WRITTEN-LANGUAGE

PRODUCTION STANDARDS FOR

Handwriting &
Keyboarding
(Grades PreK–8)

These Written-Language Production Standards for Handwriting & Keyboarding (Grades PreK–8) (the “Written-Language Production Standards”) have been created by the
HW21 Community to further the education of our children.
• The Written-Language Production Standards may be copied, distributed and displayed, in whole or in part, with or without attribution, for non-commercial purposes,
by the Federal or state governments or their respective departments, agencies and subdivisions, by any public or private schools or school districts, or by teachers
and parents in working directly with students.
• The Written-Language Production Standards may be copied, distributed and displayed, in whole or in part, for commercial purposes, provided that the user
accurately represents the research and the standards and that such use is accompanied by the following attribution: “Written-Language Production Standards
for Handwriting & Keyboarding (Grades PreK-8) © 2014, used with permission. For more information on the Standards, please see www.hw21summit.com”
 WRITTEN-LANGUAGE PRODUCTION STANDARDS FOR HANDWRITING & KEYBOARDING (Grades PreK–8)
Introduction: From Crayons to Keyboards
Children need both handwriting and keyboarding instruction to succeed in their
schools and later in the world of college and work. Yet explicit, evidence-based
guidelines for teaching these skills are absent from the Common Core State
Standards (CCSS). Although the CCSS provide a solid framework for students
to achieve 21st century success, the standards cannot realistically include every
skill necessary for achieving this goal. Developed with a “focus on results rather
than means,” the standards thus empower educators to integrate any additional
relevant topics that will help achieve the objectives set out in the CCSS (National
Governors Association Center for Best Practices, Council of Chief State School
Officers, 2010). In addition, the CCSS do not include preschool benchmarks that
might provide a framework to assess kindergarten readiness and preliteracy in
light of these standards.
The national discussion around handwriting instruction in particular has been
elevated since the release of the CCSS in 2010. In response to this concern,
researchers and educators gathered in Washington, D.C., on January 23,
2012, for Handwriting in the 21st Century? An Educational Summit. This Summit
further crystallized the need for educators and policy makers to give handwriting
and keyboarding serious attention. Most participants concurred that there is a
clear need for a set of benchmarked, developmentally appropriate handwriting
standards that will provide all students with equal access to this foundational skill.
(More information about the Summit and the research presented there is available
online at www.hw21summit.com.)
The resulting set of national standards for written-language production offer
developmentally appropriate, research-based indicators to integrate handwriting
and keyboarding—two essential skills for 21st century success—into the K–8
curriculum. Importantly, they also provide prekindergarten written-language
production benchmarks.
Handwriting
Handwriting is a foundational skill crucial for literacy success. It teaches
letter formation and supports reading and language acquisition. Additionally,
through perceptual and motor skills practice, handwriting advances neurological
development and augments writing fluency. Foundational literacy skills begin
well before a child enters kindergarten. Preschool-age children start scribbling
letter-like forms as early as age two, and these scribbles contain the features of
writing such as directionality and linearity as a child develops (Dinehart, 2014;
Feder & Majnemer, 2007; Puranik & Lonigan, 2011)—their “writing” begins to
look qualitatively different from their drawings. Researchers find that even very
young children can recognize the loops and connectors of cursive writing before
they can write script themselves (Bonneton-Botté, De La Hay, Marec-Breton, &
Bara, 2012).
Early fine motor skills indicate readiness. Fine motor skills are the strongest
predictor of special education referral and the second strongest predictor of
kindergarten retention (Cameron et al., 2012; Roth, McCaul, & Barnes, 1993).
Children in preschools now spend about 37% of their day engaged in fine motor
skill activities, and only about 10% of that time is spent with paper and pencil—
but kindergartners spend nearly half their day engaged in fine motor activities
and nearly half that time on paper and pencil tasks (Marr, Cermak, Cohn, &
Henderson, 2003). Introducing more writing tasks can help preschoolers make
the leap to kindergarten successfully. Children with stronger fine motor skills do
better not only in literacy tasks such as letter writing but also in kindergarten math
(Luo, Jose, Huntsinger, & Pigott, 2007; Son & Meisels, 2006). Early fine motor
skills also support later academic success. These skills are associated with ongoing
reading and mathematics achievement as late as fifth grade (Dinehart & Manfra,
2013; Grissmer, Grimm, Aiyer, Murrah, & Steele, 2010; Murrah, 2010).
Handwriting leads directly to reading acquisition. Even at the preschool level,
teachers can encourage literacy skills by leading students through letter formation
activities, including writing their own name and practicing writing other simple
words and letters (Puranik, Lonigan, & Kim, 2011). In early learning settings,
rigorous attention to the detail of individual letters is less important than the letter
forming process itself: exciting new research has shown that the variation in
children’s letter formation is actually a crucial part of their learning to identify
and form letters (James & Englehardt, 2012)—which is the basis of both reading
and writing. According to the National Reading Panel, letter knowledge and
phonemic awareness are the two best predictors of reading proficiency. Writing
letters by hand has been proven to help children recognize and remember letters
more easily than if they typed them (James, 2012; Longcamp, Zerbato-Poudou, &
Velay, 2005; Berninger, Abbott, Abbott, Graham, & Richards, 2002: Berninger et
al., 2006; NICHD, 2000).
2
 WRITTEN-LANGUAGE PRODUCTION STANDARDS FOR HANDWRITING & KEYBOARDING (Grades PreK–8)
Writing by hand engages the brain in learning. Through modern brain-
imaging techniques, researchers have found that neural activity in children
who practiced printing (also known as manuscript writing) by hand was far
more advanced than in children who just looked at the letters. Handwriting
seems, based on empirical evidence from neuroscience, to play a large role in
the visual recognition and learning of letters (James & Atwood, 2009; James
& Englehardt, 2012; James & Gauthier, 2006; James, Wong, & Jobard, 2010;
Longcamp et al., 2008).
Students write most assignments and tests by hand. A 2008 study showed that
older students produce at least half of their writing for school by hand. Younger
students handwrite nearly 90 percent of their schoolwork. Even in the Common
Core State Standards (Appendix C) document, for example, almost half of the
sample K–8 student essays are hand written (Denton, Cope, & Moser, 2006;
Cutler & Graham, 2008).
Standardized essay scores are influenced by handwriting. More troubling,
solid research finds that handwritten tests are graded differently based on the
legibility of the handwriting (Graham & Harris, 2002; Conti, 2012; Vander Hart,
Fitzpatrick, & Cortesa, 2010). Poor handwriting can drop a paper from the 50th
percentile to the 10th or 22nd percentile (Graham, Harris, & Herbert, 2011). Essay
graders of handwritten standardized tests read more than 100 essays an hour,
making legibility even more important (ACT, 2011).
Handwriting instruction supports automaticity, speed, and output. When
students develop the fine motor skills that accompany learning to write by
hand, their speed and output increase (Graham & Harris, 2005; Graham
& Weintraub, 1996). Additionally, with consistent handwriting practice, the
processes involved become less demanding and more automatic, enabling
students to devote a higher amount of neurological resources to critical
thinking and thought organization (Peverly, 2012). Students require manuscript
handwriting skills in order to become accustomed to the common letterforms
in books and environmental text. Cursive (also known as script) handwriting
skills are necessary for students to decipher teachers’ comments on written
assignments, to pen their signatures, and to read a variety of historical
documents—including the founding papers of the United States of America.
As students become acquainted with both manuscript and cursive handwriting,
they are better able to determine their preference for the handwriting style
(manuscript, cursive, or manuscript-cursive hybrid) that best serves them in terms
of speed, automaticity, and output for note-taking, in-class assignments, and
high-stakes tests.
Handwriting fluency continues to develop past the early grades. Studies show
that handwriting instruction improves legibility and fluency through grade 9;
in addition, the overall quality of writing and the length of writing passages
increases through grade 9 with handwriting instruction (Graham & Santangelo,
2012).
Keyboarding
Keyboarding is handwriting’s complement for 21st century environments, and it is
a practice that will become increasingly important for students’ writing success.
Children access all types of technology at home—even before they attend
school—and schools can provide the developmentally appropriate instruction
to bolster their fluency and efficiency in using keyboard-input devices to make
them truly “bilingual by hand” (Berninger, 2012). Passive screen-watching is
inappropriate for any child’s development, but interacting with a variety of
technology tools—keyboards, touch screens, and styluses—can help motivate
children to learn (Couse & Chen, 2010; Haugland, 1999). Students should learn
technology “handling” skills in an appropriate educational setting with active,
engaged adults (NAEYC & Fred Rogers Center, 2012; International Society
for Technology in Education, 2007; Matthews & Seow, 2007; New Jersey
Department of Education, 2013).
Keyboarding instruction bolsters fluency and automaticity. Touch typing is a
skill that will help all students in their education, as well as their later careers,
by making the physical production of their texts efficient, leaving them with
more cognitive freedom to develop ideas and arguments. Some research also
shows that students write essays with more words and sentences when they type
(Barrera, 2001; Goldberg, Russell, & Cook, 2003).
Keyboarding skills are necessary in higher education. The majority of the work
that students submit in postsecondary schools must be typewritten (Grabowski,
2008). Obtaining keyboarding instruction during their elementary and middle
school years makes students less likely to be distracted by the technological tool
they use in college because they can type fluently and easily (Cook, 2007).
Many high-stakes tests will become computer based. In 2011, the National
Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) announced a pilot test of computer-
based writing assessment for grade 4 students in 2012 (NAEP, 2011). Eighth
3
 WRITTEN-LANGUAGE PRODUCTION STANDARDS FOR HANDWRITING & KEYBOARDING (Grades PreK–8)

grade students and high school seniors already have the option of completing How the Written-Language Standards Were
this assessment using a computer. Because most standardized testing, especially Developed
for CCSS assessment, will eventually offer computer-based assessment, students
The Written-Language Production Standards are research based and
must encounter those situations with a solid base of word processing and
incorporate
keyboarding knowledge.
• basic letter-formation and keyboarding indicators included
Keyboarding supports successful writing processes and strategies. Modern in the Common Core State Standards for English Language Arts.
keyboards and word processing allow students to write, revise, edit, and format
with ease. Some research suggests that students using word processing are more • national and local technology standards and policy.
likely to spend time revising their work (Goldberg et al., 2003; Warschauer, • state handwriting and keyboarding standards.
2008). Students can also access the higher operations of the applications when
they have a firm foundation of the basics of typing, shortcut keys, and function • studies in motor skills development from occupational therapists.
keys.
Keyboard fluency affects writing quality. Studies show that if children are not
systematically taught keyboarding skills, their writing quality is poorer when
compositions are typed versus hand written (Connelly, Gee, & Walsh, 2007;
Suhr, Hernandez, Grimes, & Warschauer, 2010). Interestingly, some research
shows that students who are comfortable writing with computers also achieve
higher scores on handwritten writing tests (Silvernail, Pinkham, Wintle, Walker,
& Bartlett, 2011).
These skills transfer easily to other devices. Increasingly over the last decade,
even very young children are immersed in technological tools at home and at
play (Parette, Quesenberry, & Blum, 2009). Even early childhood education
settings an opportunity to harness interactive technology for positive learning
and growth (NAEYC & Fred Rogers Center, 2012; Parette & Stoner, 2008).
Students in traditional K–8 schools benefit from direct instruction in keyboard
use because other devices common to students’ lives, such as smartphones and
tablets with touchscreens, reproduce some version of the standard QWERTY
layout.

4
 WRITTEN-LANGUAGE PRODUCTION STANDARDS FOR HANDWRITING & KEYBOARDING (Grades PreK–8)

Anchor Standards for Written-Language Production

The PreK–8 standards on the following pages define what students should understand and do by the end of each grade. They correspond to the anchor
standards below by number. The anchor and grade-specific standards are necessary complements—the former providing broad standards, the latter
providing additional specificity—that together define the skills and understandings that all students should demonstrate when producing text.

Form and Production

1. Form legible letters, numerals, and punctuation using manuscript writing, demonstrating an understanding of the basic features of print direction
(top to bottom, left to right across a page).

2. Demonstrate an understanding of proper proportion and size as well as appropriate spacing between letters, words, sentences, and paragraphs
in manuscript writing.

3. Write legibly in cursive, demonstrating an understanding of proper proportion, size, and slant; joinings between letters; and appropriate spacing
between letters, words, sentences, and paragraphs.

4. Use a keyboard and related devices to create accurately typed letters, words, and sentences appropriate for grade level and task.

5. Demonstrate an understanding of automatic spacing (e.g., kerning, leading, line turns) and deliberate space and size choices (e.g., size and formatting)
in electronic documents.

Fluency
6. Write fluently by hand at a rate appropriate for grade level and task.

7. Type accurately at a rate appropriate for grade level and task, increasing the time spent looking away from the keyboard.

Writing Application and Word Processing

8. Produce shorter and longer written text by applying handwriting skills appropriate to grade level, task, and audience.

9. Create, save, access, and edit electronic documents by applying keyboarding skills appropriate to grade level and task.

10. Demonstrate knowledge of basic/intermediate word processing skills (e.g., inserting images, formatting text, using spell checking and thesaurus tools,
accessing special characters, and creating tables).

Note:
Each grade-specific Written-Language Production standard corresponds to the same-numbered anchor standard. Put another way, each anchor standard has
an accompanying grade-specific standard translating the broader statement into grade-appropriate end-of-year expectations.
Individual Written-Language Production standards are identified by their strand, grade, and number (or number and letter, where applicable)—so WLP.1.6.a.,
for example, stands for Written-Language Production, grade 1, standard 6 (which corresponds to anchor standard 6). The “a.” refers to the first substandard;
in this example, it would be “Print individual uppercase letters accurately within 3–4 seconds after dictated by the teacher.”
5
 WRITTEN-LANGUAGE PRODUCTION STANDARDS FOR HANDWRITING & KEYBOARDING (Grades PreK–8)
PreKindergartners:
Form and Production
WLP.PK.1. Print letters and letter-like forms with
assistance on developmentally appropriate media.
a. Create scribble writing using loops or lines
and circles that are distinct from pictures.
b. Create vertical lines on large paper
by pulling from top to bottom.
c. Identify and print two or more recognizable
uppercase letters with assistance.
d. Identify and print one or two recognizable
numerals with assistance.
e. Color inside bold lines consistently.
f. Place scribble writing and letter-like forms
on a line on large paper.
WLP.PK.2. With assistance, produce writing
on developmentally appropriate media.
a. Begin to hold writing instrument with
a three-fingered grip.
b. Form letter-like shapes in groups
with short and long patterns.
c. Use wavy scribble and loops
to imitate cursive writing.
d. Print most letters of own name
from left to right with assistance.
1
The term “manuscript” as used in the Written-Language Production Standards can be interchangeable with “print” or other related terms for this style of writing.
2
Legibility is defined as the letter being recognizable to readers in isolation from other letters in a word or other indications of what the letter might be (e.g., accompanying picture).
It also includes the completion of all parts of a letter, such as crossing t and f. Rotation means writing p for b; reversal, or mirroring, means writing d for b.
Kindergartners:
WLP.K.1. Identify and print letters and numerals with
assistance on grade-level appropriate lined paper.
a. Identify and create basic manuscript 1 lines
(vertical, horizontal, circle, slant).
b. Form lines and letters following the organization
of print (left to right, top to bottom).
c. Identify and print with assistance most uppercase
and lowercase letters.
d. Identify and print numerals 0 through 9 with
assistance.
e. Begin short letters at the midpoint
dotted line and end them on the lower line/
baseline.
f. Begin tall letters at the top line and end them on
the lower line/baseline.
WLP.K.2. With assistance, produce printed letters, words,
and sentences with proper proportion, size, and spacing
on grade-level appropriate paper.
a. Control size of uppercase letters between top and
bottom lines.
b. Begin to print letters with proper proportions
of ascenders and descenders (e.g., descenders
should approach lower dotted line, ascenders
should approach top line, midpoints should align
with midpoint dotted line).
c. With assistance, print whole words with correct
spacing between letters (e.g., letters should not
touch or “crash” into each other).
d. With assistance, print sentences with correct
spacing between words (e.g., spaces between
words should be the size of an individual letter)
and between sentences (e.g., spaces between
sentences should be the size of two letters).
6
 WRITTEN-LANGUAGE PRODUCTION STANDARDS FOR HANDWRITING & KEYBOARDING (Grades PreK–8)
PreKindergartners:
Form and Production, continued
WLP.PK.3. (Begins in grade 2.)
WLP.PK.4. (Begins in grade 3.)
WLP.PK.5. (Begins in grade 3.)
Fluency
WLP.PK.6. With assistance, print two or more
uppercase letters and numerals.
a. Print first letter or letters of own name
after prompting.
b. Print recognizable numeral
after prompting.
WLP.PK.7. (Begins in grade 3.)
Kindergartners:
WLP.K.3. (Begins in grade 2)
WLP.K.4. (Begins in grade 3)
WLP.K.5. (Begins in grade 3)
WLP.K.6. With assistance, print most uppercase
and lowercase letters and numerals with speed
appropriate to kindergarten.
a. Print most individual uppercase letters within
5–6 seconds after dictated by the teacher.
 b. Print most individual lowercase letters within
5–6 seconds after dictated by the teacher.
c. Print numerals 0 to 9 in order within one
minute, with or without dictation by the teacher.
WLP.K.7. (Begins in grade 3)
7
 WRITTEN-LANGUAGE PRODUCTION STANDARDS FOR HANDWRITING & KEYBOARDING (Grades PreK–8)
PreKindergartners:
Writing Application and Word Processing
WLP.PK.8. With assistance, use letters and letter-like
forms to produce written text.
a. Print letters and letter-like forms and
“read” the text.
b. Print first name with assistance.
WLP.PK.9. With assistance, identify a keyboard
and mouse.
a. Identify one or more letters in own
name on a keyboard.
b. Identify that numbers are on a
separate row on keyboard.
c. Identify a mouse.
d. Identify a stylus as different from
a crayon or pencil.
WLP.PK.10. (Begins in grade 4.)
Kindergartners:
WLP.K.8. With assistance, use letters and letter-like forms
to produce written text.
a. Print letters and letter-like forms to create
identifiable words.
b. Print first and last name.
c. Begin to copy sentences.
WLP.K.9. With assistance, identify a keyboard
and mouse.
a. Understand that a keyboard contains letters
and numbers.
b. Identify several letters on a keyboard.
c. Identify numbers on a number pad.
d. Identify a mouse.
WLP.K.10 (Begins in grade 4)
8
 WRITTEN-LANGUAGE PRODUCTION STANDARDS FOR HANDWRITING & KEYBOARDING (Grades PreK–8)

Grade 1 students: Grade 2 students: Grade 3 students:

Form and Production
WLP.1.1. Independently print legible letters, numerals, and
punctuation on grade-level appropriate lined paper.
a. Identify and form uppercase and lowercase
letters independently and legibly2, with
minimal rotations or reversals.
b. Use uppercase letter for I.
c. Identify and form numerals 0–9, including
two-digit numeral pairs (e.g., 27).
d. Identify and form sentence end punctuation
(period, exclamation point, question mark)
WLP.2.1. Form all uppercase and lowercase letters legibly
in manuscript, with no rotations or reversals.
a. Consistently maintain proper proportion of
ascenders, descenders, and letter parts.
b. Self-assess manuscript legibility against models
c. Print sentences that begin with uppercase letters
and that include end and internal punctuation.

WLP.1.2. Produce printed letters, words, and sentences
with proper proportion, size, and spacing on
grade-level appropriate paper.
a. Control size of uppercase letters relative to
lowercase letters.
b. Print letters with ascenders approaching top
line and descenders approaching bottom line.
c. Align letter midpoints with midpoint dotted line.
d. Print whole words with correct spacing
between letters.
e. Print sentences using correct spacing between
words and between sentences.
f. Print two-digit numerals using correct spacing.
WLP.2.2. Use grade-level appropriate paper WLP.3.2. Produce words, sentences, and paragraphs
to produce printed letters, words, and sentences with proper proportion, size, and spacing on lined
with proper proportion, size, and spacing. paper using manuscript writing.
a. Print manuscript letters with proper spacing
relative to top, bottom, and midlines.
b. Print words and sentences using correct
spacing between letters, words, and sentences.
c. Print paragraphs using correct indentation
and appropriate margins.

WLP.1.3. (Begins in grade 2) WLP.2.3. Understand that cursive writing is different
from manuscript.
a. Begin to understand the difference
between manuscript and cursive3 writing
by matching manuscript letters to their
cursive counterparts and identifying
where joinings occur.
WLP.3.3. Form legible letters and numerals using
cursive writing.
a. Identify and create four basic cursive lines
(undercurve, downcurve, overcurve, slant).
 b. Form individual uppercase and lowercase cursive
letters and numerals with acceptable legibility.
c. Write letters in cursive using consistent slant.
d. Form joinings to connect letters, maintaining
proportion of letters to joinings.
e. Form cursive words using correct spacing
between letters and proportional letter sizes.

3
The term “cursive” is interchangeable with “script” or other related terms for this style of joined letterforms.
9
 WRITTEN-LANGUAGE PRODUCTION STANDARDS FOR HANDWRITING & KEYBOARDING (Grades PreK–8)
Grade 1 students:
Form and Production (continued)
WLP.1.4. (Begins in grade 3)
WLP.1.5. (Begins in grade 3)
Fluency
WLP.1.6. Print uppercase and lowercase letters and
numerals with speed and fluency appropriate
for grade 1.
 a. Print individual uppercase letters accurately
within 3–4 seconds after dictated by the teacher.
b. Print individual lowercase letters accurately
within 3–4 seconds after dictated by the teacher.
c. Print numerals 0 to 9 in order within 20 seconds,
with or without dictation by the teacher.
WLP.1.7. (Begins in grade 3)
Grade 2 students:
WLP.2.4. (Begins in grade 3)
WLP.2.5. (Begins in grade 3)
WLP.2.6. Print uppercase and lowercase letters
and numerals with speed and fluency appropriate
for grade 2.
a. Print legible sentences and paragraphs
under timed condition.
 b. Print copied text at a rate of at least
25 letters per minute.
WLP.2.7. (Begins in grade 3)
Grade 3 students:
f. Form sentences using cursive handwriting
with correct spacing between words and with
punctuation.
g. Form cursive paragraphs using proper
indentation and margins.
 h. Self-assess cursive legibility using model
letters and words.
WLP.3.4. Begin to use a keyboard to enter text.
a. Identify and use the home keys
(A, S, D, F, J, K, L, ;).
b. Use the Shift key to capitalize.
 c. Identify and use punctuation on the
keyboard, including punctuation needing
the Shift key (:, “, ?).
d. Type letters and words while looking at
the keyboard.
WLP.3.5. Demonstrate an understanding of proper
spacing in electronic text.
a. Use the spacebar to place spaces
between words.
WLP.3.6. Write by hand with speed and fluency
appropriate for grade 3.
a. Print legible sentences and paragraphs
under timed conditions.
 b. Print copied text at a rate of at least
45 letters per minute.
c. Increase the use of cursive writing for
untimed, in-class writing.
WLP.3.7. Create accurate typed text with speed
appropriate for grade 3.
a. Type 5–10 words per minute from copy.
10
 WRITTEN-LANGUAGE PRODUCTION STANDARDS FOR HANDWRITING & KEYBOARDING (Grades PreK–8)
Grade 1 students:
Writing Application and Word Processing
WLP.1.8. Use letters and words to produce
written sentences.
 a. Print identifiable words within sentences
to create a story or response.
b. Start sentences with a capital letter.
c. Print first and last name legibly.
WLP.1.9. Know and apply basic keyboarding skills.
a. Identify all letters on a keyboard and
that they are not in alphabetical order.
b. Use left hand to depress letter keys on the
left side of the keyboard and vice versa.
c. Identify the space bar and its function.
d. Use a mouse and understand “clicking”
and “double clicking.”
WLP.1.10 (Begins in grade 4)
Grade 2 students:
WLP.2.8. Produce written text, including multiple
sentences organized into paragraphs.
a. Print identifiable words and sentences within
paragraphs to create a story or response.
WLP.2.9. Demonstrate basic knowledge of keyboard
entry and mouse clicking.
a. With different fingers and both hands, type
the alphabet in order using a keyboard.
b. Identify the Enter key and its function.
c. Understand that clicking the mouse makes
an insertion point in a document.
 d. Use the mouse to highlight (double-click)
a word.
WLP.2.10 (Begins in grade 4)
Grade 3 students:
WLP.3.8. Know and apply grade-level handwriting skills.
 a. Understand when cursive and manuscript may be
used and choose appropriately for the task and
audience.
WLP.3.9. Know and apply grade-level keyboarding skills.
 a. Find home keys by their “bumps” without
looking at keyboard.
b. Identify which fingers type which letters on
standard QWERTY keyboard.
 c. Use the left little finger on the Shift key to
capitalize letters on the right side of the
keyboard and vice versa.
 d. Understand the difference between the Shift
and Caps Lock keys.
e. Use thumb to depress the space bar.
f. Type non-word drills while looking at the
keyboard.
g. Practice typing with the keyboard covered
or masked.
 h. Type several letters and words without
looking at keyboard.
i. Know and apply grade-level skills with other
devices (e.g., use a mouse to highlight portions
of text, use right-click to access alternative menus).
WLP.3.10. (Begins in grade 4)
11
 WRITTEN-LANGUAGE PRODUCTION STANDARDS FOR HANDWRITING & KEYBOARDING (Grades PreK–8)
Grade 4 students:
Form and Production
WLP.4.2. Maintain legibility in manuscript writing.
WLP.4.3. Form legible letters and numerals using
cursive writing.
a. Write words, using proper joinings, legibly
in cursive.
b. Legibly write sentences and paragraphs in
cursive with proper spacing.
WLP.4.4. Use a keyboard to create written documents.
 a. Consistently use the home
keys (A, S, D, F, J, K, L, ;).
b. Type words and sentences with punctuation,
increasing the proportion of time not looking
at the keyboard.
c. Use the Enter key to create new paragraphs.
 d. Use the Backspace and Delete keys to
remove text.
e. Type special characters ($, #, *, etc.) as needed
with proper finger strokes, including little finger
on the Shift key.
WLP.4.5. Demonstrate an understanding of proper
spacing in electronic text.
a. Enter one space between words and after
punctuation marks.
b. Recognize the space differences (kerning)
between common typefaces (e.g., Arial
versus Times New Roman).
4
By grade 6, some students find that a hybrid manuscript-cursive style (i.e., some letters are unjoined) provides them with greater fluency and legibility.
Grade 5 students:
WLP.5.2. Maintain legibility in manuscript writing.
WLP.5.3. Maintain legibility in cursive.
WLP.5.4. Use a keyboard to create written documents.
a. Consistently use the home keys.
b. Consistently type words and sentences with
punctuation without looking at the keyboard.
c. Maintain accuracy in typed documents.
WLP.5.5. Demonstrate an understanding of spacing
choices in electronic text.
a. Use the spacebar and Tab key as appropriate
for the deliberate spacing of typed text.
b. Understand and create superscript and
subscript text.
c. Understand paragraph spacing (single-spaced,
double-spaced) and spacing between lines of
a paragraph (leading).
d. Understand paragraph justification and use
the paragraph justification menu.
Grade 6 students:
WLP.6.2. Maintain legible manuscript writing with proper
proportion and spacing.
WLP.6.3. Maintain legible cursive writing with correct
form.
a. Maintain manuscript and cursive writing with
proper spacing of words, sentences, and
paragraphs and consistent slant.
b. Use an adaptive but legible manuscript-cursive
hybrid4 when appropriate.
WLP.6.4. Maintain accuracy in typed text.
 a. Type on nonstandard keyboards (e.g.,
smartphones) with accuracy.
WLP.6.5. Demonstrate an understanding of spacing
choices in electronic text.
a. Use advanced spacing tools (leading, character
spacing, etc.) for visual effect.
b. Use the rule to adjust paragraph indentation.
c. Choose final text sizes appropriate for the task
and audience.
12
 WRITTEN-LANGUAGE PRODUCTION STANDARDS FOR HANDWRITING & KEYBOARDING (Grades PreK–8)
Grade 4 students:
Fluency
WLP.4.6. Write by hand with speed and fluency
appropriate for grade 4.
a. Use cursive writing under timed conditions.
 b. Write copied text at a rate of at least 60 letters
per minute.
WLP.4.7. Create accurate typed text with speed
appropriate for grade 4.
a. Type 10–15 words per minute from copy.
b. Increase proportion of their time looking
away from the keyboard.
Writing Application and Word Processing
WLP.4.8. Know and apply grade-level handwriting skills.
a. Choose handwriting or keyboarding as
appropriate for the task and audience.
WLP.4.9. Know and apply grade-level
keyboarding skills.
a. Use keyboarding skills for a variety of
class work, such as spelling lists and composition.
b. Type most high-frequency words
(the, I, and, etc.) and first and last name
without looking at keyboard.
 c. Increase the proportion of time looking
away from the keyboard.
d. Type at least one page in a single setting.
Grade 5 students:
WLP.5.6. Write by hand with speed and fluency
appropriate for grade 5.
 a. Write copied text at a rate of at least 70 letters
per minute.
WLP.5.7. Create accurate typed text with speed
appropriate for grade 5.
a. Type 15–20 words per minute from copy.
b. Spend most of the time looking at the screen
or the copy instead of the keyboard.
WLP.5.8. Know and apply grade-level handwriting skills.
a. Choose handwriting or keyboarding as
appropriate for the task and audience.
WLP.5.9. Know and apply grade-level keyboarding skills.
a. Type most words and sentences without looking
at the keyboard.
b. Achieve 85% accuracy in typed documents.
 c. Use numeric keypad for entry of numbers
as appropriate for the task.
d. Access function keys as needed in
software applications.
e. Type at least two pages in a single setting.
Grade 6 students:
WLP.6.6. Write by hand with speed and fluency
appropriate for grade 6.
 a. Write copied text at a rate of at least 80
letters per minute using cursive or manuscript-
cursive hybrid.
b. Use pen/pencil lifts as needed for comfort,
speed, and legibility.
WLP.6.7. Create accurate typed text with speed
appropriate for grade 6.
a. Type 20–25 words per minute from copy.
 b. Look at the screen or the copy instead of the
keyboard.
WLP.6.8. Know and apply grade-level handwriting skills.
a. Choose handwriting or keyboarding as
appropriate for the task and audience.
WLP.6.9. Know and apply grade-level keyboarding skills.
a. Type words and sentences without looking at
keyboard.
b. Achieve 90% accuracy in typed documents.
c. Access function keys as needed in software
applications.
d. Type at least three pages in a single setting.
13
 WRITTEN-LANGUAGE PRODUCTION STANDARDS FOR HANDWRITING & KEYBOARDING (Grades PreK–8)

Grade 4 students: Grade 5 students: Grade 6 students:

Writing Application and Word Processing (continued)
WLP.4.10. Demonstrate beginning knowledge of word
processing skills to produce written text.
a. Create a new file.
b. Type out a document first written by hand.
c. Open an existing file.
 d. Use menu and ruler formatting tools to change margins.
 e. Use menu-driven commands to change paragraph  c. Use common keyboard shortcuts (e.g.,
settings (justification, indentation, line spacing).
f. Understand how a computer stores files and save
a file to the correct location.
g. Retrieve a saved file.
WLP.5.10. Demonstrate knowledge of basic word
processing skills to produce written text.
a. Electronically edit a previously saved document.
b. Experiment with basic text formatting tools to
change font, size, color, and style (bold, italic,
underline), using both menus and key commands.
CTRL + z to undo).
d Navigate to save a file to removable media
(flash drive, CD-ROM).
e. Insert an image into text.
 f. Demonstrate efficient text editing (copy and paste,
highlight and move, keystrokes) techniques.
WLP.6.10. Demonstrate knowledge of intermediate
word processing skills to produce written text.
a. Compose writing assignments at the keyboard.
b. Use spell checker and thesaurus to augment
editing.
c. Understand and use headings.
d. Add page numbers to documents.
e. Format an inserted image (e.g., change
wraparound).
f. Access special characters menu.

14
 WRITTEN-LANGUAGE PRODUCTION STANDARDS FOR HANDWRITING & KEYBOARDING (Grades PreK–8)
Grade 7 students:
Form and Production
WLP.7.2. Maintain legible manuscript writing with
proper proportion and spacing.
WLP.7.3. Maintain legible cursive (or hybrid
manuscript-cursive) writing with proper spacing
and consistent slant.
WLP.7.4. Maintain accuracy in typed documents.
a. Type on nonstandard keyboards (e.g., tablet
touchscreen keyboards) with accuracy.
WLP.7.5. Demonstrate an understanding of spacing
choices in electronic text.
a. Identify appropriate spacing between text
and images for visual appeal.
b. Access and use the page layout menu to
adjust document margins.
c. Choose final text sizes appropriate for the
task and audience.
Fluency
WLP.7.6. Write by hand with speed and fluency
appropriate for grade 7.
 a. Write copied text at a rate of at least 90
letters per minute using cursive or manuscript-
cursive hybrid.
b. Use pen/pencil lifts as needed for comfort,
speed, and legibility.
Grade 8 students:
WLP.8.2. Maintain legible manuscript writing with proper
proportion and spacing.
WLP.8.3. Maintain legible cursive (or hybrid manuscript-
cursive) writing with proper spacing and consistent slant.
WLP.8.4. Maintain accuracy in typed documents.
a. Type on nonstandard keyboards (e.g.,
tablet touchscreen keyboards) with accuracy.
WLP.8.5. Demonstrate an understanding of spacing
choices in electronic text.
a. Identify appropriate spacing between text and
tables and within table cells for visual appeal.
b. Access and use the page layout menu to adjust
margins in different document sections.
c. Choose final text sizes appropriate for the task
and audience.
WLP.8.6. Write by hand with speed and fluency
appropriate for grade 8.
 a. Write copied text at a rate of at least 100
letters per minute using cursive or manuscript-
cursive hybrid.
b. Use pen/pencil lifts as needed for comfort,
speed, and legibility.
15
 WRITTEN-LANGUAGE PRODUCTION STANDARDS FOR HANDWRITING & KEYBOARDING (Grades PreK–8)
Grade 7 students:
Fluency (continued)
WLP.7.7. Create accurate typed text with speed
appropriate for grade 7.
a. Type at least 25 words per minute from copy,
looking almost exclusively at the screen or copy.
Writing Application and Word Processing
WLP.7.8. Know and apply grade-level handwriting skills.
a. Choose handwriting or keyboarding as
appropriate for the task and audience.
WLP.7.9. Know and apply grade-level keyboarding skills.
a. Type words and sentences without looking
at keyboard.
b. Achieve 90% accuracy in typed documents.
c. Access function keys as needed in software
applications.
d. Type at least five pages in a single setting.
WLP.7.10. Demonstrate knowledge of intermediate word
processing skills to produce written text.
a. Understand and use common templates (e.g.,
built-in templates for letters, resumes, calendars.
b. Understand the concept of “styles” and use the
Style menu to create and change paragraph styles.
c. Create and format bulleted and numbered lists.
d. Insert a table into text.
e. Use captions for images.
f. Use drawing tools.
g. Understand and use find-and-replace strategies
as an editing task.
Grade 8 students:
WLP.8.7. Create accurate typed text with speed
appropriate for grade 8.
a. Type at least 30 words per minute from copy,
looking almost exclusively at the screen or copy.
WLP.8.8. Know and apply grade-level handwriting skills.
a. Choose handwriting or keyboarding as
appropriate for the task and audience.
WLP.8.9. Know and apply grade-level keyboarding skills.
a. Type words and sentences without looking
at keyboard.
b. Achieve 90% accuracy in typed documents.
 c. Access function keys as needed in software
applications.
d. Type at least seven pages in a single setting.
WLP.8.10. Demonstrate knowledge of advanced word
processing skills to produce written text.
a. Create and use a personal Style sheet.
b. Understand and apply section breaks to create
document parts with different layouts.
c. Create a document with multiple columns.
d. Create a basic Table of Contents using
automated tools.
e. Understand the use of automated references
and bibliographies.
f. Format tables in a text manually and understand
how the Style menu applies to tables.
g. Create a basic chart/graph using the tools
provided by the word processing program.
16
 WRITTEN-LANGUAGE PRODUCTION STANDARDS FOR HANDWRITING & KEYBOARDING (Grades PreK–8)

Bibliography
American College Testing. (2011). Scoring guidelines. Accessed April 19, 2012, Conti, G. E. Handwriting characteristics and the prediction of illegibility in 3rd
http://www.actstudent.org/writing/scores/guidelines.html and 5th grade students. Paper presented at Handwriting in the 21st Century?
An Educational Summit, Washington, DC, January 23, 2012.
Barrera III, M.T., Rule, A.C. & Diemart, A. (2001). The effect of writing with
computers versus handwriting on the writing achievement of first-graders. Cook, C., & Bennett, L. (2007). Does using a computer disturb the
Information Technology in Childhood Education Annual, 2001(1), 215–229. organization of children’s writing? British Journal of Developmental
Psychology, 25, 313–321.
Berninger, V.W. (2012). Evidence-based, developmentally appropriate writing
skills K to 5: Teaching the orthographic loop of working memory to write Couse, L.J., & Chen, D. W. (2010). A tablet computer for young children?
letters so developing writers can spell words and express ideas. Paper Exploring its viability for early childhood education. Journal of Research on
presented at Handwriting in the 21st Century? An Educational Summit, Technology in Education, 43(1), 75–98.
Washington, DC, January 23, 2012.
Cutler, L., & Graham, S. (2008). Primary grade writing instruction: A national
Berninger, V.W., Abbott, R.D., Abbott, S.P., Graham, S., & Richards, T. survey. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100(4), 907–919.
(2002). Writing and reading: Connections between language by hand and
Denton, P.L., Cope, S., & Moser, C. (2006).The effects of sensorimotorbased
by eye. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35, 39–56.
intervention versus therapeutic practice on improving handwriting
Berninger, V.W., Abbott, R.D., Augsburger, A., & Garcia, N. (2009). performance in 6- to 11-year-old children. American Journal of Occupational
Comparison of pen and keyboard transcription modes in children with and Therapy, 60, 16–27.
without learning disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 32(3), 11–18.
Dinehart, L.H.B. (2014). Handwriting in early childhood education: Current
Berninger, V.W., Abbott, R.D., Jones, J., Wolf, B., Gould, L., Anderson- research and future implications. Journal of Early Childhood Literacy,
Youngstrom, M., et al. (2006). Early development of language by published online March 18, doi:10.1177/1468798414522825.
hand: Composing, reading, listening, and speaking connections; three
Dinehart, L.H.B., & Manfra, L. (2013) Association between early fine motor
letter-writing modes; and fast mapping in spelling. Developmental
development and later math and reading achievement in early elementary
Neuropsychology, 29(1), 61–92.
school. Early Education and Development, 24(2), 138–161.
Bonneton-Botté, N., De La Haye, F., Marec-Breton, N., & Bara, F. (2012).
Feder, K.P., & Majnemer, A. (2007). Handwriting development, competency,
Detection and identification of cursive handwriting movement characteristics
and intervention. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 49, 312–317.
among young children. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology/
Revue canadienne de psychologie expérimentale, 66(3), 164-171. Goldberg, A., Russell, M., & Cook, A. (2003).The effect of computers on
student writing: A meta-analysis of studies from 1992 to 2002. Journal of
California Department of Education. (2008). Preschool learning foundations,
Technology, Learning, and Assessment, 2(1), 3–50.
vol. 1. Sacramento, CA: Author.
Grabowski, J. (2008). The internal structure of university students’ keyboard
Cameron, C.E., Brock, L.L., Murrah, W.M., Bell, L.H., Worzalla, S.L.,
skills. Journal of Writing Research, 1(1), 27–52.
Grissmer, D., & Morrison, F.J. (2012). Fine motor skills and executive function
both contribute to kindergarten achievement. Child Development, 83(4),
1229–1244.

17
 WRITTEN-LANGUAGE PRODUCTION STANDARDS FOR HANDWRITING & KEYBOARDING (Grades PreK–8)
Graham, S., & Harris, K. (2002). Prevention and intervention for struggling
writers. In M. R. Shinn (Ed.), Interventions for academic and behavior
problems II: Preventative and remedial approaches (pp. 589–610).
Washington, DC: National Association of School Psychologists.
Graham, S., & Harris, K. (2005). Improving the writing performance of young
struggling writers: Theoretical and programmatic research from the Center
on Accelerating Student Learning. Journal of Special Education, 39(1),
24–26.
Graham, S., & Weintraub, N. (1996). A review of handwriting research:
Progress and prospects from 1980 to 1994. Educational Psychology Review,
8, 7–87.
Grissmer, D., Grimm, K.J., Aiyer, S.M., Murrah, W.M., & Steele J.S. (2010).
Fine motor skills and early comprehension of the world: Two new school
readiness indicators. Developmental Psychology, 46, 1008–1017.
Haugland, S. W. (1999). What role should technology play in young children’s
learning? Young Children, 54(6), 26–31.
International Society for Technology in Education. (2007). ISTE standards for
students. Available at http://www.iste.org/docs/pdfs/nets-s-2007-student-
profiles-en.pdf?sfvrsn=4.
James, K.H. (2010). Sensori-motor experience leads to changes in visual
processing in the developing brain. Developmental Science, 13, 279–88.
James, K.H. (2012). The neural correlates of handwriting and its effect on
reading acquisition. Paper presented at the National Handwriting Summit,
Washington, DC, January 23.
James, K.H., & Atwood, T.P. (2009). The role of sensorimotor learning in the
perception of letter-like forms: Tracking the causes of neural specialization
for letters. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 26(1), 91–110.
James, K.H., & Engelhardt, L. (2012) The effects of handwriting on functional
brain development in pre-literate children. Trends in Neuroscience and
Education, 1(1), 32–42.
James, K.H., & Gauthier, I. (2006). Letter processing automatically recruits a
sensory-motor brain network. Neuropsychologia, 44, 2937–2949.
James, K.H., Wong, C-N, & Jobard, G. (2010). The case for letter expertise.
In Gauthier, I., Bub, D., & Tarr, M.J. (Eds.), Perceptual expertise: Bridging
brain and behavior (305–331). New York, NY, Oxford University Press.
Jones, D., & Christensen, C. A. (1999). The relationship between automaticity
in handwriting and students’ ability to generate written text. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 91, 44–49.
Longcamp, M., Boucard, C., Gilhodes, J., Anton, J., Roth, M., Nazarian,
B., et al. (2008). Learning through hand- or typewriting influences visual
recognition of new graphic shapes: Behavioral and functional imaging
evidence. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 20(5), 802–815.
Longcamp, M., Zerbato-Poudou, M., & Velay, J. (2005). The influence of
writing practice on letter recognition in preschool children: A comparison
between handwriting and typing. Acta Psychologica, 119, 67–79.
Luo, Z., Jose, P.E., Huntsinger, C.S., & Pigott, T.D. (2007). Fine motor skills
and mathematics achievement in East Asian American and European
American kindergartners and first graders. British Journal of Developmental
Psychology, 25, 595–614.
Marr, D., Cermak, S., Cohn, E.S., & Henderson, A. (2003) Fine motor
activities in Head Start and kindergarten classrooms. American Journal of
Occupational Therapy, 57, 550–557.
Matthews, J., & Seow, P. (2007). Electronic paint: Understanding children’s
representation through their interactions with digital paint. Journal of Art
Design, 26(3), 251–263.
Murrah, W.M. (2010). Comparing self-regulatory and early academic
skills as predictors of later math, reading, and science elementary school
achievement. Doctoral dissertation. Charlottesville, Virginia: University of
Virginia.
18
 WRITTEN-LANGUAGE PRODUCTION STANDARDS FOR HANDWRITING & KEYBOARDING (Grades PreK–8)
National Assessment of Educational Progress. (2011, December 7). NAEP writing
computer-based assessment. Accessed April 19, 2012, http://nces.ed.gov/
nationsreportcard/writing/cba.asp.
National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) and the
Fred Rogers Center for Early Learning and Children’s Media at Saint Vincent
College. (2012). Technology and interactive media as tools in early childhood
programs serving children from birth through age 8. Joint position statement.
Washington, DC: NAEYC.
National Governors Association Center for Best Practices, Council of Chief State
School Officers. (2010). Common Core State Standards for English Language
Arts: Introduction. Washington, DC.
National Institute of Child Health & Human Development (NICHHD). (2000).
Report of the National Reading Panel: Teaching children to read: An
evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading
and its implications for reading instruction. (NIH Publication No. 004769).
Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office.
New Jersey Department of Education. (2013). Preschool teaching and
learning standards. Available at http://www.state.nj.us/education/cccs/
PreSchoolFinal.doc.
Parette, H. P., & Stoner, J. B. (2008). Benefits of assistive technology user groups
for early childhood education professionals. Early Childhood Education
Journal, 35, 313–319.
Parette, H.P., Quesenberry, A.C., & Blum, C. (2010). Missing the boat with
technology usage in early childhood settings: A 21st century view of
developmentally appropriate practice. Early Childhood Education Journal, 37,
335–343.
Peverly, S. (2012). The relationship of transcription speed and other cognitive
variables to note-taking and test performance. Paper presented at
Handwriting in the 21st Century? An Educational Summit, Washington, DC,
January 23, 2012.
Puranik, C.S., &. Lonigan, C.J. (2011). From scribbles to Scrabble: Preschool
children’s developing knowledge of written language. Reading and Writing,
24(5), 567–589.
H3028A2
Puranik, C.S., Lonigan, C.J., & Kim, Y-S. (2011). Contributions of emergent
literacy skills to name writing, letter writing, and spelling in preschool children.
Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 26(4), 465–474.
Roth, M., McCaul, E., & Barnes, K. (1993). Who becomes an “at-risk” student?
The predictive value of a kindergarten screening battery. Exceptional Children,
59, 348–358.
Silvernail, D. L., Pinkham, C. A., Wintle, S. E., Walker, L. C., & Bartlett, C. L.
(2011). A middle school one-to-one laptop program: The Maine experience.
Center for Education Policy, Applied Research, & Evaluation, University of
Southern Maine. Accessed April 18, 2012, http://www.usm.maine.edu/
cepare/maine-learning-technology-initiative-mlti
Son, S.H., & Meisels, S.J. (2006). The relationship of young children’s motor
skills to later reading and math achievement. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 52,
755–778.
Suhr, K. A., Hernandez, D. A., Grimes, D., & Warschauer, M. (2010). Laptops
and fourth-grade literacy: Assisting the jump over the fourth-grade slump.
Journal of Technology, Learning, and Assessment, 9, 4–45.
Tan-Lin, Amy. (1981). An investigation into the developmental course of
preschool/kindergarten aged children’s handwriting behavior. Dissertation
Abstracts International, 42, 4287A.
Vander Hart, N., Fitzpatrick, P., & Cortesa, C. (2010). In-depth analysis of
handwriting curriculum and instruction in four kindergarten classrooms.
Reading and Writing, 23, 673–399.
Warschauer, M. (2008). Laptops and literacy: A multi-site case study.
Pedagogies: An International Journal, 3, 52–67.
Zero to Three. (2012). Learning to write and draw: How your child’s writing and
art changes over time. Accessed June 18, 2014, http://www.zerotothree.org/
early-care-education/early-language-literacy/writing-and-art-skills.html.
19