Transportation Engineering

The transport system of a country plays an integral role in

its growth for a multitude of reasons. Due to the quick and easy
movement of raw materials, machinery, finished goods, etc., it
benefits industries. In this article, we will focus on the role of
the transport system in the economic development in India.
good transport system can broaden the market for goods. It can also
make the movement of raw materials, fuel, equipment, etc. to the
places of production easy.

Further, it opens up remote regions as well as resources for

production. Also, as transport facilities increase, the demand for
motor vehicles, locomotives, ships, etc. increases too.

This leads to the start of industries which specialize in these goods.

let’s take a quick look at the transport system and understand how it
contributes to the economic development in India.

Source: Pixabay

Indian Railways
Pre-Independence, Englishmen-owned private companies operated
the Railways. However, post-Independence, it became a unified State
enterprise. Indian Railways is India’s biggest nationalized enterprise.

Roads and Road Transport System in India

In India, we can classify roads into three types:

1. National Highways – The National Highways cover a total

road length of 66.8 thousand kilometers. This is a mere 1.5
percent of the total length of the road system in India.
However, these highways take the burden of nearly 40
percent of the goods and passenger traffic. The National
Highway system is our primary road grid. Further, it is the
direct responsibility of the Central Government.
2. State Highways – The State Highways cover a total road
length of 154.5 thousand kilometers. This is around 3.8
percent of the total length of the roads in India. The
individual States are responsible for the construction and
maintenance of State Highways.
3. District and Rural Roads – There are many roads that have
been constructed under the Minimum Needs program (MNP),
Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Program (RLEGP),
National Rural Employment Program (NREP), and
Command Area Development (CAD). The core idea is to link
all the villages in the country.
4. Express Highway- Express highway are the highest class of
road. They usually have 6 to 8 lanes. Currently,
approximately 1,583.4 km of expressways are operational in
India. The National Highways Development
Project by Government of India aims to expand it by
adding an additional 18,637 km by 2022.
In India, we have two types of water transport services:
 1. Inland Water Transport or River Transport – This
comprises of a wide range of rivers, canals, backwaters,
creeks, etc. this is the cheapest mode of transport for certain
kinds of traffic.
2. Coastal or Marine Transport – This comprises the sea
surrounding the peninsula of India.
Civil Aviation of India

Air transport helps in the optimization of technological, managerial,

and administrative skills in a resource-scarce economy. There are
several agencies which provide civil aviation services in India.

Solved Question
Q1. What are the different transport systems in India?

Answer: The different transport systems in India are as follows:

 Indian Railways – This is controlled by the Central

Government and is one of the world’s largest railway
networks.
 Indian Road transport – This includes the National
Highways, State Highways, and District and Rural Roads.
 Water Transport – This includes Inland or River transport as
well as coastal or marine transport services.
 Civil Aviation
Types of Pavements
There are two types of pavements based on design considerations i.e. flexible pavement and rigid
pavement. Difference between flexible and rigid pavements is based on the manner in which the
loads are distributed to the subgrade. Before we differentiate between flexible pavements and
rigid pavements, it is better to first know about them. Details of these two are presented below:

Flexible Pavements
Flexible pavement can be defined as the one consisting of a mixture of asphaltic or bituminous
material and aggregates placed on a bed of compacted granular material of appropriate quality in
layers over the subgrade. Water bound macadam roads and stabilized soil roads with or without
asphaltic toppings are examples of flexible pavements. The design of flexible pavement is based
on the principle that for a load of any magnitude, the intensity of a load diminishes as the load is
transmitted downwards from the surface by virtue of spreading over an increasingly larger area,
by carrying it deep enough into the ground through successive layers of granular material.

seNext

Fig: Flexible Pavement Cross-section

Thus for flexible pavement, there can be grading in the quality of materials used, the materials
with high degree of strength is used at or near the surface. Thus the strength of subgrade
primarily influences the thickness of the flexible pavement.

Rigid Pavements
A rigid pavement is constructed from cement concrete or reinforced concrete slabs. Grouted
concrete roads are in the category of semi-rigid pavements. The design of rigid pavement is based
on providing a structural cement concrete slab of sufficient strength to resists the loads from
traffic. The rigid pavement has rigidity and high modulus of elasticity to distribute the load over a
relatively wide area of soil.

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Fig: Rigid Pavement Cross-Section

Minor variations in subgrade strength have little influence on the structural capacity of a rigid
pavement. In the design of a rigid pavement, the flexural strength of concrete is the major factor
and not the strength of subgrade. Due to this property of pavement, when the subgrade deflects
beneath the rigid pavement, the concrete slab is able to bridge over the localized failures and
areas of inadequate support from subgrade because of slab action.
Difference between Flexible Pavements and Rigid
Pavements
Sl.
Flexible Pavement Rigid Pavement
No.

It consists of a series of layers with the It consists of one layer Portland cement
1. highest quality materials at or near the concrete slab or relatively high flexural
surface of pavement. strength.

It reflects the deformations of subgrade It is able to bridge over localized failures

2.
and subsequent layers on the surface. and area of inadequate support.

Its stability depends upon the aggregate Its structural strength is provided by the
3.
interlock, particle friction and cohesion. pavement slab itself by its beam action.

Pavement design is greatly influenced by Flexural strength of concrete is a major

4.
the subgrade strength. factor for design.

It distributes load over a wide area of

It functions by a way of load distribution
5. subgrade because of its rigidity and high
through the component layers
modulus of elasticity.

Temperature variations due to change in

Temperature changes induce heavy
6. atmospheric conditions do not produce
stresses in rigid pavements.
stresses in flexible pavements.

Any excessive deformations occurring due

Flexible pavements have self healing
to heavier wheel loads are not
7. properties due to heavier wheel loads are
recoverable, i.e. settlements are
recoverable due to some extent.
permanent.

Basics of Tunnel Engineering | Methods of Tunnelling

at August 07, 2021
Tunnels are underground passages used for transportation purposes. Tunnels are the underground
routes driven without disturbing the overlying soil to bypass the obstacles safely. Tunnels can be
used to carry passengers & freights, water, sewers, gases, etc. Tunnels are constructed in various
shapes & sizes. The shape of the tunnel cross-section is governed by the nature & type of ground
to be penetrated, existing overburden stress on the rock, etc while the size of the tunnel depends
on the usage to which it is subjected. The economy of tunnel construction depends on the relative
cost of open cuts vs. tunnelling. The tunnel becomes more economical than an open cut beyond a
certain depth.
Advantages of Tunnelling

 It reduces the route distance & travel time

 It provides easy gradients in hilly terrain
 Surface activities are not disturbed
 It remains free from the weather actions like rainfall, snow, etc.
 The tunnel becomes more economical than an open cut beyond a certain depth.
Disadvantages of Tunnelling

 The initial cost of construction may become higher

 Construction of tunnel requires skilled manpower & sophisticated equipment
 Strick supervision is necessary during construction
  Higher safety precautions are necessary during construction
 Construction of tunnel requires more time than open cuts
 A tunnel may collapse during an earthquake
Terminologies related to Tunnel Engineering

 Tunnel Portal: It is the entrance or exit of tunnel where tunnel intersects with the
open area. It may be an inlet portal or outlet portal.
 Crown: It is the topmost point of the tunnel cross-section.
 Invert: It is the lowest point of the tunnel cross-section.
 Faces of Operation or Attack: It is the surface from which a boring operation is
carried out.
 Adit Tunnel: It is a horizontal or near-horizontal passage that provides access for extra
faces of operation/attack in addition to the inlet face and outlet face. It may also be
used for the purpose of the auxiliary entrance, ventilation, drainage, etc.
 Inclined/Vertical Shaft: It is an inclined or vertical passageway that connects the
surface to the underground tunnel or network of tunnels.
 Pilot Tunnel: It is a small tunnel driven, parallel & close to the proposed main tunnel,
to explore geological conditions & assist in final excavation. During construction of
vertical shaft, a pilot tunnel is excavated at first.
 Tunnel Linings: These are the supports erected during & after tunnel construction to
ensure a safe working environment inside the tunnels. Rock bolts, steel ribs, wire
mesh, shotcrete, etc are used as tunnel lining materials.
 Mucking: Mucking means the removal of blasted debris from the tunnel interior to a
good distance outside the tunnel entrance.
 Overbreak: It is the over excavation beyond the intended boundaries, resulting in a
larger opening or void than originally intended.
 Niche: It is the relatively small recesses or compartments excavated inside a tunnel for
specific purpose such as equipment housing, utility installation, for vehicles to make
turns or change direction, etc.
 Cavern: Caverns are intentionally excavated larger underground chambers for
construction of specific underground structure such as an underground powerhouse. In
tunnelling, niches and caverns are both types of excavated spaces within the tunnel
structure, but they differ in terms of size, purpose, and construction methodology.
  Grouting: Grouting is a process where a fluid material, often cement-based, is
injected into the ground to improve soil or rock properties.
 Overburden: Overburden refers to the soil, rock, or other material that lies above the
tunnel roof or crown.
A. Based On Purpose

1. Traffic Tunnel
 Highway Tunnel
 Railway Tunnel
 Pedestrian Tunnel
2. Conveyance Tunnel
 Power Tunnel
 Water Supply Tunnel
 Sewer Tunnel
B. Based On Shape/Cross-Section

1. Circular Tunnel
2. D Shaped Tunnel
3. Horse Shoe Tunnel
4. Square or Rectangular Tunnel
5. Elliptical Tunnel
Methods of Tunnelling

During tunnel construction, tunnels are lined with suitable materials parallelly with the boring
operations. Tunnels are usually lined with timber, steel, cast iron, masonry, or concrete with
suitable outlets to let out the enclosed subsoil water behind the linings. Other items of work
include the provision of ventilation, drainage, lighting, etc. Tunnelling may have to be done in the
hard rock or soft soil based on which the method of tunnelling differs. Hard rock is considered as
a fully self-supporting soil that does not require much support except where a loose rock is
occasionally met. On the other hand, soft soils like running grounds (eg: water-bearing sands)
require instant supports all around. So, different methods of tunnelling based on the nature of the
soil to be penetrated are listed below:

A. Tunnelling In Soft Ground

1. Fore Poling Method

 2. Needle Beam Method
3. Shield Method
4. Compressed Air Method
5. Liner Plate Method
6. Army Method
7. American Method
B. Tunnelling In Hard Rock

1. Full Face Method

2. Top Heading Benching
3. Bottom Heading & Stopping
4. Drift Method
5. Pilot Tunnel Method

SOURCE OF WATER

Water
Water is a precious and natural resource on the planet earth. It is found all around us. Nearly
two-thirds of the Earth’s surface is filled with water. Every living organism existing on our
planet requires water for its survival, including plants, animals, birds, insects, etc.

Water is considered the most precious resource and essential requirement of life. All living
things rely on water, and without which, there would be no life.
We humans can survive without food for a day or two, but we cannot stay without drinking
water for a short amount of time because our body needs it for different types of life
processes.

Explore more: Water

Uses of Water
We all use water for drinking, cooking, bathing, cleaning, washing, etc. Factories and large
industries use water in large quantities for producing various products required for human
welfare. Farmers also use water for irrigating and cultivating crops. Thus, water is necessary
for many activities; therefore, it is an essential requirement of life.

Sources of Water Meaning

Water is a valuable natural resource found in different forms in our environment.

As per the Earth’s geography, there is a lot of water all around us, but it is not fresh water and
not suitable for human use.

The available natural water is not pure forever. Excluding rainwater, all other water sources
comprise salts and minerals deposits dissolved in it. These salts make the water impure,
which is not fit for consumption.

There are two primary sources of water – surface water and groundwater.

The primary water sources used for drinking, cooking, washing, farming, and other
commercial uses are surface water, groundwater, and collected rainwater.

These primary water sources depend on rainfall and snow, which form a part of the
hydrological cycle.
Rivers, streams, lakes, and ponds are the main form of surface water. The amount of
available surface water depends mainly on rainfall. When rainfall is limited, surface water
supply will vary considerably between wet and dry seasons and between years.

Surface water like reservoirs and dams generates hydroelectric power and supplies water for
agricultural, municipal, industrial uses, and other commercial purposes.

Rainwater is also an essential water source, although on a relatively small scale. Collecting
rain from roofs or other hard-surfaced areas and storing it until it is needed can provide a
valuable water source for many purposes.

Explore more: Rainwater Harvesting

Stay tuned to BYJU’S Biology to know more about water, sources of water, scarcity of water,
and different measures taken to preserve water.

Frequently Asked Questions on What is the meaning of sources of water?

Q1

Where does the water come from for drinking?

Drinking water comes from groundwater or seawater, which are natural water sources.
Q2

What are the natural sources of water?

The natural sources of water are:
  Surface water (seawater)
 Above surface water (rain)
 Underground water (springs)

Q3
What are the primary sources of drinking water?
The primary sources of drinking water are cisterns, springs, and wells.
The majority of household wells are found in rural areas.
Q4

What are the primary sources of surface water?

Rivers, lakes, ponds and tanks are the four primary surface water sources.
Q5

Why is water essential to the human body?

Water serves as an essential nutrient to our body, and it plays a vital role in the following:

 Lubricates joints
 Maintains the body temperature
 Removes toxins and other wastes from the body
 Moistens the tissues of the eyes, nose and mouth
 Transportation of nutrients and oxygen to different cells, tissues and organs.

Q6
Which Indian states have the highest utilisation of groundwater?
In India, groundwater utilisation is very high in certain regions such as Punjab, Haryana,
Rajasthan, and Tamil Nadu.