
quick response of battery to load changes makes them ideal for this phenomenon during power
fluctuations unlike other energy storage mediums [190].

4.1.3 S3: Supply reserve capacity

When a spinning reserve is specified, it refers to a portion of a system's capacity that is not
used during the regular operation of the system. In the case of battery energy storage system

f
(BESS) that is kept at a level of charge with the goal of reacting to a generation or transmission

oo
loss, it is referred to as spinning reserve. In contrast, non-spinning reserve capacity is offline
and is not synchronised with the grid frequency. It can be made accessible in 600 seconds or

r
-p
less, and it is only utilised when all spinning reserves have been brought online. BESSs are not
included in this classification). The reaction time of BESS varies depending on the application,
re
ranging from milliseconds to minutes, delivering electricity to ensure power delivery continuity
lP

while backup generators are initiated and brought online. Consequently, by leveraging BESSs
for the supply of this auxiliary service, it may be possible to eliminate the need for backup
na

generators that are now sitting idle [191].

ur

4.1.4 S4: Black Start

Jo

The capacity of a producing unit to start without the assistance of an external electrical supply
is referred to as black start, and it is critical for the effective restoring of the grid after a
blackout. BESSs may be utilised to provide an active reservoir of power and energy inside the
grid. They can be used to re-energize transmission and distribution lines and supply the
electricity to restore the functioning of power plants, as necessary [188].

4.1.5 S5: Electrical Energy time shift

It is possible to use electric energy time-shifting, also known as energy arbitrage, to charge the
BESS during periods of low system marginal cost or prices while simultaneously consuming
or selling the stored power during periods of high system marginal cost or prices (also known
as energy arbitrage). By storing surplus energy generated by renewable energy sources such as
wind turbines and photovoltaics, the BESS may conduct a time-shift operation [187]. This
excess energy would otherwise be restricted during times of overproduction. In the second

46
situation, the service is referred to as "renewable energy time-shifting," which is simply electric
energy time-shifting that is connected to renewable generating that is either centrally or
distributedly located [186]. The "on-site renewable generation shifting" service is provided
when energy storage is utilised to time-shift renewable energy for end-use customers who
produce renewable energy on-site. The term "load leveling" refers to a service quite similar to
the one described above. It is the ce of storing electricity when the system's load is low and
giving it back to the grid during periods when demand is high that is referred to as this service.
Because of the BESS's electricity, the demandfor peak-generating plants is reduced in this
situation. As a result, the deployment of the BESS allows for the deferral of expenditures in an
additional producing capacity and TS/DS modernization.

f
oo
4.1.6 S6: Electrical supply capacity

In order to delay and/or reduce the demand for investments in new generating capacity,

r
-p
batteries may be employed as storage units, and the latter can be rented out on a long-term basis
in the wholesale energy market.
re
4.1.7 S7: Peak shaving
lP

Peak shaving is a method of avoiding the construction of new generating capacity by using the
na

battery systems to deliver peak demands with significant variability to save costs. The benefits
that may be gained by using this program are many. First and foremost, a drop in peak demand
ur

reduces the power costs of commercial and industrial users, as previously stated. Furthermore,
Jo

it has a favorable influence on the utility side, as the requirement for peaking units is decreased,
resulting in a reduction in the operating costs of producing electricity during these
times. Moreover, since it causes the loads to be flatter and with lower peaks, it allows
investments in new infrastructure to be postponed [191].

4.1.8 S8: Upgrade deferral

Maintenance or upgrading of existing transmission and distribution equipment may be

postponed or avoided by using this approach. This may be accomplished by using tiny
quantities of energy storage that are capable of providing enough additional capacity to
postpone the need for new infrastructure expenditures. The following are some of the
advantages that will result from this application: lower costs for consumers, better use of utility
assets, allocation of cash for other initiatives, and a reduction in financial risk associated with
the investment. At the same time, the equipment's life may be prolonged, which might be

47
crucial for equipment such as aged transformers or subterranean circuits, whose replacement
or upgrading would be prohibitively expensive.

4.1.10 S9: Congestion relief during transmission

Congestion in the transmission network may occur during moments of high demand. One
method of dealing with this issue is to make expensive infrastructure expenditures to enhance
transmission capacity. This cost will be passed on to consumers via higher transmission access
prices, increasing usage of congestion charges, or locational marginal pricing for wholesale
power at certain transmission nodes, among other things. Installing an energy storage system
will save money on all of the prices stated above. To be precise, energy storage is constructed

f
downstream of the congested segment of the transmission line.

oo
4.1.11 S10: Integration of renewable energy systems

r
-p
A battery energy storage system is employed in this class of technologies with the goal of
easing the incorporation of renewable energy systems and ensuring that they operate as
re
efficiently as possible. Batteries may be useful in smoothing power output and managing the
lP

ramp rate of a renewable production plant, to reduce sudden voltage and power fluctuations on
the electrical grid. Such processes like wind gusts or fast changes in irradiance owing to clouds
na

are responsible for the latter phenomenon. It is possible to sustain a fixed level of variable and
intermittent renewable energy for an extended length of time because the quick output
ur

variations are countered by other dispatchable power.

Jo

4.1.12 S11: Power Quality Enhancement

Storage units may be used to improve the power quality as well as safeguard loads of customers
from occurrences that last only a brief period. Variability in voltage magnitude or/and
frequency, poor power factor, harmonics, and service outages are all examples of these
occurrences in the electrical grid. Battery energy storage systems discharge to smooth out the
disturbance and reduce these occurrences, with typical discharge periods ranging from a few
seconds to a few minutes.

4.1.13 S12: Management of electricity bill

The installation of storage devices behind the meter allows customers to move their power
purchases from hours when time-of-use (TOU) costs are at their greatest to times when rates
are at their lowest, resulting in a decrease in their monthly electricity bills. In this instance, the

48
service supplied is referred to as "time-of-use bill management." The "demand charge
reduction" service has the same impact as the "demand charge reduction" service since the
storage units are smoothing the load profile to lower the peak demand charge incurred by the
client. Energy storage combined with renewable energy sources is referred to as "electric bill
management with renewables" when the technology is utilised in combination with renewable
energy storage systems. Fig. 28 depicts application of battery energy technology in the power
industry.

f
r oo
-p
re
lP
na
ur
Jo

Fig. 28: Battery application in the generation and supply of power

4.2 Weakness

Batteries are gaining in popularity for various grid applications because they minimise the
intermittency of renewable energy, increase the flexibility of power transmission and
distribution, modify power peaking, and reorganise the power market, among other benefits.
Its short reaction time, high efficiency, minimal self-discharge, and scaling practicality make
the battery superior to most conventional energy storage systems. The capacity of battery

49
energy storage systems in stationary applications is expected to expand from 11 GWh in 2017
to 167 GWh in 2030 [192]. The battery type is one of the most critical aspects that might have
an influence on the efficiency and thecost of a grid-connected battery energy storage system.
It is necessary to take into account several requirements when selecting appropriate batteries
for an energy storage system, such as specific energy, or capacity, which is related to runtime;
specific power, or capacity to deliver high current; life-span, which reflects cycle life but also
longevity; safety, efficiency at high and low temperatures; and cost. In addition to toxicity,
fast-charge capabilities, self-discharge, and shelf life are critical considerations. Battery types
used for grid-connected renewable energy storage are classified as follows: lead-acid batteries,
sodium-sulfur (Na S) batteries, vanadium redox (VRB) batteries, as well as lithium-ion

f
batteries. Each of these technologies has acquired a certain degree of maturity in stationary

oo
energy storage systems. The NaS battery is best suited for peak shaving, transmission and

r
distribution network management, and load-leveling; the VRB battery is best suited for high
-p
capacity power systems with a capacity ranging from 100 kW to 10 MW; and both the Li-ion
re
battery and the lead acid battery are well suited for intermittent source power storage in
renewable energy systems. There may be more comparisons between the Li-ion battery and the
lP

lead-acid battery as a result of this. Lithium-ion batteries have begun to take the role of lead-
acid batteries as energy storage solutions for power grids. There are a variety of reasons why
na

lithium-ion batteries are preferable than lead acid batteries. For starters, Li-ion batteries offer
ur

a greater energy density than other types of batteries, allowing manufacturers to store large
amounts of energy in small places. According to industry standards, a typical lithium-ion
Jo

battery can store 150 watt hours in a kilogram of battery. However, a lead-acid battery can only
store 25 watt hours per kilogram of battery. Aside from that, Li-ion batteries have better
resilience, which enables them to be discharged deeply and quickly without being destroyed.
Lithium-ion batteries may be drained to roughly 80% of their State of Charge (SOC) and at a
rate of C/2 without suffering any long-term harm, but lead-acid batteries lose potential cycles
if they are discharged below 50% of their SOC or at a rate greater than C/8 [193]. Furthermore,
when cycle life is taken into consideration, lithium-ion batteries are more cost-effective in the
long run since they use less energy each cycle.

50
According to estimates, only around 70-90 percent of the overall cell manufacturing can be
utilised since the remainder has flaws. Many batteries also fail when they are put through their
paces by the automobile maker or integrator to determine whether or not they are suitable for
usage. Battery makers must strive to produce in a more environmentally friendly manner while
minimising waste. As well as meeting ever-rising quality standards, they must also contend
with increasing cost and competitive pressures. In order to address the scarcity of trained
personnel in many European nations and provide flexible manufacturing solutions that can
adapt to changing customer demands, several countries in Europe must develop creative
solutions. On the other hand, users are demanding larger capacity, better quality, more excellent
safety, and longer service life. Below are some notable weaknesses of batteries.

f
oo
4.2.1 W1: Shorter lifespan/service life due to charging and discharging

In Figure 29a, the voltage, current, as well as capacity of batteries example lithium-ion are

r
-p
shown as they fluctuate throughout the charging process. The charge current remains constant
during the charging process, but the battery voltage gradually rises until it reaches a peak value.
re
The battery then enters a state of saturation charge, during which the voltage remains constant
lP

while the current begins to decrease until the charge is stopped when the current reaches 3
percent of the rated current [193]. The charging process then comes to a close, and the battery
na

is deemed to be completely charged. Several low-consumption users choose to halt the

charging process as soon as the battery voltage reaches the cut-off (constant) voltage in order
ur

to save time and money. The charged battery achieves a state of charge (SOC) of around 85
Jo

percent. In every other case, the capacity continues to grow until the termination.

Figure 29b depicts a detailed representation of the charging process. Charge is completed in
two stages: Stage 1 is the constant current charge stage, and Stage 2 serves as a saturation
charge stage, where the battery has completed its charge [194]. During Stage 3, which occurs
after the charge is completed, the battery voltage starts to decline as the battery attempts to
relieve the tension that has built up. A Li-ion battery that has been charged for a longer period
of time in the saturation stage can maintain a higher voltage for a longer period of time than
one that has not been charged. The open-circuit voltage of a Li-ion battery will finally settle to
a value between 3.70V and 3.90V after some time has passed. A larger charge current does not
necessarily result in a faster charging process. Although it accelerates the voltage rise to the
peak voltage, it slows down the saturation charge process, which is the last step in the charging
process. A faster charge rate can rapidly recharge a battery to around 70% capacity. Extremely

51
rapid charging may result in catastrophic damage to the battery, as well as capacity loss and
safety concerns. According to the most manufacturer, the charge rates for energy cells should
be between 0.5C and 1C. Battery manufacturers suggest charging at a pace of 0.8C or less in
order to maximise battery longevity. A lithium-ion battery with cathode materials comprising
cobalt, manganese, nickel, and aluminum can normally be charged to 4.20V/cell with a
tolerance of +/- 50 volts per cell, according to industry standards. Some nickel-based batteries
can only be charged to 4.10V/cell, however some high capacity Li-ion batteries can be charged
to 4.3V/cell or more, depending on the capacity [194]. Overcharge Lithium-ion batteries have
the potential to overheat, inflict severe damage, or even catch fire. Protection circuits are
included into battery packs to prevent the cells from being overcharged and damaging

f
themselves. Charging a non-cobalt battery, such as a lithium iron phosphate battery,

oo
necessitates the use of a particular charger designed to safeguard the battery.

r
-p
re
lP
na
ur
Jo

a)

52
 f
r oo
-p
re
b)
lP

Fig. 29: a) Graph representing the charging of batteries b) Charge state of lithium-ion
[194].
na
ur

In terms of discharge characteristics, Li-ion batteries are classified according to their capacity
and loading. Generally speaking, Li-ion batteries may be classified into two categories: those
Jo

that store power and those that store energy. When compared to other energy storage devices,
the power cell has a low capacity but high load capabilities, making it ideal for high-current
applications such as power tools [195]. A portable electronic device such as a laptop or a
smartphone may benefit from the use of an energy cell, which is intended to have the most
capacity possible to extend runtime. The size of the particles on the electrodes determines the
capacity and loading of the battery. The bigger the particles, the greater the surface area of the
electrode, resulting in a greater capacity. Higher battery power is achieved by the use of finer
electrode particles. When the power is drawn continuously from Li-ion batteries, the voltage
of the batteries follows a smooth curve throughout discharge. The capacity discharged
increases in a linear fashion with time, but the current remains constant. Lithium-ion batteries
drain more quickly as the discharge current increases, resulting in greater power output. When
discharged at a high C-rate, the energy cell, on the other hand, has a limited endurance and
capacity. Normally, in big energy storage systems, the energy cells are coupled in parallel and

53
series in order to obtain high capacity while also operating at a high power load. While high
discharge currents do not lower the discharge capacity of power cells, the stress caused by rapid
discharge accelerates battery deterioration and shortens battery life. This holds true for the
energy cell as well. It is not suggested to use currents greater than the battery's rated charge
and discharge currents.

4.2.2 W2: Constant Maintenance culture/routine

A battery is an electrical device that is very sensitive. It is critical that batteries be

well maintained to retain their reliability. Under optimal operational and maintenance settings,
this might result in a battery life of 7 - 8 years, depending on the circumstances. It is not

f
uncommon to come across batteries that function really well. If you have issues in the fifth or

oo
sixth year of the battery's life, it is quite doubtful that you will be able to justify expensive
repairs. It would be prudent to think of a regular life span of five to six years as the norm. It is

r
-p
possible that a lifespan of less than five years indicates operational misuse or inadequate
maintenance [196, 197]. According to the statistics provided by Hamko Battery Industry Ltd.,
re
a battery may last up to 7-8 years if it is maintained at a constant level of 100 percent. However,
lP

when the maintenance rate is 50 percent or average, it will only last 3-4 years at the most.
However, if the battery's maintenance rate falls below 50% or if it is not maintained at all, it
na

will only last for the duration of its guarantee or it will not. A variety of issues have arisen in
the battery as a result of the lack of maintenance carried out. Problems with undercharging or
ur

overcharging are often encountered as a result of a failure to perform regular battery repair.
Jo

Battery capacity might be reduced in day-to-day routines if the charging of the battery is not
managed or maintained appropriately throughout the process. It is not only detrimental to
battery capacity during regular work activities, but it also produces aberrant sulfation, which
results in additional capacity decline and early cell failure. Overcharging not only results in
needless utility costs, but it also results in high temperatures and overgassing, which may lead
to premature cell failure and other problems. Battery issues have also been reported as a result
of the incorrect watering procedure. It is possible that if watering is not done correctly in time
and the battery electrolyte level is allowed to decrease significantly, the gas volume within the
battery will expand proportionally, leading to an increase in the quantity of combustible gas
mixture produced. An oxyhydrogen explosion may occur as a consequence of any external or
internal ignition source. Furthermore, since the plates are no longer covered by the electrolyte,
they may corrode, which may result in the eventual failure of the battery. Overwatering results
in the overflow of electrolyte solution once again. As time passes, more water is added, and

54
the electrolyte solution gets more dilute, resulting in lower gravity readings and a reduction in
battery capacity. Additionally, exterior corrosion and grounding are hastened, increasing the
likelihood of issues with the forklift's electronics and, to a lesser degree, reducing the battery's
life expectancy and endurance. Aside from that, several battery issues are caused by loose or
corroded connections, which are the consequence of a failure to properly maintain the battery.
However, effective battery maintenance always guarantees that the battery is properly charged,
that it is properly watered, and that the battery is well cared. Maintenance will guarantee that
your battery is trouble-free and it will last a long time. It also ensures that the battery's
performance remains consistent. As a result, there is no doubt about the need of appropriate
battery maintenance.

f
oo
4.2.3 W3: Batteries are expensive due to operational characteristics

In the previous three decades, the cost of lithium-ion battery cells has dropped by 97 percent

r
-p
on average. In 1991, a battery with a capacity of one kilowatt-hour cost $7500; in 2018, the
same battery cost just $181. That is a 41-fold reduction. What's encouraging is that costs are
re
still dropping precipitously: between 2014 and 2018, the cost is almost half. In barely four
lP

years, the population has more than halved. As seen in the figure below (Fig. 30), which depicts
the average price trend of lithium-ion cells from 1991 to 2018, we can observe that prices have
na

declined. This is shown on a logarithmic axis and is expressed in USD per kilowatt-hour in the
year 2018. Micah Ziegler and Jessika Trancik compiled this information by creating a
ur

worldwide database that tracked lithium-ion cell pricing, installed capacity, and other metrics
Jo

such as energy density over the course of many years [198].

55
 f
r oo
-p
re
lP
na
ur

Fig. 30: Decline in cost of batteries [198].

Jo

With the rising usage of the low-cost cathode chemistry known as lithium iron phosphate, as
well as the decline in the use of pricey cobalt in nickel-base cathodes, prices for lithium iron
phosphate (LFP) continued to decline in 2021. However, even low-cost chemistries like as
LFP, which is especially vulnerable to fluctuations in lithium carbonate pricing, have felt the
pinch of growing costs across the whole supply chain. According to on historical patterns, the
BNEF's 2021 Battery Price Survey, which was issued in time for the virtual BNEF Summit
Shanghai, estimates that average pack costs would be below $100/kWh by 2024, according to
the survey. However, due to rising raw material costs in the near future, the average pack prices
might grow to $135/kWh in nominal terms by 2022, representing a 35% increase [199]. In the
absence of additional innovations that might reduce this effect, it is possible that the time at
which electricity costs fall below $100/kWh will be delayed by two years. Additionally, the
regular maintenance schedule is likely to negatively influence battery cost, which is why
batteries are more expensive when compared to alternative energy storage medium.

56
4.2.4 W4: Lack of standardization

As the battery is novel to a larger extent in terms of technology, the regulation, which is subject
to the Electricity Act 1989, really hasn't kept up with the technology yet. Due to the fact that
the 1989 Act did not envisage storage, battery has to be classified as a kind of generation and/or
an end-user [200]. Unless it is small enough to qualify for an exemption, a battery storage
facility will be required to be licensed and, as a result, must conform with the different Grid
Codes – causing an administrative nightmare – in order to operate as a source of generation. In
addition, as a result of EU "unbundling" restrictions, DNOs and power providers are unable to
possess storage assets, which is impeding the development of "smart grids." Suppose the owner
of a storage asset is classified as an end user. In that case, the owner of the storage asset is

f
oo
charged the Climate Change Levy (CCL) on both the power entering and exiting the battery,
resulting in a double charge. HM Revenue & Customs (HMRC) would have to evaluate each

r
-p
project individually to determine whether it should be classified as an end user or not,
particularly in the United Kingdom.
re
EV manufacturers, on the other hand, have emphasised the need to standardise battery types.
lP

Enhanced production efficiency and cost savings are achieved by the standardisation of
components, making it a crucial approach for electric vehicle manufacturers [201]. We should
na

point out that Tesla has already standardised cylindrical batteries, as has General Motors with
pouch batteries, and that Volkswagen has lately started standardising prismatic cells. The
ur

companies Tesla, General Motors, and Volkswagen all revealed cost reduction measures on
Jo

their respective Battery Days and EV Days and their respective Power Days. Rechargeable
electric vehicle batteries are projected to have zero modules in the final design structure (as
opposed to the current 'cellmodulepack'), since eliminating modules may lower costs and
increase volume utilisation. While LG Energy Solution and Samsung SDI are working on
technologies that will allow zero-module batteries to be commercialized, Tesla and
Volkswagen have already revealed intentions to use the technology (timing undisclosed). At
the end of the day, zero-module batteries are likely to become the standard solution. In our
opinion, the competitive divergence of battery cell technology amongst companies will be
modest. Battery-related technological research has so far concentrated on improving cell
performance, but pack technologies are expected to become more essential in the future [202].

4.2.5 W5: Outdated regulatory policy

57
Due to the fact that energy storage technology is still in its infancy, regulatory regulation is
trailing behind, as one would anticipate with developing technologies. Retail laws, in addition
to wholesale market standards, will need to be revised as well, particularly as demand in
residential, commercial, and industrial properties develops. EU institutions are now reviewing
the European Commission's legislative proposal for a new EU battery rule, which is actually
in the midst of being finalised [203]. A broad range of consequences are expected for the whole
battery value chain, including those operating inside and outside the EU but wanting to sell
their products into the European Union. According to the European Commission's original
battery regulation initiative, which was released in December 2020 after more than two years
of preparation, is currently being reviewed by the European Parliament as well as the EU

f
Council as part of Europe's political process. Essentially, the EU institutions will go over it

oo
with a fine-tooth comb, making various amendments to 79 articles and 14 annexes included

r
inside the text as they see fit. Despite the lengthy nature of the process, the European
-p
Commission anticipates that the final regulatory framework will be established in 2022 and
re
will be in effect by the end of 2023 at the very latest [204]. The new law will take the place of
the 2006 batteries regulation, which was deemed out of date and not sufficiently comprehensive
lP

at the time. Because the previous directive does not cover developing and novel batteries
technology, as well as some aspects of the battery life cycle such as labelling regulations and
na

end-of-life management, it is being phased out. A major emphasis is placed on long-term

ur

viability in the Commission's new proposal, which introduces a broad variety of new standards
for batteries as well as essential battery raw material. European Commission hopes to
Jo

encourage the development of the whole battery value chain in Europe, from extraction and
refinement of battery raw materials to the production of cells, battery assembly, and battery
recycling [203]. Furthermore, it is anticipated that the European regulatory framework will
serve as a model for legislation in other jurisdictions or private efforts in other parts of the
globe, all of which may be anticipated to be implemented in near future. A number of case
studies have already emerged to support this trend. For example, the Global Battery Alliance
(GBA), a public-private partnership with more than 70 partners from business, government,
academia, and non-governmental organisations (NGOs), has set itself the goal of establishing
a sustainable as well as dependable battery value chain as its overarching goal. In 2021, this
project, which was established under the auspices of the World Economic Forum, will be able
to operate as a legally separate legal organisation [204]. In the near future, outcomes and
metrics from this worldwide endeavour are likely to be made public. In addition to being major
aspects of a proposed EU battery regulation, many of the standards in the proposed EU battery

58
regulation are also key elements of the Global Battery Alliance's Battery Passport, which
intends to build a digital twin for each battery manufactured.

4.2.6 W6: Environmental challenges of batteries

Recycling, landfilling, processing, and (sadly) illicit dumping of used LIBs are all options for
managing these waste products (Fig. 31). Regional as well as local disposal routes are
influenced by national laws and regulations as well as recycling capacity, collection systems,
consumer behaviour, and battery retail marketplaces. It goes without saying that various
procedures are necessary for tiny batteries as opposed to big batteries [205].

f
r oo
-p
re
lP
na
ur
Jo

Fig. 31: Battery disposal options [206].

Depending on their size, small LIBs are returned by the customer via battery drop-off locations
(for LIBs that can be readily removed from the device) or are donated to waste electrical and
electronic equipment (WEEE) sites when the user is unable to remove them from the electrical
device. They are collected at these places and transferred to sorting facilities, where they are
either recycled or disposed of in landfill. Customers may dispose of tiny used LIBs in general
garbage or recycling bins because they are unaware of the collection system or because they
are idle, resulting in fires that cause significant damage during transit or at material recovery
facilities (MRFs) [207]. Veolia, one of the world's leading waste management businesses, has
reported a 38 percent rise in accidents since 2007, which they attribute to the presence of LIBs

59
in the trash stream. During the regular processing at MRFs, LIBs will be crushed or punctured,
which may result in fires or even explosions if not handled properly [207]. According to the
Environmental Services Association, approximately 250 fires in waste treatment facilities in
the United Kingdom were caused by small lithium ion battery between April 2019 and March
2020, compared to approximately 130 fires in the same period last year, representing a 25
percent increase in the total number of fires in these facilities. According to the German steel
recyclers' association (BDSV), LIBs were responsible for 90 percent of the fires that occurred
at their affiliated facilities in several years. A few concrete examples of such fires include an
incident at the Great Blakenham scrapyard in the United Kingdom (15th September 2017), in
which 100 tonnes of metal and a crane were destroyed; multiple incidents at Tokyo's

f
Musashino Clean Center garbage disposal facility in the years 2017 and 2018; and some other

oo
regular incidents in the United Kingdom, the United States, Scotland, and Germany [206].

r
-p
4.3 Opportunity
re
4.3.1 O1: Business opportunity
lP

The feasibility where added value coupled with the determination of a business prospects to
na

meet a specific target in terms of demand, hence leading to a higher profit margin being attained
as entrepreneurship [208]. The entrepreneur contemplates coming up with a product as well as
ur

services via unique arrangements with the sole purpose of producing money as their only
Jo

motivation. This encourages innovation while also expanding the number of available business
prospects. As the battery application for the grid industry has been identified as a profitable
business channel, potential investors may choose to consider investing in this area.

4.3.2 O2: Reduction in cost of battery

With considerable research activity, price of batteries is expected to decrease over time. For
example, in the case of lithium ion batteries, between 2000 and 2018, price of lithium ion
batteries has decreased dramatically, with the cost in 2010 being one sixth greater than cost in
2018. This trend is expected to continue for a longer length of time due to improvements made
throughout the manufacturing process as well as the development of fresh technical ideas [208].

4.3.3 O3: Improvement in Power as well as energy density

60
There is now fierce rivalry between batteries used in the automobile sector and batteries used
in other applications such as computers, smartphones, and other electronic devices. These
phenomena, in theory, point to the necessity for improving battery properties via ongoing
research and development efforts. Lithium sulphur batteries and air batteries are two
possibilities that might be explored more in the future.

4.3.4. O4: Improvement in battery life

Study into forecasting the useful life of the cell and the remaining useful life of the cell via a
decrease in chemical degradation should be the focus of ongoing research initiatives in this
area. This, together with the use of non-flammable electrolytes, would have a substantial

f
impact on the industry. Some of these experiments have also focused on solid-state batteries,

oo
which are becoming more popular. These sorts of batteries have been deemed safer due to the
fact that they are less prone to catching fire and have more energy as well as power density

r
-p
than other varieties. They also have superior chemical and thermal properties. They also have
a higher life expectancy, which has been cited as the primary reason for the high level of
re
research activity that has been championed in this field [209].
lP

4.3.5 O5: Fuel prices

na

The pricing of fossil fuel fluctuates and is affected by various variables, including supply and
demand and economic and political considerations. As a result of the present price of fossil
ur

fuels, the attractiveness of alternative energy sources is significantly impacted, and consumers
Jo

find it difficult to transition to new technical ideas [210].

4.4. Threats

4.4.2 T1: Increment in cost of electricity

For the time being, the majority of nations are still struggling with the development of
infrastructure for battery applications. Note that the creation of infrastructure for the technology
will be expensive, and this will have a knock-on impact on the cost of electricity as a result.
The other problem is the need for certain modifications to the electric power system in order
to accommodate the increased demand. However, from a microeconomic standpoint, there
should be a need for supply and demand, which would result in a rise in the price of power
[211].

61
4.4.3 T2: Commercialization of fuel cells

Fuel cells are efficient energy conversion devices that demonstrate a high potential to replace
batteries in several applications [212-214]. Furthermore, fuel cells have lower environmental
impacts than batteries and could be used for wastewater treatment [215-218]. With the
advancement of fuel cells over time, it is possible that a dichotomy will emerge in the
electrification of stationary applications as compared to currently available approaches. The
fact that fuel cells are energy conversion devices means that the use of batteries in this sort of
application will be unnecessary, and therefore the majority of the issues associated with
batteries will be avoided in this situation. When coupled to hydrogen, fuel cells offer improved
energy efficiency and emit less greenhouse gases, which are both beneficial to the environment.

f
oo
There are still fuel cell research efforts being carried out with the express goal of lowering the
cost of the cell in conjunction with an increase in the number of hydrogen fueling stations.

r
4.4.4 T3: End of life -p
re
Lithium-ion batteries, which are composed of heavy metals as well as toxic electrolytes,
constitute a hazard to the environment when their composition is exposed to the local
lP

surroundings after the end of their useful life. The underground water might quickly get
na

contaminated if the waste is stored on a landfill site, which is a possibility. Furthermore,

incineration has the potential to release harmful gases into the environment as a result of
ur

combustion.
Jo

Conclusion

Currently, batteries are the most common and effective power storage technique for small-scale
energy requirements. It is critical to increase the spatial-temporal flexibility of the electric grid,
and battery energy storage can play a key role. There is a growing global issue about
environmental effects and health concerns. A focus is required to solve such issues, particularly
with regard to health implications. All these key factors need to be examined holistically to
accelerate the commercialization of some novel types of batteries and foster healthy
competition with existing energy storage devices. Lead-acid, nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH),
lithium-ion, redox flow, and sodium-sulfur batteries are among the commercially available
utility-scale battery options. These technologies often exhibit a wide range of technical and
economic features, such as energy density, power density, energy efficiency, lifespan, safety,

62
cost, etc., that are distinct from one another. Because of these distinctions, a technology is
particularly well suited for a specific energy storage use, owing to certain technological and
economic benefits. As a result, we continue to see a wide range of battery technologies on the
market for energy storage throughout the world. Every battery concept is in the process of
evolving and improving. Their rates of development, on the other hand, differ significantly.
Compared to lead-acid, nickel-metal-hydride, sodium-sulfur batteries, lithium-ion, and other
rechargeable batteries; redox flow batteries are rapidly being used due to their substantial
performance improvements and cost decreases driven by widespread demand as well
as phenomenal market growth. According to data from Navigant Research, the lithium-ion
battery is well-positioned to become dominant battery storage technology in the future, with

f
the most expanded installed capacity in the near future. Several well-known battery suppliers,

oo
such as AES and Tesla, have chosen Li-ion batteries as the basis for their energy storage

r
products, resulting in intense competition in the energy storage industry. The current work
-p
highlighted batteries' strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) analysis in
re
power transmission. The analysis showed that the batteries have many strengths and
opportunities, compared to a few weaknesses and threats. Although the SWOT focused on the
lP

power transition, it can be used as a guideline for the batteries in other applications such as
electric vehicles, …etc.
na
ur

References
Jo

[1] Letcher TM. Global warming—a complex situation. Climate Change: Elsevier; 2021. p. 3-17.
[2] Olabi AG. The 3rd international conference on sustainable energy and environmental protection
SEEP 2009 – Guest Editor’s Introduction. Energy. 2010;35(12):4508-9.
[3] Abdalla AM, Hossain S, Nisfindy OB, Azad AT, Dawood M, Azad AK. Hydrogen production, storage,
transportation and key challenges with applications: A review. Energy Conversion and Management.
2018;165:602-27.
[4] Mohamed M, Leung P, Sulaiman M. Performance characterization of a vanadium redox flow
battery at different operating parameters under a standardized test-bed system. Applied energy.
2015;137:402-12.
[5] Olabi A-G, Adil M, Sayed ET, Iqbal A, Rodriguez C, Abdelkareem MA. Lithium-Ion Batteries. In: Olabi
A-G, editor. Encyclopedia of Smart Materials. Oxford: Elsevier; 2022. p. 93-105.
[6] Wilberforce T, Olabi AG, Sayed ET, Elsaid K, Abdelkareem MA. Progress in carbon capture
technologies. Science of The Total Environment. 2021;761:143203.
[7] Olabi AG, Abdelkareem MA. Renewable energy and climate change. Renewable and Sustainable
Energy Reviews. 2022;158:112111.
[8] Heard BP, Brook BW, Wigley TM, Bradshaw CJ. Burden of proof: A comprehensive review of the
feasibility of 100% renewable-electricity systems. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews.
2017;76:1122-33.

63
[9] Olabi AG, Sayed ET, Wilberforce T, Jamal A, Alami AH, Elsaid K, et al. Metal-Air Batteries—A Review.
Energies. 2021;14(21):7373.
[10] Olabi AG, Abdelkareem MA. Energy storage systems towards 2050. Energy. 2021;219:119634.
[11] Alami AH, Rabaia MKH, Sayed ET, Ramadan M, Abdelkareem MA, Alasad S, et al. Management of
potential challenges of PV technology proliferation. Sustainable Energy Technologies and
Assessments. 2022;51:101942.
[12] Rezk H, Mukhametzyanov IZ, Abdelkareem MA, Salameh T, Sayed ET, Maghrabie HM, et al. Multi-
criteria decision making for different concentrated solar thermal power technologies. Sustainable
Energy Technologies and Assessments. 2022;52:102118.
[13] Mahmoud M, Ramadan M, Naher S, Pullen K, Ali Abdelkareem M, Olabi A-G. A review of
geothermal energy-driven hydrogen production systems. Thermal Science and Engineering Progress.
2021;22:100854.
[14] Sayed ET, Wilberforce T, Elsaid K, Rabaia MKH, Abdelkareem MA, Chae K-J, et al. A critical review
on environmental impacts of renewable energy systems and mitigation strategies: Wind, hydro,
biomass and geothermal. Science of The Total Environment. 2021;766:144505.

f
[15] Olabi AG, Wilberforce T, Elsaid K, Sayed ET, Salameh T, Abdelkareem MA, et al. A Review on Failure

oo
Modes of Wind Turbine Components. Energies. 2021;14(17):5241.
[16] Abdelkareem MA, Lootah MA, Sayed ET, Wilberforce T, Alawadhi H, Yousef BAA, et al. Fuel cells
for carbon capture applications. Science of The Total Environment. 2021;769:144243.

r
[17] Sayed ET, Abdelkareem MA, Mahmoud MS, Baroutaji A, Elsaid K, Wilberforce T, et al. Augmenting
-p
performance of fuel cells using nanofluids. Thermal Science and Engineering Progress.
2021;25:101012.
re
[18] Ahmed NA, Miyatake M, Al-Othman A. Power fluctuations suppression of stand-alone hybrid
generation combining solar photovoltaic/wind turbine and fuel cell systems. Energy Conversion and
lP

management. 2008;49(10):2711-9.
[19] Denholm P, Ela E, Kirby B, Milligan M. Role of energy storage with renewable electricity
generation. National Renewable Energy Lab.(NREL), Golden, CO (United States); 2010.
na

[20] Rezk H, Abdelkareem MA, Ghenai C. Performance evaluation and optimal design of stand-alone
solar PV-battery system for irrigation in isolated regions: A case study in Al Minya (Egypt). Sustainable
Energy Technologies and Assessments. 2019;36:100556.
ur

[21] Salameh T, Abdelkareem MA, Olabi AG, Sayed ET, Al-Chaderchi M, Rezk H. Integrated standalone
hybrid solar PV, fuel cell and diesel generator power system for battery or supercapacitor storage
Jo

systems in Khorfakkan, United Arab Emirates. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy.

2021;46(8):6014-27.
[22] Argyrou MC, Christodoulides P, Kalogirou SA. Energy storage for electricity generation and related
processes: Technologies appraisal and grid scale applications. Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews. 2018;94:804-21.
[23] Whittingham MS. Materials challenges facing electrical energy storage. Mrs Bulletin.
2008;33(4):411-9.
[24] Chen H, Cong TN, Yang W, Tan C, Li Y, Ding Y. Progress in electrical energy storage system: A
critical review. Progress in natural science. 2009;19(3):291-312.
[25] Abdelkareem MA, Wilberforce T, Elsaid K, Sayed ET, Abdelghani EAM, Olabi AG. Transition metal
carbides and nitrides as oxygen reduction reaction catalyst or catalyst support in proton exchange
membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs). International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 2021;46(45):23529-47.
[26] Bueno C, Carta JA. Wind powered pumped hydro storage systems, a means of increasing the
penetration of renewable energy in the Canary Islands. Renewable and sustainable energy reviews.
2006;10(4):312-40.
[27] Kondoh J, Ishii I, Yamaguchi H, Murata A, Otani K, Sakuta K, et al. Electrical energy storage systems
for energy networks. Energy conversion and management. 2000;41(17):1863-74.
[28] Ribeiro PF, Johnson BK, Crow ML, Arsoy A, Liu Y. Energy storage systems for advanced power
applications. Proceedings of the IEEE. 2001;89(12):1744-56.

64
[29] Bolund B, Bernhoff H, Leijon M. Flywheel energy and power storage systems. Renewable and
Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2007;11(2):235-58.
[30] Aydogmus O, Boztas G, Celikel R. Design and analysis of a flywheel energy storage system fed by
matrix converter as a dynamic voltage restorer. Energy. 2022;238:121687.
[31] Sabihuddin S, Kiprakis AE, Mueller M. A numerical and graphical review of energy storage
technologies. Energies. 2015;8(1):172-216.
[32] Beaudin M, Zareipour H, Schellenberglabe A, Rosehart W. Energy storage for mitigating the
variability of renewable electricity sources: An updated review. Energy for sustainable development.
2010;14(4):302-14.
[33] Venkataramani G, Ramalingam V, Viswanathan K. Harnessing free energy from nature for efficient
operation of compressed air energy storage system and unlocking the potential of renewable power
generation. Scientific reports. 2018;8(1):1-11.
[34] Dehghani-Sanij A, Tharumalingam E, Dusseault M, Fraser R. Study of energy storage systems and
environmental challenges of batteries. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2019;104:192-
208.

f
[35] Alva G, Lin Y, Fang G. An overview of thermal energy storage systems. Energy. 2018;144:341-78.

oo
[36] Miller R. Capacitors for power grid storage-multi-hour bulk energy storage using capacitors. JME,
Inc. and Case Western Reserve University. Conference Capacitors for power grid storage-multi-hour
bulk energy storage using capacitors. JME, Inc. and Case Western Reserve University.

r
[37] Winter M, Brodd RJ. What are batteries, fuel cells, and supercapacitors? Chemical reviews.
2004;104(10):4245-70.
-p
[38] Barton JP, Infield DG. Energy storage and its use with intermittent renewable energy. IEEE
re
transactions on energy conversion. 2004;19(2):441-8.
[39] Khezri R, Mahmoudi A, Aki H. Optimal planning of solar photovoltaic and battery storage systems
lP

for grid-connected residential sector: Review, challenges and new perspectives. Renewable and
Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2022;153:111763.
[40] Lander L, Cleaver T, Rajaeifar MA, Nguyen-Tien V, Elliott RJ, Heidrich O, et al. Financial viability of
na

electric vehicle lithium-ion battery recycling. Iscience. 2021;24(7):102787.

[41] Kazempour SJ, Moghaddam MP, Haghifam M, Yousefi G. Electric energy storage systems in a
market-based economy: Comparison of emerging and traditional technologies. Renewable energy.
ur

2009;34(12):2630-9.
[42] McDowall J. Integrating energy storage with wind power in weak electricity grids. Journal of
Jo

Power sources. 2006;162(2):959-64.

[43] De Leon CP, Frías-Ferrer A, González-García J, Szánto D, Walsh FC. Redox flow cells for energy
conversion. Journal of power sources. 2006;160(1):716-32.
[44] Amodeo SJ, Chiacchiarini HG, Solsona JA, Busada C. High-performance sensorless nonlinear power
control of a flywheel energy storage system. Energy conversion and management. 2009;50(7):1722-
9.
[45] Gao L, Li Z, Zou Y, Yin S, Peng P, Shao Y, et al. A high-performance aqueous zinc-bromine static
battery. Iscience. 2020;23(8):101348.
[46] Ramadan O, Omer S, Jradi M, Sabir H, Riffat S. Analysis of compressed air energy storage for large-
scale wind energy in Suez, Egypt. International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies. 2016;11(4):476-
88.
[47] Rastler D. Overview of electric energy storage options for the electric enterprise. Conference
Overview of electric energy storage options for the electric enterprise.
[48] Amiryar ME, Pullen KR. A review of flywheel energy storage system technologies and their
applications. Applied Sciences. 2017;7(3):286.
[49] Sarbu I, Sebarchievici C. A comprehensive review of thermal energy storage. Sustainability.
2018;10(1):191.
[50] Manthiram A. A reflection on lithium-ion battery cathode chemistry. Nature communications.
2020;11(1):1-9.

65
[51] Rehman S, Al-Hadhrami LM, Alam MM. Pumped hydro energy storage system: A technological
review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2015;44:586-98.
[52] Cole S, Van Hertem D, Meeus L, Belmans R. SWOT analysis of utility side energy storage
technologies. Conference SWOT analysis of utility side energy storage technologies. p. 16-8.
[53] Kovalev K, Poltavets V, Kolchanova I. Flywheel energy storage systems for autonomous energy
systems with renewable energy sources. Conference Flywheel energy storage systems for
autonomous energy systems with renewable energy sources, vol. 643. IOP Publishing, p. 012106.
[54] Reddy TB. Linden’s handbook of batteries: McGraw-Hill Education, 2011.
[55] Hu X, Zou C, Zhang C, Li Y. Technological developments in batteries: a survey of principal roles,
types, and management needs. IEEE Power and Energy Magazine. 2017;15(5):20-31.
[56] Adelhelm P, Hartmann P, Bender CL, Busche M, Eufinger C, Janek J. From lithium to sodium: cell
chemistry of room temperature sodium–air and sodium–sulfur batteries. Beilstein journal of
nanotechnology. 2015;6(1):1016-55.
[57] Administration UEI. Battery Storage in the United States: An Update on Market Trends,
https://www.eia.gov/analysis/studies/electricity/batterystorage/pdf/battery_storage_2021.pdf. US

f
Energy Information Administration (EIA) Washington, DC, USA; 2020.

oo
[58] Wang Y, Wang L, Li M, Chen Z. A review of key issues for control and management in battery and
ultra-capacitor hybrid energy storage systems. eTransportation. 2020;4:100064.
[59] Lyu P, Liu X, Qu J, Zhao J, Huo Y, Qu Z, et al. Recent advances of thermal safety of lithium ion

r
battery for energy storage. Energy Storage Materials. 2020.
-p
[60] Zhang C, Wei Y-L, Cao P-F, Lin M-C. Energy storage system: Current studies on batteries and power
condition system. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2018;82:3091-106.
re
[61] Wali SB, Hannan M, Reza M, Ker PJ, Begum R, Abd Rahman M, et al. Battery storage systems
integrated renewable energy sources: A biblio metric analysis towards future directions. Journal of
lP

Energy Storage. 2021;35:102296.

[62] Hannan M, Al-Shetwi AQ, Begum R, Young S, Hoque M, Ker PJ, et al. The value of thermal
management control strategies for battery energy storage in grid decarbonization: Issues and
na

recommendations. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2020:124223.

[63] Linden D, Reddy TB. Handbook of Batteries 3 Ed. Amerika Serikat: The McGraw-Hills Companies.
Inc; 2002.
ur

[64] Hoppmann J, Volland J, Schmidt TS, Hoffmann VH. The economic viability of battery storage for
residential solar photovoltaic systems–A review and a simulation model. Renewable and Sustainable
Jo

Energy Reviews. 2014;39:1101-18.

[65] Vincent CA. Lithium batteries: a 50-year perspective, 1959–2009. Solid State Ionics. 2000;134(1-
2):159-67.
[66] Liu C, Li F, Ma LP, Cheng HM. Advanced materials for energy storage. Advanced materials.
2010;22(8):E28-E62.
[67] Vaalma C, Buchholz D, Weil M, Passerini S. A cost and resource analysis of sodium-ion batteries.
Nature reviews materials. 2018;3(4):1-11.
[68] Clark S, Borchers N, Jusys Z, Behm RJ, Horstmann B. Aqueous zinc batteries. Encyclopedia of
Electrochemistry: Online. 2007:1-54.
[69] Parker JF, Ko JS, Rolison DR, Long JW. Translating Materials-Level Performance into Device-
Relevant Metrics for Zinc-Based Batteries. Joule. 2018;2(12):2519-27.
[70] Zhu Q-N, Wang Z-Y, Wang J-W, Liu X-Y, Yang D, Cheng L-W, et al. Challenges and strategies for
ultrafast aqueous zinc-ion batteries. Rare Metals. 2021;40(2):309-28.
[71] Wang F, Borodin O, Gao T, Fan X, Sun W, Han F, et al. Highly reversible zinc metal anode for
aqueous batteries. Nature materials. 2018;17(6):543-9.
[72] Cheng F, Chen J, Gou X, Shen P. High‐power alkaline Zn–MnO2 batteries using γ‐MnO2
nanowires/nanotubes and electrolytic zinc powder. Advanced Materials. 2005;17(22):2753-6.
[73] Xu C, Li B, Du H, Kang F. Energetic zinc ion chemistry: the rechargeable zinc ion battery.
Angewandte Chemie. 2012;124(4):957-9.

66
[74] Shoji T, Hishinuma M, Yamamoto T. Zinc-manganese dioxide galvanic cell using zinc sulphate as
electrolyte. Rechargeability of the cell. Journal of applied electrochemistry. 1988;18(4):521-6.
[75] Ma L, Chen S, Li H, Ruan Z, Tang Z, Liu Z, et al. Initiating a mild aqueous electrolyte Co 3 O 4/Zn
battery with 2.2 V-high voltage and 5000-cycle lifespan by a Co (III) rich-electrode. Energy &
Environmental Science. 2018;11(9):2521-30.
[76] Wang N, Wan H, Duan J, Wang X, Tao L, Zhang J, et al. A review of zinc-based battery from alkaline
to acid. Materials Today Advances. 2021;11:100149.
[77] Shin J, Lee J, Park Y, Choi JW. Aqueous zinc ion batteries: focus on zinc metal anodes. Chemical
science. 2020;11(8):2028-44.
[78] Zhou J, Shan L, Tang B, Liang S. Development and challenges of aqueous rechargeable zinc
batteries. Chinese Science Bulletin. 2020.
[79] Wan F, Niu Z. Design strategies for vanadium‐based aqueous zinc‐ion batteries. Angewandte
Chemie. 2019;131(46):16508-17.
[80] Wang Z, Li H, Tang Z, Liu Z, Ruan Z, Ma L, et al. Hydrogel electrolytes for flexible aqueous energy
storage devices. Advanced Functional Materials. 2018;28(48):1804560.

f
[81] Chao D, Zhou W, Xie F, Ye C, Li H, Jaroniec M, et al. Roadmap for advanced aqueous batteries:

oo
From design of materials to applications. Science advances. 2020;6(21):eaba4098.
[82] Tang Y, Li X, Lv H, Xie D, Wang W, Zhi C, et al. Stabilized Co3+/Co4+ Redox Pair in In Situ Produced
CoSe2− x‐Derived Cobalt Oxides for Alkaline Zn Batteries with 10 000‐Cycle Lifespan and 1.9‐V Voltage

r
Plateau. Advanced Energy Materials. 2020;10(25):2000892.
-p
[83] Huang J, Guo Z, Ma Y, Bin D, Wang Y, Xia Y. Recent progress of rechargeable batteries using mild
aqueous electrolytes. Small Methods. 2019;3(1):1800272.
re
[84] Li H, Ma L, Han C, Wang Z, Liu Z, Tang Z, et al. Advanced rechargeable zinc-based batteries: Recent
progress and future perspectives. Nano Energy. 2019;62:550-87.
lP

[85] Borchers N, Clark S, Horstmann B, Jayasayee K, Juel M, Stevens P. Innovative zinc-based batteries.
Journal of Power Sources. 2020:229309.
[86] Linden D. Linden's Handbook of batteries: McGraw-Hill, 2010.
na

[87] Saminathan RK. Lead acid battery. Attacking sulphate passivation and cyclability problems: GRIN
Publishing Munich, 2017.
[88] Lach J, Wróbel K, Wróbel J, Podsadni P, Czerwiński A. Applications of carbon in lead-acid batteries:
ur

a review. Journal of Solid State Electrochemistry. 2019;23(3):693-705.

[89] Pradhan SK, Chakraborty B. Substrate materials and novel designs for bipolar lead-acid batteries:
Jo

A review. Journal of Energy Storage. 2020;32:101764.

[90] Mandal S, Thangarasu S, Thong PT, Kim S-C, Shim J-Y, Jung H-Y. Positive electrode active material
development opportunities through carbon addition in the lead-acid batteries: A recent progress.
Journal of Power Sources. 2021;485:229336.
[91] Lyu C, Lai Q, Ge T, Yu H, Wang L, Ma N. A lead-acid battery's remaining useful life prediction by
using electrochemical model in the Particle Filtering framework. Energy. 2017;120:975-84.
[92] Shen Y. Hybrid unscented particle filter based state-of-charge determination for lead-acid
batteries. Energy. 2014;74:795-803.
[93] Krieger EM, Cannarella J, Arnold CB. A comparison of lead-acid and lithium-based battery
behavior and capacity fade in off-grid renewable charging applications. Energy. 2013;60:492-500.
[94] Hannan M, Hoque MM, Mohamed A, Ayob A. Review of energy storage systems for electric
vehicle applications: Issues and challenges. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2017;69:771-
89.
[95] Sullivan J, Gaines L. A review of battery life-cycle analysis: state of knowledge and critical needs.
2010.
[96] Jülch V, Telsnig T, Schulz M, Hartmann N, Thomsen J, Eltrop L, et al. A holistic comparative analysis
of different storage systems using levelized cost of storage and life cycle indicators. Energy Procedia.
2015;73:18-28.

67
[97] Unterreiner L, Jülch V, Reith S. Recycling of battery technologies–ecological impact analysis using
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). Energy Procedia. 2016;99:229-34.
[98] Zhang M, Kang G, Wu L, Guan Y. A method for capacity prediction of lithium-ion batteries under
small sample conditions. Energy. 2021:122094.
[99] Jiaqiang E, Zhang B, Zeng Y, Wen M, Wei K, Huang Z, et al. Effects analysis on active equalization
control of lithium-ion batteries based on intelligent estimation of the state-of-charge. Energy.
2022;238:121822.
[100] Abo-Khalil AG, Abdelkareem MA, Sayed ET, Maghrabie HM, Radwan A, Rezk H, et al. Electric
vehicle impact on energy industry, policy, technical barriers, and power systems. International Journal
of Thermofluids. 2022;13:100134.
[101] Zhengxin J, Qin S, Yujiang W, Hanlin W, Bingzhao G, Lin H. An Immune Genetic Extended Kalman
Particle Filter approach on state of charge estimation for lithium-ion battery. Energy.
2021;230:120805.
[102] Ren X, Liu S, Yu X, Dong X. A method for state-of-charge estimation of lithium-ion batteries based
on PSO-LSTM. Energy. 2021:121236.

f
[103] Fan Y, Bao Y, Ling C, Chu Y, Tan X, Yang S. Experimental study on the thermal management

oo
performance of air cooling for high energy density cylindrical lithium-ion batteries. Applied Thermal
Engineering. 2019;155:96-109.
[104] Chen Z, Shi N, Ji Y, Niu M, Wang Y. Lithium-ion batteries remaining useful life prediction based

r
on BLS-RVM. Energy. 2021:121269.
-p
[105] Zhang M, Hu T, Wu L, Kang G, Guan Y. A method for capacity estimation of lithium-ion batteries
based on adaptive time-shifting broad learning system. Energy. 2021;231:120959.
re
[106] Huang D, Chen Z, Zhou S. Self-powered heating strategy for lithium-ion battery pack applied in
extremely cold climates. Energy. 2021:122095.
lP

[107] Shen D, Wu L, Kang G, Guan Y, Peng Z. A novel online method for predicting the remaining useful
life of lithium-ion batteries considering random variable discharge current. Energy. 2021;218:119490.
[108] Chang C, Wu Y, Jiang J, Jiang Y, Tian A, Li T, et al. Prognostics of the state of health for lithium-
na

ion battery packs in energy storage applications. Energy. 2021:122189.

[109] Xu T, Peng Z, Wu L. A novel data-driven method for predicting the circulating capacity of lithium-
ion battery under random variable current. Energy. 2021;218:119530.
ur

[110] Al-Gabalawy M, Hosny NS, Hussien SA. Lithium-ion battery modeling including degradation
based on single-particle approximations. Batteries. 2020;6(3):37.
Jo

[111] Zhang Y, Liu Y, Wang J, Zhang T. State-of-health estimation for lithium-ion batteries by combining
model-based incremental capacity analysis with support vector regression. Energy. 2022;239:121986.
[112] Ouyang L, Huang J, Wang H, Liu J, Zhu M. Progress of hydrogen storage alloys for Ni-MH
rechargeable power batteries in electric vehicles: A review. Materials Chemistry and Physics.
2017;200:164-78.
[113] Fetcenko M, Ovshinsky S, Reichman B, Young K, Fierro C, Koch J, et al. Recent advances in NiMH
battery technology. Journal of Power Sources. 2007;165(2):544-51.
[114] Sayed ET, Al Marzooqi AJ, Abdelkareem MA, Olabi A-G. Metal Air Batteries, . In: Olabi AG, editor.
Encyclopedia of Smart Materials2022. p. 115 - 24.
[115] Khan Z, Vagin M, Crispin X. Can hybrid Na–air batteries outperform nonaqueous Na–O2
batteries? advanced science. 2020;7(5):1902866.
[116] Commission IE. Electrical energy storage: white paper. Geneva, Switzerland: International
Electrotechnical Commission. 2011:1-78.
[117] Yang T-b, Zhou K-Y, Chen G-Y, Zhang W-X, Liang J-C. CoSb 3 alloy nanoparticles wrapped with N-
doped carbon layers as a highly active bifunctional electrocatalyst for zinc–air batteries. RSC advances.
2017;7(52):33012-9.
[118] Manthiram A, Yu X. Ambient temperature sodium–sulfur batteries. Small. 2015;11(18):2108-14.
[119] Xin S, Yin YX, Guo YG, Wan LJ. A high‐energy room‐temperature sodium‐sulfur battery. Advanced
Materials. 2014;26(8):1261-5.

68
[120] Hueso KB, Armand M, Rojo T. High temperature sodium batteries: status, challenges and future
trends. Energy & Environmental Science. 2013;6(3):734-49.
[121] Komaba S, Ishikawa T, Yabuuchi N, Murata W, Ito A, Ohsawa Y. Fluorinated ethylene carbonate
as electrolyte additive for rechargeable Na batteries. ACS applied materials & interfaces.
2011;3(11):4165-8.
[122] Wei S, Xu S, Agrawral A, Choudhury S, Lu Y, Tu Z, et al. A stable room-temperature sodium–sulfur
battery. Nature communications. 2016;7(1):1-10.
[123] Peng HJ, Zhang Q. Designing host materials for sulfur cathodes: from physical confinement to
surface chemistry. Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 2015;54(38):11018-20.
[124] Fu C, Wong BM, Bozhilov KN, Guo J. Solid state lithiation–delithiation of sulphur in sub-nano
confinement: a new concept for designing lithium–sulphur batteries. Chemical science.
2016;7(2):1224-32.
[125] Xin S, Gu L, Zhao N-H, Yin Y-X, Zhou L-J, Guo Y-G, et al. Smaller sulfur molecules promise better
lithium–sulfur batteries. Journal of the American Chemical Society. 2012;134(45):18510-3.
[126] Schaefer JL, Moganty SS, Yanga DA, Archer LA. Nanoporous hybrid electrolytes. Journal of

f
Materials Chemistry. 2011;21(27):10094-101.

oo
[127] Tu Z, Nath P, Lu Y, Tikekar MD, Archer LA. Nanostructured electrolytes for stable lithium
electrodeposition in secondary batteries. Accounts of chemical research. 2015;48(11):2947-56.
[128] Heinz MVF, Graeber G, Landmann D, Battaglia C. Pressure management and cell design in solid-

r
electrolyte batteries, at the example of a sodium-nickel chloride battery. Journal of Power Sources.
2020;465:228268.
-p
[129] Dambone Sessa S, Crugnola G, Todeschini M, Zin S, Benato R. Sodium nickel chloride battery
re
steady-state regime model for stationary electrical energy storage. Journal of Energy Storage.
2016;6:105-15.
lP

[130] May GJ, Davidson A, Monahov B. Lead batteries for utility energy storage: A review. Journal of
energy storage. 2018;15:145-57.
[131] Koohi-Kamali S, Tyagi V, Rahim N, Panwar N, Mokhlis H. Emergence of energy storage
na

technologies as the solution for reliable operation of smart power systems: A review. Renewable and
Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2013;25:135-65.
[132] Wang W, Luo Q, Li B, Wei X, Li L, Yang Z. Recent progress in redox flow battery research and
ur

development. Advanced Functional Materials. 2013;23(8):970-86.

[133] Sayed ET, Shehata N, Abdelkareem MA, Ramadan M, Olabi A-G. Redox Flow Batteries. In: Olabi
Jo

A-G, editor. Encyclopedia of Smart Materials. Oxford: Elsevier; 2022. p. 176-85.

[134] Chen H, Zhang X, zhang s, Wu S, Chen F, Xu J. A comparative study of iron-vanadium and all-
vanadium flow battery for large scale energy storage. Chemical Engineering Journal.
2022;429:132403.
[135] Díaz-González F, Sumper A, Gomis-Bellmunt O, Villafáfila-Robles R. A review of energy storage
technologies for wind power applications. Renewable and sustainable energy reviews.
2012;16(4):2154-71.
[136] Chen H, Cheng M, Feng X, Chen Y, Chen F, Xu J. Analysis and optimization for multi-stack
vanadium flow battery module incorporating electrode permeability. Journal of Power Sources.
2021;515:230606.
[137] Kazacos M, Skyllas‐Kazacos M. Performance characteristics of carbon plastic electrodes in the
all‐vanadium redox cell. Journal of the Electrochemical Society. 1989;136(9):2759.
[138] Kazacos M, Cheng M, Skyllas-Kazacos M. Vanadium redox cell electrolyte optimization studies.
Journal of Applied electrochemistry. 1990;20(3):463-7.
[139] Leung P, Li X, De León CP, Berlouis L, Low CJ, Walsh FC. Progress in redox flow batteries,
remaining challenges and their applications in energy storage. Rsc Advances. 2012;2(27):10125-56.
[140] Rahman F, Skyllas-Kazacos M. Vanadium redox battery: Positive half-cell electrolyte studies.
Journal of Power Sources. 2009;189(2):1212-9.

69
[141] Rychcik M, Skyllas-Kazacos M. Evaluation of electrode materials for vanadium redox cell. Journal
of Power Sources. 1987;19(1):45-54.
[142] Yang Z, Zhang J, Kintner-Meyer MC, Lu X, Choi D, Lemmon JP, et al. Electrochemical energy
storage for green grid. Chemical reviews. 2011;111(5):3577-613.
[143] Li X, Zhang H, Mai Z, Zhang H, Vankelecom I. Ion exchange membranes for vanadium redox flow
battery (VRB) applications. Energy & Environmental Science. 2011;4(4):1147-60.
[144] Xu Z, Fan Q, Li Y, Wang J, Lund PD. Review of zinc dendrite formation in zinc bromine redox flow
battery. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2020;127:109838.
[145] Akinyele D, Belikov J, Levron Y. Battery storage technologies for electrical applications: Impact
in stand-alone photovoltaic systems. Energies. 2017;10(11):1760.
[146] Luo X, Wang J, Dooner M, Clarke J. Overview of current development in electrical energy storage
technologies and the application potential in power system operation. Applied energy. 2015;137:511-
36.
[147] Zhang S, Guo W, Yang F, Zheng P, Qiao R, Li Z. Recent progress in polysulfide redox‐flow batteries.
Batteries & Supercaps. 2019;2(7):627-37.

f
[148] Huskinson B, Marshak MP, Suh C, Er S, Gerhardt MR, Galvin CJ, et al. A metal-free organic–

oo
inorganic aqueous flow battery. Nature. 2014;505(7482):195-8.
[149] Weber AZ, Mench MM, Meyers JP, Ross PN, Gostick JT, Liu Q. Redox flow batteries: a review.
Journal of applied electrochemistry. 2011;41(10):1137-64.

r
[150] Matsuda Y, Tanaka K, Okada M, Takasu Y, Morita M, Matsumura-Inoue T. A rechargeable redox
-p
battery utilizing ruthenium complexes with non-aqueous organic electrolyte. Journal of applied
electrochemistry. 1988;18(6):909-14.
re
[151] Mun J, Lee M-J, Park J-W, Oh D-J, Lee D-Y, Doo S-G. Non-aqueous redox flow batteries with nickel
and iron tris (2, 2′-bipyridine) complex electrolyte. Electrochemical and Solid State Letters.
lP

2012;15(6):A80.
[152] Zhang D, Liu Q, Shi X, Li Y. Tetrabutylammonium hexafluorophosphate and 1-ethyl-3-methyl
imidazolium hexafluorophosphate ionic liquids as supporting electrolytes for non-aqueous vanadium
na

redox flow batteries. Journal of Power Sources. 2012;203:201-5.

[153] Shinkle AA, Sleightholme AE, Griffith LD, Thompson LT, Monroe CW. Degradation mechanisms
in the non-aqueous vanadium acetylacetonate redox flow battery. Journal of Power Sources.
ur

2012;206:490-6.
[154] Lu Y, Goodenough JB, Kim Y. Aqueous cathode for next-generation alkali-ion batteries. Journal
Jo

of the American Chemical Society. 2011;133(15):5756-9.

[155] Kim J-K, Yang W, Salim J, Ma C, Sun C, Li J, et al. Li-water battery with oxygen dissolved in water
as a cathode. Journal of The Electrochemical Society. 2013;161(3):A285.
[156] Asl NM, Cheah SS, Salim J, Kim Y. Lithium–liquid battery: harvesting lithium from waste Li-ion
batteries and discharging with water. Rsc Advances. 2012;2(14):6094-100.
[157] Mohr S, Giurco D, Retamal M, Mason L, Mudd G. Global projection of lead-zinc supply from
known resources. Resources. 2018;7(1):17.
[158] Bedinger G. 2014 Minerals yearbook. Arsenic [advance release]. 2015.
[159] Sun X, Hao H, Zhao F, Liu Z. Tracing global lithium flow: A trade-linked material flow analysis.
Resources, Conservation and Recycling. 2017;124:50-61.
[160] Mudd GM, Jowitt SM, Werner TT. The world's lead-zinc mineral resources: Scarcity, data, issues
and opportunities. Ore Geology Reviews. 2017;80:1160-90.
[161] Mohr SH, Mudd GM, Giurco D. Lithium resources and production: critical assessment and global
projections. Minerals. 2012;2(1):65-84.
[162] https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lithium_world_production.svg.
[163] Jaishankar M, Tseten T, Anbalagan N, Mathew BB, Beeregowda KN. Toxicity, mechanism and
health effects of some heavy metals. Interdisciplinary toxicology. 2014;7(2):60.
[164] Dupont D, Arnout S, Jones PT, Binnemans K. Antimony recovery from end-of-life products and
industrial process residues: a critical review. Journal of Sustainable Metallurgy. 2016;2(1):79-103.

70
[165] Ab Latif Wani AA, Usmani JA. Lead toxicity: a review. Interdisciplinary toxicology. 2015;8(2):55.
[166] Tchounwou PB, Yedjou CG, Patlolla AK, Sutton DJ. Heavy metal toxicity and the environment.
Molecular, clinical and environmental toxicology. 2012:133-64.
[167] Mousavi S, Balali-Mood M, Riahi-Zanjani B, Yousefzadeh H, Sadeghi M. Concentrations of
mercury, lead, chromium, cadmium, arsenic and aluminum in irrigation water wells and wastewaters
used for agriculture in Mashhad, northeastern Iran. Int J Occup Environ Med (The IJOEM). 2013;4(2
April):200-80-6.
[168] Gallegos MV, Falco LR, Peluso MA, Sambeth JE, Thomas HJ. Recovery of manganese oxides from
spent alkaline and zinc–carbon batteries. An application as catalysts for VOCs elimination. Waste
management. 2013;33(6):1483-90.
[169] Guevara-García JA, Montiel-Corona V. Used battery collection in central Mexico: metal content,
legislative/management situation and statistical analysis. Journal of environmental management.
2012;95:S154-S7.
[170] Li Y, Xi G. The dissolution mechanism of cathodic active materials of spent Zn–Mn batteries in
HCl. Journal of hazardous materials. 2005;127(1-3):244-8.

f
[171] Organization WH. Recycling used lead-acid batteries: health considerations. 2017.

oo
[172] Armand M, Tarascon J-M. Building better batteries. nature. 2008;451(7179):652-7.
[173] Yuan X, Liu H, Zhang J. Lithium-ion batteries: advanced materials and technologies: CRC press,
2011.

r
[174] Dehghani-Sanij AR, Tharumalingam E, Dusseault MB, Fraser R. Study of energy storage systems
-p
and environmental challenges of batteries. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews.
2019;104:192-208.
re
[175] Adebambo O. Rochelle Owen, Executive Director, Office of Sustainability, Dalhousie University.
2017.
lP

[176] Pelegov DV, Pontes J. Main drivers of battery industry changes: electric vehicles—a market
overview. Batteries. 2018;4(4):65.
[177] Bernardes AM, Espinosa DCR, Tenório JS. Recycling of batteries: a review of current processes
na

and technologies. Journal of Power sources. 2004;130(1-2):291-8.

[178] Ferella F, De Michelis I, Veglio F. Process for the recycling of alkaline and zinc–carbon spent
batteries. Journal of Power Sources. 2008;183(2):805-11.
ur

[179] Lijun S. Analysis of Problems and Countermeasures about Recycling Used Batteries [J]. Journal
of Green Science and Technology. 2012;4.
Jo

[180] Veloso LRS, Rodrigues LEOC, Ferreira DA, Magalhães FS, Mansur MB. Development of a
hydrometallurgical route for the recovery of zinc and manganese from spent alkaline batteries. Journal
of Power Sources. 2005;152:295-302.
[181] Salgado AL, Veloso AM, Pereira DD, Gontijo GS, Salum A, Mansur MB. Recovery of zinc and
manganese from spent alkaline batteries by liquid–liquid extraction with Cyanex 272. Journal of Power
Sources. 2003;115(2):367-73.
[182] Sayilgan E, Kukrer T, Civelekoglu G, Ferella F, Akcil A, Veglio F, et al. A review of technologies for
the recovery of metals from spent alkaline and zinc–carbon batteries. Hydrometallurgy.
2009;97(3):158-66.
[183] Kotler P, Keller K, Brady M, Goodman M, Hansen T. Marketing Management: 4th European
Edition: Pearson UK, 2019.
[184] Vlados C, Chatzinikolaou D. Towards a restructuration of the conventional SWOT analysis.
Business and Management Studies. 2019;5(2):76-84.
[185] David F, David FR. Strategic management: A competitive advantage approach, concepts and
cases: Pearson–Prentice Hall Florence, 2016.
[186] Abdallah M, Feroz S, Alani S, Sayed ET, Shanableh A. Continuous and scalable applications of
microbial fuel cells: a critical review. Reviews in Environmental Science and Bio/Technology.
2019;18(3):543-78.

71
[187] Akhil AA, Huff G, Currier AB, Kaun BC, Rastler DM, Chen SB, et al. DOE/EPRI 2013 electricity
storage handbook in collaboration with NRECA: Sandia National Laboratories Albuquerque, NM, USA,
2013.
[188] Palizban O, Kauhaniemi K. Energy storage systems in modern grids—Matrix of technologies and
applications. Journal of Energy Storage. 2016;6:248-59.
[189] Farias HEO, Canha LN. Battery energy storage systems (BESS) overview of key market
technologies. Conference Battery energy storage systems (BESS) overview of key market technologies.
IEEE, p. 1-5.
[190] Hesse HC, Schimpe M, Kucevic D, Jossen A. Lithium-Ion Battery Storage for the Grid—A Review
of Stationary Battery Storage System Design Tailored for Applications in Modern Power Grids.
Energies. 2017;10(12):2107.
[191] ABB. Available online: https://new.abb.com/distributed-energy-
microgrids/applications/energy-storage applications (accessed on 1 February 2022).
[192] Abu, Dhabi. “Electricity Storage and Renewables: Costs and Markets to 2030.” International
Renewable Energy Agency, 2017, www.irena.org/publications/2017/Oct/Electricity-storage-and-

f
renewables-costsand-markets (Accessed: 18/03/2021).

oo
[193] O'Connor JP. Off grid solar: a handbook for photovoltaics with lead-acid or lithium-ion batteries:
Joseph P. O'Connor, 2016.
[194] Charging Lithium-Ion Batteries – Battery University, 2018,

r
https://batteryuniversity.com/article/bu-409-charging-lithium-ion.
-p
[195] Wang Y, Zhang X, Chen Z. Low temperature preheating techniques for Lithium-ion batteries:
Recent advances and future challenges. Applied Energy. 2022;313:118832.
re
[196] Roy P, Momin MSA, Kader MG. Importance and proper way of maintaining a Battery. Conference
Importance and proper way of maintaining a Battery.
lP

[197] Warner JT. The handbook of lithium-ion battery pack design: chemistry, components, types and
terminology: Elsevier, 2015.
[198] Hannah Ritchie. The price of batteries has declined by 97% in the last three decades.
na

https://ourworldindata.org/battery-price-decline (Accessed: 18/03/2022).

[199] Henze V. Battery Pack Prices Fall to an Average of $132/kWh, But Rising Commodity Prices Start
to Bite. https://about.bnef.com/blog/battery-pack-prices-fall-to-an-average-of-132-kwh-but-rising-
ur

commodity-prices-start-to-bite/ (Accessed: 25/02/2022).

[200] Sankaran G, Venkatesan S. Standardization of electric vehicle battery pack geometry form
Jo

factors for passenger car segments in India. Journal of Power Sources. 2021;502:230008.
[201] Eckerström S-E. A need to standardize the battery production of electric cars.
https://blog.flexlink.com/a-need-to-standardize-the-battery-production-of-electric-cars/ (Accessed:
18/03/2022).
[202] Brereton R. Should we standardize electric vehicle batteries?
https://www.electrichybridvehicletechnology.com/opinion/should-we-standardize-electric-vehicle-
batteries.html (Accessed: 16/03/2022).
[203] Colthorpe A. Regulating the battery industry presents a tricky balancing act for the European
Union. https://www.energy-storage.news/regulating-the-battery-industry-presents-a-tricky-
balancing-act-for-the-european-union/ (Accessed: 30/01/2022).
[204] Mistry M. Will the EU’s proposed battery regulation drive the global ESG agenda for battery raw
materials? https://nickelinstitute.org/blog/2022/march/will-the-eu-s-proposed-battery-regulation-
drive-the-global-esg-agenda-for-battery-raw-materials/ (Accessed: 18/03/2022).
[205] Skeete J-P, Wells P, Dong X, Heidrich O, Harper G. Beyond the EVent horizon: Battery waste,
recycling, and sustainability in the United Kingdom electric vehicle transition. Energy Research & Social
Science. 2020;69:101581.
[206] Mrozik W, Rajaeifar MA, Heidrich O, Christensen P. Environmental impacts, pollution sources
and pathways of spent lithium-ion batteries. Energy & Environmental Science. 2021;14(12):6099-121.

72
[207] Lisbona D, Snee T. A review of hazards associated with primary lithium and lithium-ion batteries.
Process Safety and Environmental Protection. 2011;89(6):434-42.
[208] Goldie-Scot L. A Behind the Scenes Take on Lithiumion Battery Prices.
https://about.bnef.com/blog/behindscenes-take-lithium-ion-battery-prices. Accessed 14/01/2022.
BloombergNEF. 2019.
[209] Scrosati B, Garche, J., & Tillmetz, W. Advances in battery technologies for electric vehicles. .
London: Woodhead Publishing., 2015.
[210] Hosseinpour S, Hongyi C, Hua T. Barriers to the wide adoption of electric vehicles: A literature
review based discussion. Conference Barriers to the wide adoption of electric vehicles: A literature
review based discussion. p. 2329-36.
[211] Kirschen DS. Demand-side view of electricity markets. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems.
2003;18(2):520-7.
[212] Abdelkareem MA, Sayed ET, Nakagawa N. Significance of diffusion layers on the performance of
liquid and vapor feed passive direct methanol fuel cells. Energy. 2020;209:118492.
[213] Olabi AG, Wilberforce T, Sayed ET, Elsaid K, Abdelkareem MA. Prospects of Fuel Cell Combined

f
Heat and Power Systems. Energies. 2020;13(16):4104.

oo
[214] Olabi AG, Wilberforce T, Abdelkareem MA. Fuel cell application in the automotive industry and
future perspective. Energy. 2021;214:118955.
[215] Sayed ET, Abdelkareem MA, Bahaa A, Eisa T, Alawadhi H, Al-Asheh S, et al. Synthesis and

r
performance evaluation of various metal chalcogenides as active anodes for direct urea fuel cells.
-p
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2021;150:111470.
[216] Sayed ET, Abdelkareem MA, Alawadhi H, Olabi AG. Enhancing the performance of direct urea
re
fuel cells using Co dendrites. Applied Surface Science. 2021;555:149698.
[217] Sayed ET, Alawadhi H, Olabi AG, Jamal A, Almahdi MS, Khalid J, et al. Electrophoretic deposition
lP

of graphene oxide on carbon brush as bioanode for microbial fuel cell operated with real wastewater.
International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 2021;46(8):5975-83.
[218] Wilberforce T, Sayed ET, Abdelkareem MA, Elsaid K, Olabi AG. Value added products from
na

wastewater using bioelectrochemical systems: Current trends and perspectives. Journal of Water
Process Engineering. 2021;39:101737.
ur
Jo

73
Highlights

1. Current state of Battery Energy storage system technology is discussed.

2. Comparative study on types of battery energy storage is evaluated.
3. SWOT analysis of notable types of battery is presented,

f
r oo
-p
re
lP
na
ur
Jo
Declaration of interests

☒ The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal
relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

☐The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships, which may be
considered as potential competing interests:

of
ro
-p
re
lP
na
ur
Jo