8th Grade Science Lessons 1-20

STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 1
Lesson 1
Review of Earth Science/Earth System Science
Student Assignment:
Lesson Wrap-Up:
© All In One Curriculum Inc
www.AllinOneCurriculum.com
Review: Earth Science

Earth Science
Geology physical
historical Physical
Historical
Oceanography
Meteorology
Astronomy -
The Earth’s Formation
Earth’s Layers
The Earth’s Spheres
hydrosphere atmosphere
geosphere
biosphere
Hydrosphere -
Atmosphere - atmosphere
Geosphere -
Crust
Mantle
Outer Core
core Inner Core

mantle
crust
lithosphere
1-Oceanic crust; 2-Lithosphere; 3-Astenosphere; 4-Continental crust; 5-Volcanic arc; 6-Trench
Biosphere
Plate Tectonics
two
Destructive forces
Constructive forces
Earth System
system
Mississippi Delta/ NASA
Earth as a System
People and the Environment

environment
Resources
Renewable resources
nonrenewable resources
Population
Environmental Problems
Lesson Wrap-Up: Reminder
Lesson 1
Review of Earth Science/Earth System Science
NAME: _________________________________________________________________
DATE: __________________________________________________________________
Directions:
7.
Part 2: Vocabulary
Environment Meteorology Mantle Lithosphere Crust
Geology Core Geosphere Hydrosphere
Astronomy Biosphere Earth Science System
______________________________.
______________________________
__________________.
_________________
__________________
________________________
_______________ ___________________.
___________.
______________________________
__________________________
_______________________________
_____________________________
___________________
Lesson 2
Review of Earth Science: Scientific Inquiry/Maps
Student Assignment: In today’s Lesson, you will be reviewing Earth Science from 7th
Grade Science. As you read today’s Lesson, take notes and record the vocabulary words
in your Science Notebook.
After you have finished today’s reading, complete the Lesson review activities.
Lesson Wrap-Up: Discuss with your teacher any vocabulary words or text that you need
assistance with.
Introduction to Earth Science: Scientific Inquiry
Everything in science is based on two assumptions. The first assumption is that the natural
world behaves in a consistent and predictable manner. The second assumption is that
through careful, systematic study, we can understand and explain the natural world’s
behavior. We can use this knowledge to predict what should or should not be expected. By
knowing how oil deposits form, geologists can predict where oil will be found. All scientists
approach the study of the natural world with certain habits of mind. Curiosity, honesty and
openness to new ideas are important characteristics of a scientist. Skepticism is also an
important quality. Skepticism is a willingness to question an idea unless that idea is
supported with firm evidence. Scientists use a range of skills and methods, including
methods to ensure safety in the laboratory.
Hypothesis is a tentative explanation for an observation or phenomenon. New scientific

knowledge begins when scientists collect data through observation and measurement.
Once scientists have collected data, they try to explain how or why things happen in the
manner observed. Scientists do this by stating a possible explanation called a scientific
hypothesis. Sometimes scientists develop more than one hypothesis to explain a given set
of observations. A hypothesis is used to make testable predictions, but may not always be
the true explanation. Before a hypothesis can be accepted by the scientific community, it
must be tested and analyzed. If a hypothesis can’t be tested, it is not scientifically useful.
Hypotheses that fail rigorous testing are discarded and a new hypothesis is developed.
Theory - When a hypothesis has survived extensive testing and when competing
hypotheses have been eliminated, a hypothesis may become a scientific theory. A
scientific theory is well tested and widely accepted by the scientific community and best
explains certain observable facts. The theory of plate tectonics that you learned about in a
previous Lesson provides the framework for understanding the origin of continents and
ocean basins, plus the occurrence of mountains, earthquakes, and volcanoes. This theory
began as a hypothesis and was then proven to become a theory.
Scientific Methods - The scientific method is the process of gathering facts through
observations and formulating scientific hypotheses and theories. There is no set of rules or
procedures that scientists follow to gain scientific knowledge. However, many scientific
investigations involve the following steps:
1. The collection of scientific facts through observation and measurement
2. The development of one or more working hypotheses or models to explain these facts
3. Development of observations and experiments to test the hypotheses, and
4. The acceptance, modification, or rejection of the hypothesis based on extensive
testing
How do we apply scientific theory to our world as we know it? Let’s take a “look” at our
world and the different views which have grown into fact through careful exploration and
scientific explanation.
A globe can also represent the Earth. A globe is a sphere that shows the relative sizes and
shapes of Earth’s land features and waters. Maps and globes provide different types of
information about the Earth’s surface.
Land Features on Maps
Relief maps show what the landscape of an area actually looks like. A relief map shows
how high or low each feature is on Earth. Relief maps show three main types of land
features – mountains, plains, and plateaus.
Mountains are higher than the land around them. It is called a mountain range when there
is a group of mountains together. Several mountain ranges connected in a long chain is
called a mountain belt. Mountain belts can span several countries.
Plateaus stand high above sea level, but unlike mountains, have fairly level surfaces.
They are often found near mountain ranges.
Plains are flat or rolling geological features and in the United States, there are generally
two types of plains. There are coastal plains, which are near the eastern and southern
shores, and interior plains, which are found in the center of the country. The Great Plains
cover a third of the country.
Map Symbols and Scale
Usually, when someone is using a map, it is a road or city map. These maps provide
information about human-made features and may include some natural features. In order
to use these maps, you need to know how to use the map legend and how to read a map
scale.
The map scale
shows the
relationship
between distances
on a map and the
actual distances on
the Earth’s surface.
Depending on the
size of the area
shown on the map,
the scale may be in
miles (kilometers)
or yards (meters).
To find more detail,
you need to find a
map that covers a
smaller area.
Map scales can be expressed in several ways: a ratio, a bar, or equivalent units of
distance. A ratio of 1:25,000 means that 1 centimeter on the map represents 25,000
centimeters, or .25 kilometer, on Earth. A bar scale gives you a picture that shows how
much space on the map represents each unit of measure. Equivalent-units scales tell you
how many inches/centimeters on the map equal a mile or kilometer.
The map legend, or key, is the chart that explains the meaning of the symbols found on
the map. There may be symbols for highways, parks, trails, or other points of interest.
Most maps also include a compass to show which directions on the map are north, south,
east, and west. Generally, north points up on a map.
Latitude and Longitude
To help locate things on the Earth’s surface, people use latitude and longitude. Latitude
and longitude lines form an imaginary grid over the surface of the Earth. This grid makes
it possible for everyone to use the same system to locate objects and places on the planet.
Latitude is based on an imaginary line that circles the Earth halfway between the north
and south poles. This imaginary line is called the equator. The equator divides the Earth
into the northern and southern hemispheres. A hemisphere is one half of a sphere.
Latitude is measured in the degrees north or south of the equator. The equator is 0 . A
degree is 1/360 of the distance around a full circle.
Latitude lines are all parallel to the equator and are evenly spaced between the equator
and the poles. Latitude lines are always labeled north or south, depending on their
location in relation to the equator; this shows whether the location is in the northern or
southern hemisphere. The North Pole is 90 N, and the South Pole is 90 S.
Longitude is the distances east or west, in degrees, of the prime meridian. The prime
meridian, like the equator, is 0 . Longitude lines are labeled 0 to 180 west and 0 to
180 east. If you understand longitude and latitude, you can find any spot on the Earth. is
based on an imaginary line that goes from the North Pole to the South Pole.
This line is called the Prime Meridian and goes through Greenwich, England. The prime
meridian divides the Earth into the Western and Eastern hemispheres.
How Do I Use Globes and Maps?

GPS - You may have heard of GPS for your car or on your cell phone. GPS stands for
Global Positioning System; it is a network of satellites that are used to find latitude,
longitude, and elevation of any site. There are 24 GPS satellites around the Earth. These
satellites send signals that can be picked up by receivers on the Earth’s surface. The
computer inside the receiver uses the satellite signal to help find any position on the
Earth’s surface.
Many people use GPS to help find their way when driving, hiking, or boating.
Maps and Distortions

Because the Earth is a sphere, the most accurate way to represent it is on a globe. A
globe would be pretty difficult to carry around and doesn’t show much detail, so people
use flat maps to help them find their way. To represent the Earth’s curved surface on a flat
map, a projection is used. Making a map of a curved surface into a flat map; causes
distortions.
There are several different kinds of projections used to make maps. A Mercator
projection shows the Earth as if it were a large cylinder wrapped around the Earth. On
this type of map, longitude and latitude lines are straight and form rectangles.
Mercator maps are useful for navigating because they show nearly the entire world on one
flat map. Because the curved latitude and longitude lines are straightened for this map, it
distorts the areas far away from the equator.
The farther you
get from the
equator on the
map, the larger
the distortion
becomes. This
causes land
masses in the far
north or far south
to appear much
larger than they
actually are
compared to the
rest of the world.
Another type of projection is a conic projection. This map is

based on the shape of a cone. Imagine wrapping a cone of
paper around the globe. The paper would only touch the
surface at the middle latitudes between the equator and North
Pole. When this cone is flattened out, the latitude lines are
curved. The curved lines represent the curved surface of the
Earth. This map shows the true size and shape of some
landmasses.
Conic projections are most useful when mapping areas in the

middle latitudes – such as the United States. Landmasses
near the poles or equator are distorted on this type of map.
A planar projection is based on a circle. Imagine that a circle of paper was laid on a part
of the Earth’s surface and a map was made based on this. As you move away from the
center point, the landmasses on the map become distorted.
Each type of projection is an attempt to solve the problem of representing a sphere on a
flat surface. Each type of map can show certain areas of the world correctly, but distorts
other areas.
Topographic Maps
Have you ever hiked on a nature trail or in the mountains? Imagine that you are getting
ready to take a hike through the state park and want to be prepared for anything that you
might encounter. How will you know if you need to climb hills or cross streams? You will
need to know about the topography of the land to answer these questions.
Topography is the shape, or features, of the land. Topographic features can be natural
features, such as mountains, rivers, or plateaus, or human-made, such as roads, bridges,
and dams. To display these features you need a topographic map. A topographic map is
a flat map that uses lines to show the Earth’s surface features. These maps show
distance, as well as, elevation. These numbers may be given in feet or meters.
Look at the map above, notice the wiggly lines? These lines are called contour lines and
these lines show the elevation, slope, and relief of an area. The elevation of a place is
how high above sea level it is. The numbers on the contour lines show the elevations of
different points.
The slope of an area is how steep it is. The distance between the contour lines will tell
you how steep an area is; the farther apart the lines, the more gradual the slope. A steep
area has contour lines that are closer together.
Relief is the difference between the highest point and lowest point of an area. If you find
the elevation of the highest point of an area and then subtract the lowest elevation, you
have just measured the relief of the area.
Contour Lines
The contour lines on a map help you to visualize what the area actually looks like. There
are several facts about contour lines that can serve as rules to help you read a
topographic map.
Contour lines never cross. Contour lines never cross because each line
represents a different elevation.
Circles show highest and lowest points. Contour lines form closed circles around
mountaintops, hilltops, and the centers of depressions in the land (sunken areas in
the ground). Often, the elevation of a mountain or hill is written in feet or meters in
the center of the circle.
Contour interval is always the same on a map. The contour interval is the
difference in elevation from one contour line to the next. For example, if the contour
interval on a map was 25 feet, then the difference in elevation from one circle to the
next is 25 feet. Contour intervals can differ from one map to the next, but the
interval always remains the same on each individual map.
Index contour lines mark elevations. On a topographic map, you will notice that
there are contour lines that are darker than the others. These darker lines are called
index contour lines and often have numbers written on the line. These numbers tell
you the elevation of the land at that contour line. These lines help you to calculate
the elevation of any contour line on the map. To do this, count the number of lines
above or below the index line and multiply by the contour index. For example, if you
want to find the elevation of the top of a hill on a map with a contour index of 25
feet, you would count the number of lines between the index line and the top of the
hill. (Let’s say this is 5 lines for this example.) To find the elevation of the top of the
hill, you need to multiply the number of lines (5) by the contour index (25) and then
add to the number on the index line (for this example, use 100). So the elevation of
our hill is: 5 (lines) x 25 feet (contour interval) = 125 feet + 100 feet (the index line
from this example). Our hill’s elevation is 225 feet.
Topographic maps
also contain many
different symbols
for natural and
human-made
features. The
United States
Geological Survey
(USGS) has
created a list of
symbols to make
reading these
maps easier. On
the left side of the
page you will see
several common
symbols.
Note: Not all
symbols needed:
Only symbols for
railroad, small tree,
grass or meadow,
marsh, trail, and
paved road.
The USGS makes
topographic maps
for almost every
part of the United
States. These
maps are used by
engineers,
archaeologists,
forest rangers, and
biologists rely on
topographic maps.
Using Technology to map the Earth

Earlier in this text, you read about GPS – Global Positioning System which uses a network
of satellites to find longitude, latitude and elevation at any site. You may not be familiar
with GPS in your own life – but you may have used a telescope or binoculars to help you
see something? If you have, you have used remote sensing. Remote sensing is the use
of scientific equipment to gather information about something from a distance. Remote
sensing can be as simple as a pair of binoculars or as complex as a satellite orbiting the
Earth.
Remote sensing is very important in the study of the Earth. Once, you would have had to
climb to the top of the highest point and carefully draw a map by hand based on what you
could see. The map would not have been able to tell you how high things were or even an
accurate measure of the distance from one point to the next.
U.S. Geological
Survey satellite
image of the
Pentagon, taken
April 26, 2002.
The
reconstruction
of the section
damaged in the
September 11
terrorist attacks
is visible on the
building's west
(left) side; the
diagonal line is
a construction
crane.
Courtesy of the
U.S. Geological
Survey.
17:40, 13 June
2005
Today, it is much easier to make maps. Remote sensing is used to help make maps much
more detailed and accurate. Mapmakers can use satellite images and pictures taken from
airplanes to create detailed maps of the Earth’s surface.
Satellites use sensors to help build images of the Earth. A sensor is a mechanical or
electrical device that receives and responds to a signal, such as light. These sensors are
able to detect much more than the eye can see. They collect information about the
different types of energy coming from the Earth’s surface and then send that information to
computers on Earth.
The computers then turn that information into images. Satellites can help create images of
entire planets, single continents, states, or even a single landmark. If you look at the
image above, you will see how satellites can help create images of a single object on the
Earth’s surface.
To study changes in the Earth’s surface, scientists use false-color images. False-color
images are images that assign different colors to different features.
True-Color Image of Chesapeake Bay False-Color Image of Chesapeake Bay
Geographic Information Systems

You can easily find a map of the surface of a city. On this map you will see buildings,
streets, parks, and landmarks; but what if you need to know about what is below the city?
Or what if you need to know the places where most of the people in the city live? An
ordinary map cannot tell you this information.
A map created with geographic information systems can display this information for you.
Geographic information systems (GIS) are computer systems that can store arranged
geographic data and then display it in many different kinds of maps. Geographic
information systems can be used to store data about the surface of an area, what is under
the surface, the human-made structures of the area, and even population information. All
of this information can then be combined to create almost any kind of map that is needed.
Scientists, engineers, and city planners then use these maps to study an area and help
make decisions. For example, a developer may want to find the best place to build a new
shopping mall and use GIS to determine where a good location would be based on
population and land features.
Any information can be entered into GIS and then converted into a map. This is especially
useful in tracking changes in the environment. For example, if the plants or wildlife of an
area suddenly begin changing, scientists can map these changes. They can also take
measurements of the chemicals and elements present and map theses changes. Maps
like this can help the scientists to discover what is causing changes.
Lesson Wrap-Up: Reminder - discuss with your teacher any vocabulary words or text
that you need assistance with.
Lesson 2
Review of Earth Science: Scientific Inquiry/Maps
NAME: _________________________________________________________________
DATE: __________________________________________________________________
Directions: Complete the following questions.

1. What natural and human-made features can maps show?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. Explain how latitude and longitude can help you locate any place on Earth.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. Why do all flat maps distort the Earth’s surface?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4. Imagine that your family is on a long car trip. What symbols on a road map would you
pay the most attention to? Explain.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
5. How do contour lines show elevation, slope, and relief?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
6. Why do contour lines never cross on a topographic map?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
7. How would you show the top of a hill, an area of vegetation, or a hiking trail on a
topographic map?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
8. For an area with gently sloping hills and little relief, would you draw contour lines close
together or far apart? Explain why.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
9. How would a road map and a topographic map of the same area differ? What
information would each provide?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
10. How are satellites used to make images of Earth from outer space?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
11. What are some of the types of information collected by remote sensing?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
12. Explain in your own words what a GIS map is.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
13. Explain how satellite images might be used to predict what a natural area might look
like in 50 or even 100 years.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
14. If you wanted to compare a region before and during a flood, how could false-color
images help you?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Part 2: Mix and Match

Fill in the blank with the letter corresponding to the definition that correctly matches the
word(s)
15. False-color image ________

16. Remote sensing ________
17. Sensor ________
18. Geographic information systems _______
A. a method of using scientific equipment to gather information about something from a

distance.
B. a mechanical or electronic device that receives and responds to a signal, such as light.
C. a computer image in which colors are not the same that the human eye would see and
where different colors are assigned to different types of radiation coming from an
object.
D. Computer systems that can store, arrange, and display geographic data in different
types of maps.
Part 3: Vocabulary
Complete each statement with the correct vocabulary word provided below.
Map scale Slope Latitude Contour line Prime Meridian Equator
Skepticism Elevation Contour interval Theory Projection Relief
Hypothesis Longitude Topography Map legend
19. _____________ is an imaginary east-west line around the center of Earth that divides
the planet into the Northern Hemisphere and the Southern Hemisphere; a line set at
0 latitude.
20. The comparison of distance on a map with actual distance on what the map
represents, such as Earth’s surface is known as ______ _________. (This may be
expressed as a ratio, a bar scale, or equivalent units.)
21. The angular distance north or south in degrees from the equator is ______________.
22. _______________________ is a tentative explanation for an observation or

phenomenon and is used to make testable predictions.
23. A line on a topographic map that joins points of equal elevation is a

______________________ ____________________.
24. In geology, the difference in elevations between an areas’ high and low points and
is usually shown with contour lines is known as a _____________________ map.
25. ______________________________ is a representation of the Earth’s curved

surface on a flat map.
26. An imaginary north-south line that divides the planet into the Eastern Hemisphere and
the Western Hemisphere and passes through Greenwich is the __________________
________________________________.
27. _________________________ is the distance in degrees east of west of the prime

meridian and its lines are numbered from 0 to 180 .
28. On a topographic map, the difference in elevation from one contour line to the next is
called a __________________________ ___________________________.
29. __________ _____________________ is a chart that explains the meaning of each

symbol used on a map; also called a key.
30. In science, a set of widely accepted explanations of observations and phenomena is

known as a __________________. It is a well-tested explanation that is consistent
with all available evidence.
31. ___________________________________ is a measure of how high something is

above a reference point, such as sea level.
32. All natural and human-made surface features of a particular area is called
_____________________________.
33. _____________________________ is a willingness to question an idea unless that

idea is supported with firm evidence.
34. A measure of how steep a landform is __________________. This is calculated as

the change in elevation divided by the distance covered.
Lesson 3
Earth Science/Earth Science System Test:
Student Assignment:
Lesson 3
Earth Science/Earth Science System Test:
NAME: _________________________________________________________________
DATE: __________________________________________________________________
Directions:
Part 1: Multiple Choice
Part 2: Vocabulary
Part 3: Critical Thinking
STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 4 (DR)
Lesson 4:
Review: Minerals
Student Assignment: In today’s Lesson, you will review what you have learned about
Minerals in 7th Grade Science. As you read today’s Lesson, take notes and record the
vocabulary words you may be having difficulty with or don’t understand in your Science
Notebook.
assistance with.
Review on Minerals: All Around Us!

Minerals have four characteristics
Minerals are all around us. We use them in a wide variety of ways in our everyday lives.
Some of these uses are obvious, like the salt that we put on our food. Some uses of
minerals are more surprising; for example, every time you watch TV or play a video game,
you are using minerals! In the wires that carry electricity to the television, copper is a
mineral that helps the electricity travel through the wires.
All minerals have four characteristics!
A mineral is a substance that forms in nature

is a solid
has a definite chemical makeup
and has a crystal structure
Many people think that rocks and minerals are the same thing. Minerals must have all four
of the characteristics listed above; rocks only have two of these characteristics: they are
solid and they form in nature.
Rocks are usually made up of two or more types of different minerals.
Source: Wikimedia commons/www.mineraly.sk/Granite
If you look at the diagram above, you can see that granite, a rock, is made up of several
different minerals. Two different samples of the same rock may have very different
amounts of the different minerals that they contain. However, minerals are always made
up of the same materials in the same proportions.
Formed in Nature
All minerals are formed by natural processes. Each mineral can form in nature without
involving living organisms.
Minerals form in many different ways. Halite, also known as table salt, forms when water
evaporates in a hot, shallow part of the ocean. The water disappears, leaving the salt
behind. Many types of minerals form when molten rock cools. Minerals also form deep in
the Earth as high pressures and temperatures cause changes in solid rock.
Solid
All minerals are solids. All solids have a definite volume and a rigid shape. Volume is the
amount of space that an object takes up; the larger an object, the larger its volume.
According to this definition, a substance that is a liquid or a gas is not a mineral. However,
many liquids and gases have solid forms that are minerals. Water can exist as a liquid
(water), gas (vapor/steam), and a solid (ice). Ice is a mineral.
Definite Chemical Makeup
Each mineral consists of a specific combination of atoms of certain elements. An element

is a substance that contains only one type of atom. An atom is the smallest particle an
element can be divided into. Each mineral consists of a specific combination of atoms of
certain elements. Minerals can be made up of more than one type of element.
Some minerals, such as copper, consist of just one element. All of the atoms in copper
are the same type.
Most minerals are made up of more than

one element. These are called
compounds – substances consisting of
several elements in specific proportions.
Salt, or Halite, for example, is made of
sodium and chlorine.
The elements that make up each mineral

are what help to give each its unique
properties.
Wikimedia Commons / http://www.mindat.org/photo-36944.html /Rob

Lavinski / iRocks.com
Chlorine
Sodium
Wikimedia Commons /Transferred from de.wikipedia; transferred

to Commons by User:Leyo using CommonsHelper.
(Original text: Selbst erstellt von H. Hoffmeister) Author: Original
uploader was Lanzi at de.wikipedia
Crystal Structure
When people think of crystals, they often think of clear, sparkling gems. These gems
sparkle because they have smooth flat surfaces that reflect the light. However, not all
crystals sparkle. The definition of a crystal is a solid in which the atoms are arranged in an
orderly, repeating, three-dimensional pattern.
Each mineral has its own type of crystal structure. It is possible for two different minerals
to have the same chemical composition, yet have different crystal structures. If you look at
your pencil, you will see graphite; this graphite has the same chemical composition as a
diamond. What makes them different? Both are made of carbon, but they have very
different crystal structures which give them different and unique properties. Diamonds are
very hard and sparkle. Graphite is soft, gray, and dull.
Finding a perfect crystal in nature is rare. A perfect crystal can only grow when a mineral
has the space to grow without any interruptions. Most crystals have imperfect shapes
because their growth was limited by the formation of other crystals near them; each
structure has a different shape.
Mineral Groups
Minerals are classified into groups based on their chemical makeup. The most common
chemical group is called silicates. All of the minerals in this group contain oxygen and
silicon joined together. Oxygen and silicon are the two most common elements in the
Earth’s crust.
It is possible to find thousands of different kinds of minerals on the Earth, but only about
30 of them are common in the Earth’s crust. These 30 different minerals make up most of
the rocks in the crust. Because of this, they are often called rock-forming minerals.
Silicates make up about 90 percent of the rocks on the Earth’s crust. Quartz, feldspar,
and mica are common silicates. In fact, most rocks that you will find around your house
are probably granite, which is made up of these three silicates.
Carbonates are the second most common group or rock-forming minerals. All of the
minerals in this group contain carbon and oxygen joined together. Calcite is a common
carbonate mineral. Calcite is commonly found in seashells, stalactites, and stalagmites.
There are many other mineral groups. While they may not be as common as the silicates
and carbonates, each group is important. Most metals come from the group known as
oxides. Oxides consist of an element, usually a metal, joined to oxygen. Hematite, a
source of iron, is a member of this group.
Minerals Are Identified by Their Properties
To identify minerals, you need to observe their properties. You can begin by looking at the
minerals color, but many minerals occur in more than one color. There are many other
properties that you can observe to determine what a mineral is.
Color and Streak - Some minerals are always the same color, but some minerals can be
almost any color. Usually, a mineral has a small range of colors that it can be. For
example, certain minerals will almost always be black or brown. There are three main
factors that cause minerals to appear as different colors.
First, a mineral may get its color from tiny amounts of an element that is not a part of the
mineral’s normal chemical makeup. Quartz is a good example of this; pure quartz is clear,
but there are many other colors present in nature. A small amount of iron in a sample of
quartz can give the mineral a violet color.
Second, a mineral’s color can change depending on what it is coming in contact with. If
the mineral is near the Earth’s surface and is in contact with the atmosphere or water, it
may change in color.
Third, a mineral can have defects in its crystal structure that will cause it to change color.
Some minerals have a different color when they are ground into a fine powder. A mineral’s
streak is the color of the powder that is left behind when a mineral is scraped across a
surface. Geologists use a tool called a streak plate to determine the color of a minerals
streak. A streak plate is a tile of unglazed porcelain. A mineral’s streak is a better indicator
of color than the surface appearance of the mineral. All samples of the same mineral have
the same color streak – even if the mineral samples appear to be a different color.
Luster - A mineral’s luster is the way in which light reflects from its surface. The two main
types of luster are metallic and nonmetallic. Metallic luster makes the mineral appear to
be made of metal. Nonmetallic luster can also appear shiny, but do not appear to be
made of metal. An example of a shiny luster that is nonmetallic would be a diamond.
Luster can also change from one sample of a mineral to the next. Often exposure to the
atmosphere or water can change the luster of a mineral. When this happens, it is
necessary to break the mineral to use a fresh surface to identify the luster.
Minerals can be identified by how they break.

Each mineral breaks in a specific way. All samples of the same mineral will break in the
same way. Some minerals appear to crumble, some break into cubes, and still others
peel apart into thin sheets. How a mineral breaks is an important method of identifying a
mineral. In fact, it is a better clue than color and luster.
Cleavage is the tendency of a mineral to break along flat surfaces. The bond between the
atoms in a mineral determines how it will break. A mineral displays cleavage because the
bonds of the crystal structure are weaker in the direction that the mineral breaks.
To describe the cleavage of a mineral, you need to consider both the directions which the
mineral breaks and the smoothness of the broken surfaces. If the broken surface is
smooth, the mineral is said to have perfect cleavage.
Fracture is the tendency of a mineral to break into irregular pieces. Some minerals break
into curved pieces, others splinter, and still others break into jagged pieces. Minerals
fracture because the bonds in the crystal structure are equally strong in all directions.
Remember, minerals display cleavage when the bonds in a particular direction are not as
strong as others.
Mineral Density and Harness

Imagine that you have your eyes closed and someone hands you a tennis ball, then in the
other hand they place a baseball. How would you tell the two apart? While the two balls
are approximately the same size, the baseball is harder and heavier than the tennis ball.
You can also identify minerals by examining their hardness and weight.
Density is the amount of mass in a given volume of a specific substance. For example, 1
cubic centimeter of the mineral pyrite has a mass of 5.1 grams. Therefore, pyrite’s density
is 5.1 grams per cubic centimeter. Density is very helpful in identifying minerals. Many
minerals have similar appearances; gold and pyrite are often mistaken for one another. In
fact, pyrite is called fool’s gold. While the two minerals look the same, you can tell them
apart. The density of gold is almost 4 times the density of pyrite. If a mineral is very dense,
a small amount of that mineral can have more mass and be heavier than a larger amount
of a mineral with a lower density.
The density of a mineral is determined by the kind of atoms that make up the mineral and
how closely those atoms are joined together. Geologists use special scales to get exact
measurements of the density of objects.
Hardness is a mineral’s resistance to being scratched. The hardness of a mineral is
another way to help identify the mineral. Much like a mineral’s cleavage, the hardness is
determined by its crystal structure and the bonds between its atoms. Harder minerals have
stronger bonds. Scientists use a scale, known as the Mohs scale, to describe a mineral’s
hardness. This scale is based on the idea that a harder mineral will scratch a softer
mineral. The scale goes from 1 to 10; 1 being the softest, 10 being the hardest.
Below you will see the Mohs scale:
1 Talc On this chart, Talc (which is used to make baby

2 Gypsum powder) has a value of 1. Diamonds, the hardest
mineral, has a value of 10. A mineral can only be
3 Calcite scratched by other minerals that have the same
hardness or are harder. To determine the
4 Fluorite hardness of a mineral, scratch it with various
minerals from the scale. So, if you were able to
5 Apatite scratch a mineral with fluorite, but not with calcite;
that minerals’ hardness is between 3 and 4 on
6 Feldspar
the Mohs scale.
7 Quartz
Instead of using minerals for the scratch test, you
8 Topaz can substitute your fingernail, a copper penny,
and a steel file to test an unknown mineral. Your
9 Corundum fingernail has a harness of approximately 2.5. A
copper penny has a hardness of 3, and a steel
10 Diamond
file has a harness of 7 or more.
Special Properties of Minerals

There are special tests that one can do to determine if a mineral is in a specific group.
Minerals in the carbonate group will respond to an acid test. The test consists of placing a
drop of a weak hydrochloric acid solution on the mineral. If the acid reacts with the
mineral, carbon dioxide will be released and a bubble will form out of the acid. These
bubbles show that the mineral is a carbonate.
Other minerals will glow when exposed to ultraviolet light. If a mineral glows under
ultraviolet light, it has a property known as fluorescence. Other minerals respond to
magnets. If a mineral responds to a magnet, it has magnetic properties – knowing this can
help narrow down the type of mineral that you are trying to identify.
The property of radioactivity is caused by unstable elements that change over time. As
these elements change, they release energy. Scientists can measure this energy and use
it to identify minerals that contain unstable elements.
Minerals as Valuable Resources
Minerals are very important to modern society. We use metals for cars and airplanes,
quartz and feldspar for glass, fluorite for toothpaste, mica and talc for paint, and copper to
carry electricity through wires. What other uses of minerals can you think of?
Mineral Product
Quartz (source of silicon) Optics, glass, abrasives, gems
Hematite (source of iron) Machines, nails, cooking

utensils
Gibbsite (source of aluminum) Soda cans, shopping carts
Chromite (source of chromium) Automobile parts, stainless

steel
Galena (source of lead) Batteries, fiber optics, weights
Kaolinite (found in clay) Ceramics, paper, cosmetics
Beryl (source of beryllium) Aircraft frames, gems

(emeralds)
Millions of people wear gemstones everyday. These gemstones are various minerals,
such as ruby, emerald, and diamond. The ancient Egyptians used gems in jewelry over
4,000 years ago. These gemstones undergo many changes from the time that they are
found and the time that they are worn as beautiful jewelry.
When gemstones are found, they are usually rough and irregularly shaped. To turn this
stone into jewelry, a jeweler uses a gem cutter to grind the gem into the desired shape.
The jeweler then polishes the gem to increase the beauty and sparkle of the gem. The
gem is then ready to be made into jewelry.
To polish these gemstones, the jeweler must use a material that is at least as hard as the
gem itself. The gem is then usually placed in other minerals – gold and silver – to make
jewelry. Copper is usually combined with the gold and silver to make them stronger.
Mineral Formation
Before they can be found and turned into jewelry, gemstones, as well as other minerals,
form within the Earth or on the Earth’s surface through natural processes. Minerals are
formed when atoms of one or more elements joint together and crystals begin to form.
Each mineral has its own unique chemical makeup, so the minerals that form in an area
depend on the elements present. Temperature and pressure also influence the type of
minerals that can form.
Water Evaporation
Because water usually has many different substances dissolved in it, when water
evaporates, minerals can form. When salt water evaporates, the atoms that make up
halite join to form crystals. Gypsum can also form as water evaporates. The minerals that
form depend on the substances present in the water.
Cooling Water
Hot water moves through the Earth’s crust. As this water moves through rocks, it
dissolves minerals. As the water cools, the dissolved minerals become solid again and
separate from the water. Many minerals are moved from one place to another in this
process. Sometimes when the water cools, the dissolved substances form minerals
different from the original dissolved minerals.
Cooling Molten Rock
Magma is the molten rock found inside the Earth. Many different minerals grow from
magma. Magma has all of the types of atoms that are found in minerals – as the magma
cools, the atoms join together to form different minerals. Minerals also form as lava cools.
Lava is molten rock that has reached the Earth’s surface.
Heat and Pressure
Heat and pressure within the Earth cause new minerals to form. As the heat and pressure
change, he bonds between atoms break and join again. These new atomic bonds create
minerals.
Organisms
Some minerals are produced by living things. Ocean animals, such as oysters and clams,
form calcite to make their shells. Even you produce minerals! Your own body produces
apatite – one of the main minerals in teeth and bones.
Mining Minerals
Many of the minerals that modern society uses to create things must first be removed from
the ground. Some of these minerals are found close to the Earth’s surface, others are
buried deep underground.
Most minerals are combined with other minerals in rocks. To make mining the mineral
profitable, there must be large quantities of it present in the rock. Rocks that contain
enough of a mineral to be profitable for mining are called ores.
Some minerals are mined through surface mining. Surface mining can involve digging up
quantities of minerals that are close to the surface, or even scraping the bottom of bodies
of water where minerals collect.
Strip mining is a process in which miners strip away all of the plants, soil, and unwanted
rocks from the Earth’s surface. Special machines are then used to dig out the ore. Open
pit mining is similar to strip mining, but requires digging a deep pit in an area where ores
are present. Roads are built to the top of the pit and machinery is used to dig out the ore
so that trucks can carry it to the top of the pit.
(The Homestake Mine in Lead, South Dakota / 17 May 2005, 15:18:10 / originally posted to Flickr as Gold mine in Lead, SD / Rachel Harris)
Wikimedia Commons
When an ore is found deep below the Earth’s surface, deep mining is necessary. To
reach these ores, miners dig an opening to reach the minerals. Often miners dig into the
sides of mountains to reach ores. These passages become similar to tunnels that are
blasted in the rock. The miners remove the ore that they are looking for and then blast
and dig to make the tunnel longer. These tunnels, or mines, can be long horizontal
passages in the side of a mountain or deep vertical passages under the ground.
Lesson 4:
Review: Minerals
NAME: _________________________________________________________________
DATE: __________________________________________________________________
1. What are the four characteristics of a mineral?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. On what basis do scientists classify minerals?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. What is the most common group of minerals? What is the percentage of the crust
that they make up?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4. Can oil or natural gas be classified as minerals? Why or why not?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
5. When a piece of quartz is heated to a very high temperature, it melts into a liquid. Is it
still a mineral? Why or why not?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
6. Why is color not a reliable clue to the identity of a mineral?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
7. What is the difference between cleavage and fracture?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
8. Describe what would happen if you rubbed a mineral with a Mohs hardness value of 7
against a mineral with a value of 5.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
9. Which mineral identification tests would be easy for a person to perform at home?
Which would be difficult?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
10. Diamond and graphite contain only carbon atoms. How can you tell which minerals’
atoms are bonded more closely?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Part 2: Definitions
Provide the definition for each word listed below in one or two sentences.
11. Crystal- _____________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
12. Element- ____________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
13. Mineral- _____________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
14. Cleavage-____________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
15. Density- _____________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
16. Fracture- ____________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
17. Hardness- ___________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
18. Luster- ______________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
19. Streak- ______________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
20. Lava- _______________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
21. Magma- ____________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
22. Ore- ________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Lesson 5
Review of Rocks: The Rock Cycle
Igneous/Sedimentary/Metamorphic
Rocks and Rock Cycle from 7th grade science. As you read today’s Lesson, take notes
and record the vocabulary words that you may be having difficulty with or don’t understand
in your Science Notebook.
assistance with.
Rocks: The Rock Cycle

Rocks are usually made of Minerals
A rock is a naturally formed solid that is usually made up of one or more types of minerals.
The structure of rocks is different than the structure of minerals. Minerals always have the
same elements in the same proportions and have an orderly crystal structure. In rocks,
the proportion of different minerals in a type of rock may vary. Instead of having an orderly
structure, the minerals in a rock can be mixed-up together.
A few types of rocks are made up of a single mineral, and others contain no minerals at
all. Limestone is often made up of only calcite. Coal is another type of rock that does not
contain any minerals.
Obsidian, on the other hand, contains

no minerals at all – it is made up of
natural glass which does not have a
crystal structure.
Source: Wikimedia Commons

(Photograph) courtesy of the U.S. Geological Survey
00:14, 26 August 2005
Coal is made up of the remains of ancient

plants that have been pressed together over
time and form rock.

(Photograph) courtesy of the U.S. Geological Survey
02:15, 29 April 2005
The Earth is Almost All Rock

The Earth is built almost entirely of rocks. This may not seem to make sense because
when you look at the Earth, you see plants, soil, rivers, and oceans. However, these
features are only a thin layer on the top of the Earth. Below this layer, the Earth is made
up of solid and molten rock.
Like minerals, rocks are important to modern society. Because they are so abundant,
people use them for a wide variety of purposes. We build houses out of rocks, we pave
our roads with rocks, we carve art out of rocks, and we use rocks as sources of metals.
Rocks are valued because they last a long time and many are beautiful. The Great Wall of
China is built partially out of blocks of granite. The Great Pyramid in Egypt is made up of
Limestone blocks. The faces of the presidents at Mt. Rushmore are carved in the granite
of the mountain. Rocks can last for thousands of years and the structures that are left
behind tell us the stories of the past. Rocks can also tell us how an area has changed
over time. Examining the rocks of North America tells us that the continent was once
covered in ice. Maps that show the types of rock and its location are called geologic maps.
Rocks Change
Source: Wikimedia Commons /PD-USGOV-INTERIOR-NPS; PD-USGOV-INTERIOR-USGS.
The Rock Cycle

Many people think that rocks do not change. However, over a long span of time, most
rocks do change. The rock cycle is the set of natural processes that form, change, break
down, and re-form rocks. A cycle is made up of repeating events that happen one after
another. While the cycle continues to happen, a rock can become part of the cycle at any
point.
Rock Types - There are three types of rocks. These rocks are classified by how they
form.
Igneous rock forms when molten rock cools and becomes solid. Igneous rock can form
inside the Earth or on the Earth’s surface. Igneous rocks that form deep within the Earth
can reach the surface over time. They can be pushed to the surface when mountains are
pushed up or the rock above them can slowly wear away, exposing the igneous rock
beneath.
Sedimentary rock forms when pieces of older rocks, plants, and other loose material get
pressed or cemented together. Running water carries materials that then settle out of the
water, forming a layer of sediment. Over time, new layers of sediment are laid down on
top of this and eventually the weight presses the material together to form rocks.
Sedimentary rocks can also be formed when water evaporates and leaves behind the
minerals that were dissolved in it.
Metamorphic rock forms when heat or pressure cause older rocks to change into new
types of rock. When a rock gets buried below the crust, where pressure and temperature
are greater, the new conditions cause the structure of the rock to change. This change
allows new minerals to grow in place of the old ones and creates a new type of rock.
Much like igneous rocks, metamorphic rocks can be pushed to the surface over time.
Rocks in the Crust of the Earth Sedimentary 5%
All three types of rocks are found in the Earth’s crust,
but they are not evenly distributed. Igneous and metamorphic
rocks make up 95% of the Earth’s crust. Sedimentary rock only
makes up 5% of the crust as shown in the diagram to the right
of the ENTIRE CRUST.
Igneous and Metamorphic 95%
Igneous and Metamorphic 25%
Sedimentary rock is the most common

Sedimentary 75% type of rock found on the Earth’s surface.
Sedimentary rocks are the most common
on the surface because of how they are
formed.
Most sedimentary rocks form on the

SURFACE OF THE CRUST
surface and do not have to be pushed to
Igneous and metamorphic rocks make up the surface. Most metamorphic and
25% and sedimentary rock makes up 75% igneous rocks are formed deeper in the
of the surface of the curst. Earth.
Near Earth’s
Surface:
Molten rock
that cools near
or at the
Igneous Earth’s surface
rocks hardens
quickly. The
igneous rocks
have small
Deep inside mineral
the Earth: crystals
Molten rock
that cools
inside the
Earth hardens
slowly,
forming rocks
that have
large mineral
crystals.
Igneous Rocks
We know that igneous rocks form from molten rock, but where does the molten rock come
from? As you go deeper into the Earth, the temperature increases. The farther down you
go, the hotter it gets. Deep in the Earth, temperatures are hot enough to melt rock. This
molten rock is known as magma. Lava is the name for molten rock that reaches the
Earth’s surface.
Igneous rocks are classified by their mineral composition and the size of their mineral
crystals. Rocks formed in magma can have the same composition as rocks form in lava,
but the two will have a different name. How is this possible? The crystal size of the rocks
formed in the magma will be different than the size of the crystals formed in the lava. You
will learn more about this later.
Origins
Igneous rocks are classified based on where they formed. There are two different kinds of
igneous rocks: intrusive and extrusive. Intrusive igneous rock is one that forms when
magma cools within the Earth. Extrusive igneous rock is one that forms when lava cools
on the Earth’s surface.
Granite is the most common intrusive rock that is found in continents. If the same magma
reaches the surface, it will form extrusive rocks such as rhyolite and pumice. An extrusive
rock that forms much of the ocean floor is Basalt; this same magma that produces the lava
that makes Basalt creates Gabbro within the Earth.
Extrusive igneous rocks are easy to see on the Earth’s surface; but you can also find
intrusive igneous rocks on the surface of the Earth, how does this happen? Water and
wind can break away the surface rocks and expose intrusive igneous rocks. They may
also be pushed to the surface during events like earthquakes or the formation of
mountains.
Texture - The texture of an igneous rock depends on the crystal size of the rock. The
crystal size depends on the amount of time that it took the molten rock to cool. Intrusive
igneous rocks form within the Earth. These rocks form large crystals because the interior
of the Earth is very hot and the high temperatures allow magma to cool slowly. This slow
cooling process allows large mineral crystals to form.
Extrusive igneous rocks are formed when lava reaches the surface of the Earth. The
mineral crystals in extrusive igneous rocks are small because the surface of the Earth is
cooler than the interior and the lower temperatures cause the lava to cool quickly. This
process does not allow time for large crystals to form.
Some igneous rocks have crystals of varying sizes. These rocks began to form below the
surface of the earth and then where pushed to the surface as the lava erupted. Before the
lava erupted, the rock began to form with large crystals, after the lava erupted, the rest of
the crystals that formed were small.
Composition - While texture is important, it is not enough to classify igneous rocks. There
are many substances that have similar textures but are very different. Baby powder and
powdered sugar are similar in texture, but are very different. Igneous rocks can also
appear the same, but have different compositions.
Most igneous rocks are mainly made of silicate materials. This is because, as you read in
a previous Lesson, silicates are the most common minerals in the Earth’s crust. Because
of this, scientists classify igneous rocks based on texture and the amount of silica present
in the rock and they use special equipment to determine silica content, but you can
estimate the level of silica in an igneous rock by looking at the color. Igneous rocks with
high levels of silica are usually light in color, like granite and rhyolite; igneous rocks low in
silica, like gabbro and basalt, are dark in color.
Igneous Rocks are Long-Lasting
Igneous rocks can be harder and more long-lasting than other types of rocks. Intrusive
igneous rock formations form underground and are then pushed to the surface or are
exposed when other surface rocks are worn away by water or the atmosphere.
Extrusive rock formations are created on the surface of the Earth. Lava can reach the
surface of the earth either by flowing up through a crack in the Earth’s surface or by
erupting from a volcano. Depending on how much silica is in the lava, it will react in
different ways.
Lava that is low in silica spreads easily and spreads out over a great area. This can cause
large plateaus or plains of igneous rock. If the lava erupts from a single point, it may form
large volcanoes with sloping sides. This is how the Hawaiian Islands formed. The islands
are a chain of volcanoes that began erupting at the seafloor. As the volcano erupted, it
built up and eventually grew tall enough to form an island.
Lava that is high in silica does not flow well. This type of lava builds cone shaped
volcanoes with steep sides. Because this type of lava is thick and sticky, it may build in
pressure until it explodes violently.
Sedimentary Rocks
Sediments are materials that settle out of water and air. Pieces of plant and animal
remains, loose pieces of rocks, and minerals can make up sediments. Sedimentary rocks
develop from the layers of sediments that build up on land or underwater.
As water and air flow over a surface, they wear away the rock and carry pieces with it.
Strong winds can carry sand and rocks. Rivers, streams, lakes, and even oceans also
help move sediment. Layers are formed as these sediments settle; large particles first,
followed by smaller ones.
As these layers build up, the lower layers are pressed together by the pressure from the
layers of sediment above. Some particles of sediment, like silt and clay, may be formed
into rock by pressure alone. Other sedimentary rock particles are held together by
minerals that have crystallized between them. These minerals act as a cement to hold the
rocks together. Both processes transform sediment into rocks over long time periods.
Rocks from Plants and Shells

Coal is a very important sedimentary rock. We use coal as a source of fuel and depend
on the presence of coal to keep our
world running. Coal is an unusual sedimentary rock because it is formed from the remains
of plants instead of earlier rocks.
The coal that we use today was formed millions of years ago in swamps. As plants died,
the remains fell on top of the remains of earlier plants. Over time, these layers built up
and put pressure on the layers below. The weight of the layers of sediment pressed the
plant remains together to form coal.
Limestone is an abundant sedimentary rock; it is made up of carbonate minerals, such as

calcite. The shells and skeletons of ocean organisms are made up of carbonate minerals.
As the organisms die, their remains fall to the bottom of the body of water and begin to
form layers of sediment. Over time, these layers get pressed together or cemented
together and form limestone.
Rocks Form When Dissolved Minerals Re-form in Water
Some rocks form when the minerals dissolved in water crystallize as the water evaporates.
The water in rivers, lakes, and oceans are filled with minerals that came from rocks. Some
of these minerals are solid fragments that were carried by the moving water. Some of
these particles dissolved from other rocks and minerals as the water flowed over them. All
of these mineral particles are carried along as the water moves.
Water often flows through cracks in the rock that is near the Earth’s surface. As water
flows through limestone, some of the rock dissolves into the water. Over time, this can
leave a large opening; this is how caves are formed. As water flows through the cave, or
drips through cracks, some of it evaporates. As the water evaporates, new limestone is
formed. This limestone can take many odd and beautiful shapes, such as stalactites and
stalagmites.
Sometimes the minerals re-form, or crystallize, along the edges of bodies of water where
the climate is dry and the water evaporates quickly. These minerals build up over time
and form sedimentary rocks. Gypsum and rock salt form through this process.
Sedimentary Rocks, Wind, and Water
Sedimentary rocks can tell geologists a lot about the history of an area. Because the
rocks are formed in layers, with the oldest layers at the bottom, geologist can study what
happened in the past. Often, fossils are found in these layers.
Besides the fossils, the sediments themselves hold a great deal of information. Layers of
sedimentary rock may contain different sized particles that have been laid down by size;
large particles form the bottom of the layer and the particle size gets smaller as you move
higher in the layer. This tells us that the layer was created by particles settling out of water
that changed speed. Larger sediments settle when water is traveling quickly, but smaller
particles do not settle until the water slows down.
Sedimentary rocks can also tell us about wind conditions long ago. Winds cause sand
and sediment to be laid down in tilted layers on the slopes of sand dunes or sandbars.
Sand can also form ripples as water or wind moves over it. These markings are often
preserved in rock as the sediments form rock layers and tell geologists about the strength
and direction of the ancient winds.
Source: Wikimedia Commons/Rygel, M.C. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Rygel, M.C.

Cross beds Ripples
Mud cracks
Other rocks made of clay or silt display
cracks that formed when the mud that they
began as dried out. Mud cracks show
geologists that the rocks formed in areas
where wet periods were followed by dry
periods.
Source: Wikimedia Commons/Vinod Panicker /
http://photos.doniv.org/v/rann/43-design-of-the-rann.jpg.htm
Metamorphic Rocks - Heat and Pressure Change Rocks

Metamorphism is the process in which an existing rock is changed by heat or pressure,
or both. The original rock is called the parent rock – parent rocks are made of sedimentary
or igneous rocks. The resulting rock is a metamorphic rock. Metamorphic rocks can then
later become parent rocks to new metamorphic rocks.
People use many metamorphic rocks that were once sedimentary rocks. Limestone is a
sedimentary rock that is the parent rock to the metamorphic rock marble. Artists and
builders use marble. During metamorphism, rocks undergo many changes. Pressure may
cause a rock’s minerals to flatten out in one direction. No matter what changes the rock
undergoes, it always remains a solid. If a rock gets hot enough to melt, it forms an
igneous rock, not a metamorphic rock.
The bonds that join atoms in minerals can be broken by heat and pressure. As new bonds
form, the atoms can join together differently - this process is called recrystallization.
Recrystallization has two main results: individual mineral crystals can grow larger as more
atoms join their crystal structure; and atoms can combine in different ways, forming new
minerals in the place of the original ones. Shale is a sedimentary rock that is formed from
silt and clay, during recrystallization, garnet can form from these minerals.
The types of metamorphic change that occur depend on the types of parent rocks and the
conditions present. Different rocks, different temperatures, and different pressures will all
cause different results. When high pressure and high temperatures are present,
metamorphic changes can occur over large areas. When only one is present, the changes
occur over smaller areas.
Change Over Small Areas
Metamorphic changes occur in small areas when only high temperatures are present or
only high pressure is present. When magma comes into contact with surrounding rock,
some of this rock is exposed to the high temperature, but does not melt. These rocks
experience metamorphic change as the high temperature causes recrystallization.
Rocks can also be changed by being exposed to only high pressure. When rocks at or
near the Earth’s surface are squeezed together, they experience high pressure and this
pressure causes metamorphic changes.
Change Over Large Areas
Most metamorphic changes happen in areas where high temperatures and high pressure
are present. An example of this would be rocks deep under the Earth’s surface that are
being pushed together. These rocks are buried, pressed together, bent, and heated – this
causes metamorphic changes as the rock is pushed upward to form mountains.
The deeper the rock, the greater the metamorphic change that they will undergo. As you
travel deeper below the Earth’s surface, temperatures become higher. When these higher
temperatures combine with higher pressures, greater metamorphic changes occur.
Bands of Minerals
Foliation is an arrangement of minerals in flat or wavy parallel bands. Slate is a rock that
displays foliation. The arrangement of the minerals allows the rock to be split into thing
sheets along the boundaries between its flat bands of minerals.
The word foliation comes from the Latin word folium. The word foliage, also comes from
this Latin word meaning “leaf”. Foliated rocks either split into leaf-like sheets or have
bands of minerals that are lined up and easy to see, much like the veins in a leaf.
Foliated Rocks - Foliation occurs when rocks are under great pressure. Foliation occurs
when minerals flatten out or line up in bands. These bands are very thin at low levels of
metamorphism. With higher pressure and temperature, the mineral mica can begin to
grow and give the rock a shiny look like in phyllite and schist.. At even higher levels, the
minerals in the rock can form light and dark bands like in gneiss.
Nonfoliated Rocks - Metamorphic rocks that do not show foliation are called nonfoliated
rocks. Marble is an example of a nonfoliated rock. Marble is made up mainly of one
mineral, so the different minerals cannot separate and line up in layers. Artist use marble
for carving and sculpting because it will not split into layers as the artist is working.
Rocks, such as hornfels, that are subjected to high temperatures, but not high pressure
are also nofoliated.
Lesson 5
Review of Rocks: The Rock Cycle
Igneous/Sedimentary/Metamorphic
NAME: _________________________________________________________________
DATE: __________________________________________________________________
1. How are rocks and minerals different?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. What are the three types of rock?

______________________ ______________________ _______________________
3. Which rock types are most common within the Earth’s crust? Which type is most
common at the Earth’s surface?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
4. Why is the set of natural processes by which rocks change into other types of rocks
called a cycle?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
5. Which type of rock would you expect to be common on the floor of a large, deep lake?
Why?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
6. What is the main difference between intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
7. What are the two major properties used to classify igneous rocks?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
8. Why can intrusive igneous rocks be left behind when surrounding rocks are worn
away?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
9. If granite within the Earth melts and then erupts at the surface, what type of extrusive
rock is likely to form?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
10. Would you expect extrusive rocks produced by an explosive volcano to be light or
dark in color? Why?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
11. What types of materials can make up sediments?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
12. Describe how a sedimentary rock can show how fast water was flowing when its
sediments were laid down.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
13. Why is coal called a fossil fuel?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
14. How could the speed of flowing water change to lay down alternating layers of sand
and mud?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
15. What conditions can cause a sedimentary or igneous rock to change into a
metamorphic rock?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
16. How do new minerals grow within existing rocks?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
17. Why do bands of minerals develop in most metamorphic rocks?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
18. Would gneiss be more likely to form at shallow depths or at great depths where
mountains are being pushed up? Why?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Part 2: Vocabulary
Complete each statement with the correct vocabulary word provided below.
Igneous rock rock cycle sedimentary rock
metamorphic extrusive igneous rock recrystallization
Intrusive igneous rock sediment metamorphism foliation
19. ___________________________ rock formed as heat or pressure causes existing

rock to change in structure, texture, or mineral composition is called.
20. Rock formed as pieces of older rocks and other loose materials get pressed or
cemented together or as dissolved minerals re-form and build up in layers is called
___________________________ ___________________.
21. The set of natural, repeating processes that form, change, break down, and re-form
rocks is called _______________ ________________.
22. __________________ rock forms as molten rock cools and becomes solid.
23. ________________ is a naturally formed solid that is usually made up of more or more
types of minerals.
24. Igneous rock that forms as lava cools on the Earth’s surface is __________________
_________________ _______________.
25. _____________________________ is the process in which an existing rock is

changed by heat or pressure, or both.
26. Solid materials such as rock fragments, plant and animal remains, or minerals that are
carried by water or by air and that settle on the bottom of a body of water or on the
ground are __________________________.
27. ___________________________ igneous rock forms as magma cools below the

Earth’s surface.
28. ____________________ is an arrangement of minerals in flat or wavy parallel bands.
29. ____________________ is the process in which an existing rock is changed by heat

or pressure, or both.
30. ___________________________ a process where the bonds that join atoms in
minerals can be broken by heat and pressure. As the new bonds form, the atoms can
join together differently.
Lesson 6
Minerals and Rocks Test: Lessons 4 - 5
Student Assignment:
Lesson Wrap Up:
Lesson 6
Minerals and Rocks Test: Lessons 4 - 5
NAME: _________________________________________________________________
DATE: __________________________________________________________________
Directions:
Part 1: Vocabulary /
Rock Type Forms From Example
Identifying Characteristic
Part 2: Key Concepts
Part 3: Short Answer
Part 4: Mineral Properties
Mineral Hardness Density (g/cm3)
Part 5: Examining Rocks
Part 6: Predict
Lesson 7
Review of Weathering and Soil
Weathering and Soil in 7th Grade Science. As you read today’s Lesson, take notes and
record the vocabulary words you may be having difficulty with or don’t understand in your
Science Notebook.
assistance with.
Weathering and Soil: Mechanical and Chemical Forces

Weathering is the process by which natural forces break down rock. There are two
different types of weathering. One type occurs when a rock is physically broken apart.
Think of a cracked sidewalk – it was physically broken. Another kind of weathering occurs
when a chemical reaction changes the makeup of a rock.
Mechanical Weathering
Think about a cracked sidewalk. What was once one piece of cement is now two or more
pieces of cement. The cement is broken, but it is still cement; breaking does not change
the makeup of the cement. While the pieces are no longer connected together due to
breaking by physical forces, they are still made up of all the same material.
Mechanical weathering is the breaking up of rocks by physical forces. This is a natural
process in which physical forces split apart rocks but do not change their composition.
There are 4 main types of mechanical weathering: ice wedging, pressure release, plant
root growth, and abrasion.
Ice Wedging
When water freezes and turns into ice, it expands. When water freezes in the cracks and
pores of rocks, this expansion causes rocks to break and crack. This process is called ice
wedging. The force of expanding ice is strong enough to break huge boulders. Ice
wedging is common in areas where the temperatures rises and falls below the freezing
point for water (0 C).
Pressure Release
As you learned in a previous Lesson, rock deep in the Earth is under great pressure. Over
time this rock may be pushed to the surface, or the rocks above it may be worn away. The
pressure within the rock is still great, but when the surface of the rock is exposed, the
pressure on that surface is released. As the pressure is released, the rock expands - as
the rock expands, cracks form in it. These cracks lead to a process called exfoliation.
Exfoliation is a process in which layers, or sheets, of rock gradually break off.
Sometimes this is called onion-skin weathering because the rock surface breaks off in thin
layers, like the layers of an onion.
Plant Root Growth
Cracks in rocks are perfect places for bushes, trees, and other plants to take root. As the
roots of these plants grow, they force the cracks to open further. Much like in ice wedging,
growing plant roots can split even a large rock.
Abrasion is the process of wearing down by friction, the rubbing of one object or surface
against another. The force of moving water can wear away particles of rock. Moving
water causes rocks to move downstream. As they rocks move downstream, they also
wear away particles of rocks in the riverbed and particles from their own surfaces. Waves
beating on a shore can also wear down rocks by abrasion.
Pressure Release / Exfoliation
Source: Wikimedia Commons /
Cascade Cliffs and Little Yosemite valley. In few

other places in the Yosemite region is the granite
more continuously massive than in the Cascade
Cliffs. Only one horizontal master joint divides the
rock (in the lower left) The scales on the cliffs are
merely surficial features due to exfoliation. The
dark streaks indicate the paths followed by the
ribbon cascades which descend from the upland
in the spring, when the snow is melting, and from
which the cliffs take their name. In the
background is Sugar Loaf (Bunnell Point).
Yosemite National Park. Mariposa County,
California. ca. 1914. Published as plate 45-A, in
U.S. Geological Survey. Professional paper 160.
1930. Author: Matthes, F.E.
http://libraryphoto.cr.usgs.gov/htmllib/btch199/btch199j/btch199z/mfe0115a.jpg
Abrasion Big Stock
Chemical Weathering is the breakdown of rocks by chemical reactions that change the
rocks’ composition. When minerals come into contact with air and water, some dissolve
and others react and change into different minerals. Iron is an example of this that we
have all seen. Metals that contain iron become rusty when oxygen in the air and water
react with the iron.
Dissolving
The main cause of chemical weathering is water. As you have learned, some minerals
completely dissolve in water. Many more minerals will dissolve in water that is slightly
acidic. Rainwater becomes a weak acid when carbon dioxide in the atmosphere dissolves
in rainwater. After falling, this slightly acidic water moves through the soil where it picks up
even more carbon dioxide. This weak acid solution breaks down the minerals in many
rocks. The process may also cause rocks to break into smaller pieces.
Another factor that increases the acidity of rainwater is air pollution. Cars and power
plants produce gases such as sulfur dioxide and nitric oxide which combine with water
vapor in the atmosphere to form acid rain. Being exposed to acid rain causes rocks to
weather much faster than they would naturally.
Rusting
Carbon dioxide is not the only element in the atmosphere that is involved in chemical
weathering. Oxygen is also involved in chemical weathering. Many of the minerals that
are common on the Earth’s surface contain iron. When these minerals dissolve in water,
the oxygen in the air combines with the water to produce iron oxides, commonly known as
rust. The iron oxides then color the weathered rocks by forming a coating that gives the
rocks a reddish-orange color.
Rates of Weathering
There are many factors involved in the amount of time that it takes a rock to weather.
Surface area, rock composition, and location all influence the rate of weathering. A rock
will weather faster if more of its surface is exposed to the air and water. A large exposed
surface area allows chemical weathering to affect more of the rock. The composition of the
rock is also an important factor. Different kinds of rocks break down at different rates.
The stronger the bonds between the minerals, the longer it takes a rock to weather.
For chemical weathering to occur, water must be present. Heat speeds up this process.
Therefore, chemical weathering occurs faster in hot, wet regions than it does in cold, dry
regions. In cold regions, mechanical weathering caused by the freezing and thawing of ice
occurs more rapidly than it does in hot regions.
Weathering: Weathering Forms Soil
Weathered rock particles eventually become the main ingredient in the soil that surrounds
us. There are four materials in soil: weathered rock particles, organic matter, water, and
air. Soil varies from one area to the next depending on what types of rock particles are
present.
About 20 percent of the volume of soil is made up of water and air. Organic matter makes
up another 5 percent of a soil’s volume. Organic matter that is found in soil comes from the
remains and waste products of other living organisms. As organisms decay, they become
a part of the soil called humus.
Soils vary depending on many factors. Different soils are made up of different ingredients
and different amounts of those ingredients depending on what is available in the area.
The factors that determine the kind of soil that forms in an area include:
the kind of rock in the area

the area’s climate
the landforms in the area, such as mountains and valleys
the plants in the area
the animals and other organisms in the area
time
The combination and amounts of materials present in a soil is called soil composition. Soil
composition determines what you can grow in it, what you can build on it, and what
happens when rainwater falls on it.
Soil Horizons
Have you ever dug a hole and noticed that the dirt changed color? This is because soil
develops in a series of horizontal layers called soil horizons. A soil horizon is a layer of
soil with properties that differ from the layer above or below it. Geologists have labeled
the main soil horizons A, B, and C.
The A horizon is the upper layer of soil, commonly called

topsoil. It contains the most organic material of the three
layers. Because the humus content of this layer is high, the
soil is usually dark in color.
The B horizon is just below the A horizon. It does not have

much organic matter. It is usually brownish or reddish in
color and contains clay and minerals that have washed
down from the A horizon.
The C horizon is the deepest layer of soil. This layer
consists of the least-weathered and largest rock particles.
The soil in this layer is usually light yellowish brown.
Source: Wikimedia Commons / Author: Unknown / Permission: PD-USGov-USDA
http://soils.usda.gov/education/resources/k_12/lessons/profile/profile.jpg
(O horizon is plant and animal life)
The soil horizons from a specific location make up the soil profile. Soil profiles differ from
one location to the next. In some places, the A horizon may be very thick and in other
places very thin. Also, one or more horizon can be missing from the profile. In an area
where soil has only had a short time to develop, the B horizon may be missing.
Climate and Landforms

The soil that forms in a hot, wet climate is very different from the soil that develops in a
cold, dry climate. Climate influences the characteristics of developing soil because the
climate influences the weathering of the rock. The four soil types that develop in different
climate regions are: tropical, desert, temperate, and arctic.
Another factor in the development of soil is the shape of the land. For example, valleys
have soils with thick A horizons while mountains have soils with thin A horizons. Cooler
conditions at the top of mountains cause slow soil development, much of which is washed
down the sides of the mountain during rainfall or with melting snow.
Organisms
Without living organisms in the soil, the soil would not be able to support plant growth.
The organisms in the soil have a large impact on the soil’s characteristics. Plants,
animals, and microorganisms all affect the soil.
Plants, especially trees and grasses, provide most of the organic material that gets broken
down and forms humus. When leaves or branches fall to the ground and begin to decay,
they add to the organic matter in the soil. When any tree or plant dies and decomposes, it
contributes to humus.
Microorganisms are very small organisms, so small that they can only be seen by a
microscope! The microorganisms, like bacteria and fungi, in the soil help to decompose
dead plants and animals to produce the nutrients that plants need to grow. Nitrogen is an
important nutrient for the growth of plants. Microorganisms convert the nitrogen in
decaying organic matter and the air into compounds that plants are able to absorb. There
are even bacteria that create acids that help to break down rocks.
Nutrients cycle through soil. Plants absorb the nutrients from the soil, then return nutrients
to the soil when they lose branches and leaves or die. Then new plants absorb these
nutrients and begin the cycle again.
Many animals make their home in soil and contribute to the characteristics of the soil.
Animals such as earthworms, ants, mice, and moles all live in the soil and help to loosen
and mix the soil as they dig tunnels. The holes and tunnels that animals dig help to add air
to the soil by creating open spaces. These open spaces also improve the soils ability to
drain water. Animals that burrow into the ground from the surface also carry particles of
partially weathered plants to the surface where they then undergo more weathering. Much
like plants, animals also return nutrients to the soil when they die and decompose.
Observation and Measurement
Farmers and gardeners often observe and test soil to determine what kinds of plants will
grow best there. There are many soil properties that are observed and measured.
Texture
The size of the weathered rock particles in soil determines the soil’s texture. The size of
rock particles in soil are classified into three categories: sand, silt, and clay. Sand particles
are the largest and clay particles are the smallest. Both silt and sand particles are too
small to be seen by the naked eye. Most soils are a combination of all three types of
particles, but the amounts vary by area. The texture of the soil influences how easily air
and water can move through the soil.
Color
You can get clues to the properties of a soil by looking at its color. Soil can be a variety of
colors: red, brown, yellow, green, black, and white. Most of the colors in soil come from
iron compounds and humus. Iron gives soil a reddish color, so soils that are redder have
higher iron content. Soils that are dark, brown or black, are usually high in humus. Color
can also tell you how water moves through the soil. Soils with a brighter color usually allow
the water to move through quickly, when this happens it is said that the soil drains well.
Pore Space
The spaces between soil particles are called pore spaces. Pore spaces allow air and water
to move through the soil. Plants need both the air and water in a soil to grow. Most soil has
a pore space ratio of about 25 to 60 percent. A soil with a pore space of 50 percent is
considered ideal for growing plants if half of that pore space is filled with water and half is
filled with air.
Chemistry
The chemistry of a soil is very important. Plants must be able to absorb nutrients from the
soil to grow. As you have learned, these nutrients come from the minerals and organic
matter in the soil. For the plants to be able to absorb these nutrients, they must be
dissolved in water. The pH level of water determines how well nutrients can absorb into
the water. A pH level is a measure of how acidic something is. Farmers use pH levels to
decide if they need to add lime to make the soil less acidic or add acids to make it more
acidic.
Weathering: Human Activities
The activities of humans have an impact on soil and soil development. Soil is an important
resource that helps to sustain life on Earth. The way that we use land, called land-use
practices, can have large impacts on the soil.
Soil as a Necessary Resource
Soil is responsible for providing us with nearly all of the food that we eat. Soil supports
plant growth and plants provide food for animals. Besides food, soil is responsible for
providing us with other materials, such as the cotton that many of our clothes. Many
medicines also come from plants as well as the lumber that is used to build houses and
buildings. Even oxygen that we breathe comes from plants.
Besides sustaining plant growth, soil helps life in other ways. Soil helps to filter and purify
water as it drains through the soil and into rivers, lakes, and oceans. Soil also provides a
home for a wide variety of living organisms, from single-celled organisms to small
mammals.
Land-use Practices
The levels of nutrients and pollution in the soil are affected by the way that people use the
land. When soil is exposed to the wind and rain it leads to soil loss. Farming,
construction, and mining are a few of the major activities that impact our soil.
Farming
Most of the world’s food is grown on farms. For over 10,000 years, people have been
farming the land. Even though farming practices have been continually improved, farming
still has harmful effects and can lead to soil loss. Farmers often add nutrients and other
chemicals to the soil to improve crop growth. Many of the fertilizers make it difficult for the
microorganisms in the soil to produce nutrients. Fertilizer also adds to water pollution
when the water draining from the fields carry extra nutrients into rivers, lakes, and oceans.
Farming practices can lead to the loss of soil over time.
Farmers plow up the soil

and clear trees and other
plants in order to plant
crops. When the natural
plant cover is removed,
the soil is more exposed
to rain and wind and more
likely to get washed or
blown away. Each year,
American farmers lose
around 5 tons of soil for
each ton of grain that they
produce. These rates are
even higher in other parts
of the world.
Case tractor with an Amazone seed
drill near Crook Ness, near to
Burniston, North Yorkshire, Great
Britain
22 September 2007 /
From: geograph.org.uk / Phil Catterall
Overgrazing is another problem on farmland. When farm animals eat large amounts of the
land cover, the natural vegetation is destroyed. Once the natural vegetation is destroyed,
the soil can blow or wash away more easily. In dry areas, farming and overgrazing has
lead to desertification. Desertification is the expansion of desert conditions in areas
where natural plant cover has been destroyed.
Construction and Development

Building roads, houses, stores, and other buildings; people need to dig up the soil. The
soil on construction sites is easily blown and washed away because the protective layer of
plants has been removed. This soil then ends up in low-lying areas, rivers, and lakes.
This can cause the rivers and lakes to become muddier and kill the organisms that live in
them. When soil builds up in riverbeds, it can lead to flooding. The soil can even
eventually fill up lakes and reservoirs.
Mining
In a previous Lesson, you learned about open-pit and strip mining. Both of these
processes expose soil to wind and rain that can carry it away. By exposing the rocks and
minerals to the elements, mining speeds up the rate of chemical weather. If the mining
operation exposes sulfide minerals, the increase in chemical weathering can cause a type
of pollution called acid drainage. Acid drainage can also happen when abandoned mines
fill with rainwater. When the sulfide minerals react with the air and water, they produce
sulfuric acid. When this water drains into the soil in surrounding areas, it pollutes the soil.
Soil Protection and Conservation
Soil is impossible or difficult to replace once it is lost. Soil takes a very long time to form.
It can take hundreds of thousands of years to form a soil with well-developed horizons! It
is important to protect and conserve soil. Most forms of soil conservation methods help to
hold soil in place and keep it fertile.
Crop Rotation
Crop rotation is the practice of planting different crops on the same piece of land from
growing season to growing season. This is important because certain crops use a lot of
nitrogen from the soil. Other crops have roots that contain bacteria that can help restore
the nitrogen in the soil. By rotating these kinds of crops, farmers can help keep the soil
fertile.
Conservation Tillage
Conservation tillage uses several methods to help reduce the number of times that fields
are plowed, or tilled, a year. If the amount of times a field is plowed can be reduced, there
will be a reduction in soil loss because less soil is being disturbed by plowing. The less soil
that is disturbed, the less soil that can blow or wash away. One method of conservation
tillage is not plowing the fields at all. After crops are harvested, the remains are left in the
field to cover the soil. New crops are planted in narrow bands of soil among the decaying
crops from the previous season.
Terraces are flat, step-like areas built on a hillside to hold rainwater and prevent it from
running downhill. Crops are then planted on these terraces.
Contour Plowing
Contour plowing is the practice of plowing around the curves of a slope. This helps
channel the rainwater along the plowing path and helps to prevent water from running
downhill. Strip-cropping is sometimes combined with contour plowing to further help stop
rainwater from carrying away soil. In strip-cropping, strips of grasses, shrubs, or other
plant are planted between bands of crops.
Windbreaks
Similar to strip-
cropping, rows of
trees are sometimes
planted between
fields as windbreaks.
The trees “break”
(reduce) the force of
the wind that can
travel across the
land. Reducing the
force of the wind
reduces the amount
of soil that can be
carried away.
geograph.org.uk/Roger
Gilbertson
Lesson Wrap-Up: Reminder - Discuss with your teacher any vocabulary words or text
Lesson 7
Review of Weathering and Soil
NAME: _________________________________________________________________
DATE: __________________________________________________________________

1. What is weathering?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. What are four cause of mechanical weathering?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. How do water and air help cause chemical weathering?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4. Describe three factors that affect the rate at which weathering occurs.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
5. How does mechanical weathering affect the rate of chemical weathering?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
6. Would weathering affect a marble sculpture inside a museum? Explain your answer.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
7. What are the main ingredients of soil?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
8. How do climate and landforms affect soils’ characteristics?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
9. How do the activities of organisms affect the characteristics of soil?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
10. Describe four properties of soil.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
11. How would a soil containing a lot of sand differ from a soil with a lot of clay?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
12. Which would you expect to be more fertile, the soil on hilly land or the soil on a plain?
Why?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
13. Why is soil a necessary resource?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
14. How do land-use practices in farming, construction and development, and mining
affect soil?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
15. Describe at least three methods of soil conservation.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
16. How might the problem of soil loss on flat land be different than that on sloping land?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
17. If you were building a new home in an undeveloped area, what steps would you take
to reduce the impact of construction on the soil?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Lesson 8
Review of Erosion and Deposition: Part One
Erosion and Deposition in 7th Grade Science. As you read today’s Lesson, take notes and
record the vocabulary words that you may be having difficulty with or don’t understand in
your Science Notebook.
assistance with.
Erosion and Deposition: Forces
Valleys are
often formed
when water
flows over land
and carries
away weathered
rock and soil.
There are many
processes that
shape
landscapes.
Erosion is the process in

which weathered particles
are picked up and moved
from one place to another.
Erosion is constantly
impacting the Earth’s
surface.
Over millions of years,
erosion can carve deep
valleys or wear down
mountains. Erosion is
responsible for creating the
famous Grand Canyon in
Arizona. Rocks are slowly
worn down and the particles
are deposited somewhere
else.
Source: Bigstock
Deposition is the name for the part of the process in which sediment is placed in a new
location. Gravity is an important part of the process of erosion and deposition. Water
moves downward because gravity pulls it. As the water flows downward, it carries and
deposits sediment as it flows. Gravity can also be responsible for pulling large masses of
ice down mountains and also causes the particles carried by wind to settle to the surface
of the Earth.
Water, wind, and ice cause erosion in three major ways; water, rainwater or melting snow,
flows down sloping land. As the water travels, it carries rock and soil particles. Some of
this water makes its way into rivers which carries the sediment along while also depositing
some of the sediment on the river’s bottom. Rivers also deposit sediment on their banks,
on floodplains, and at the mouth of the river. Sediment is also deposited on beaches by
the waves in lakes and oceans.
Tiny particles of dust are lifted and carried by wind. The wind may carry the particles long
distances before the wind dies down and the particles are deposited. Wind can also push
larger particles, such as sand, along the ground.
Ice moves sediment as it moves downhill. The ices moves slowly and carries soil and rock
particles with it and as the ice melts, the soil and rocks are deposited.
Gravity
Coastal Regions and mountainous regions have landslides. A landslide is a type of mass
wasting. Mass wasting is the downhill movements of masses of rock and soil. Gravity
pulls material downward in mass wasting. Sometimes heavy rain or an earthquake can
loosen the rock and soil and as the material becomes looser, it gives way due to the pull of
gravity.
Mass wasting can involve tons of rock sliding down a steep mountain side, or slowly
moving down a gentle slope. Mass wasting can occur suddenly or slowly over time.
Movements of rock and soil are called slides or falls; movements of mud or soil is
described as mudflow.
Mass Wasting: Rock

Rockfall and rockslide are the
terms used to describe mass
wasting of rock. Individual
blocks of rock suddenly drop
and fall freely down a cliff or
mountainside in a rockfall. In a
rockslide, a large piece of rock
slides down a slope. Rock
slides can reach very high
speeds and can be caused by
earthquakes.
Often, mass wasting of rock
occurs in places high in the
mountains. You might also see
evidence of rockfalls and
rockslides at the base of steep
cliffs.
Source: Wikimedia Commons / Oddicombe Beach in Devon, UK showing a large area of rockslide which occurred in February
2010.15/May/2010. Author: Herbythyme
Mudflows also happen in areas with steep slopes. A mudflow is made up of debris with a
large amount of water. They often happen after heavy rains when the soil becomes too
heavy for the slope to hold it in place. The wet soil slides downhill, picking up more debris
as it flows downward. When the mudflow reaches the bottom of the slope, it spreads out
in a thin sheet.
Erupting volcanoes can also cause mudflows. As the volcano erupts, the heat causes ice
and snow to melt. This water combines with ash from the volcano and then moves down
the side of the volcano, picking up sediment as it travels.
Two other types of mass wasting that occur on hilly land. Slumps and creeps are less
dramatic than rockslides or mudflows, but they are the examples of mass wasting that you
are most likely to see. A slump is a slide of loose debris that moves as a single unit.
Creep is the slowest form of mass wasting as the soil and debris move very slowly - so
slowly that it is impossible to see. Creep takes years and years to produce visible results.
If you look at a hillside that has old fence posts or telephone poles, you may notice that
they are leaning. This is caused by the slow movement of the soil around them. All
hillsides with soil are affected by creep, but the rate depends on the amount of water in the
soil.
Erosion and Deposition: Moving Water
Running water is the major force shaping the landscape over most of the world. Water
shapes the landscape in a variety of ways such as: running water erodes and carries rock
particles from one place to another.
When rain falls or ice melts on a slope, some of the water soaks into the ground and some
of it flows down the hill in thin sheets. Within a short distance, this sheet of water
transforms into a channel that forms a stream. A stream is any body of water that flows
down a slope along a channel and streams can be large or very small.
Streams form complex drainage systems. Small streams flow into larger streams. The
area of land in which water drains into a stream system is called a drainage basin. The
water from most drainage basins eventually drains into a lake or ocean.
A divide is a ridge from which water drains from one side or the other. Divides separate
drainage basins and can run along mountains and mountain ranges. On flatter surfaces,
the divide may simply be the highest line of land.
Divides form the borders of drainage basins. Drainage basins can be relatively small or
large portions of continents. In the United States, there are three major drainage basins.
Valleys and Floodplains
Streams carry sediment from the surface of the land as they flow. As this happens, the
streams form valleys. Where the water is flowing more rapidly, like in the mountains, the
valleys are usually narrow and have steep walls. Streams may form wide valleys that
include flood plains. A floodplain is an area of land on either side of a stream that is
underwater when the stream floods.
Often, floodplains are very fertile because the stream deposits much of its sediment as it
floods the area. Floodplains are often the best places to grow crops.
Stream Channels
As streams flow through a valley, they can take many courses. Some are straight, some
have curves, and some are a combination of both. The curves and bends that form
twisting or looping patterns in a stream channel are called meanders. Over time,
meanders change position due to the moving water eroding the outside banks and
depositing sediment along the inside banks.
During times of flood, the stream may move with more force and create a new channel
that bypasses a meander. The meander is then cut off and forms a crescent-shaped lake
called an oxbow lake. These lakes get their name from the U-shaped piece of wood that
fits under the neck of an ox and is attached to its yoke.
Oxbow lake formation

Oxbow lake, Yamal Peninsula, Russia
Author: Katorisi
Small lake located in a former meander loop of

a river or stream channel. It is generally
formed as a river cuts through a meander neck
to shorten its course, blocks off the old
channel, and then migrates away from the
lake. If only one loop is cut off, the lake is
crescent-shaped; if more than one loop is cut
off, the lake is serpentine (winding).
Source: Wikimedia Commons (Uploaded from:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Oxbow_lake.jpg
{{PD-USGov-Interior-USGS}} Category: Mississippi River)
Alluvial Fan V. Delta
Delta
Alluvial Fan
Formed at
Forms at the Formed by
the mount of
base of a the
a river
mountain deposition of
sediment
Fan-shaped
Forms at the
point where
the stream
slows down
Alluvial Fans and Deltas

Streams create landforms by depositing sediment. Alluvial fans and deltas are both
created by the sediment that steams deposit. An alluvial fan is the fan-shaped deposit of
sediment at the base of a mountain. Alluvial fans form where a stream leaves the steep
slope of a valley and enters a flatter plain. As the water slows down, it deposits the
sediment at the base of the slope.
Deltas are areas of land formed by the buildup of sediment at the mouth, or end, of a river.
As the river enters the ocean, the water slows down and is able to carry less sediment. As
the river deposits this sediment, it gradually builds up to form a plain. Deltas also tend to
be fan-shaped.
Underground Water Movement
Only some of the rainwater that falls runs off the land and ends up in streams. Other
water evaporates, is absorbed by plants, or soaks into the ground to become groundwater.
Underground, the spaces in soil and rock become filled with water. The top of this water-
filled region is called the water table. All of the water found below the water table is called
groundwater.
Depending on the conditions of the area, the water table may occur at different depths.
The level of the water table can change depending on the amount of rainfall in a given
area. Below the water table, groundwater flows slowly through the underground beds of
rock and soil; much like flowing water above ground - underground flowing water causes
erosion. Because rainwater is slightly acidic, it can dissolve certain rocks. Limestone is
easily dissolved by rainwater. Over time, the groundwater dissolves the limestone and
carries it away. Eventually, this erosion creates open spaces, called caves, underground.
Large caves are called caverns and these caverns may fill up with air if the water table
drops below the level of the cave.
Source: Bigstock
Some caves are very small, but others are massive networks of rooms and passages.
One of the largest cave systems in the world is located in Kentucky. Mammoth Cave has
more than 350 miles (560 km) of explored passageways. Inside the cave, you will find
streams and even lakes.
Sometimes, the roof of these caves becomes thin and collapses. Sinkhole is the name
for the basin that forms when a cave suddenly collapses. Some caves collapse because
the water that filled the cave has drained away and yet other caves collapse because of
changes in the surface above the cave. These changes can make the cave roof too thin to
support itself. In certain places, sinkholes have destroyed entire city blocks.
Lesson 8
Review of Erosion and Deposition: Part One
NAME: _________________________________________________________________
DATE: __________________________________________________________________
1. How does erosion change landscapes?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. Describe why weathering is important in erosion.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. How can gravity move large amounts of rock and soil?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4. What is the main difference between erosion and mass wasting?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
5. What force and what cause can contribute to both erosion and mass wasting?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
6. What is the difference between a drainage basin and a divide?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
7. How do streams change as they flow from mountains down to plains?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
8. How does a sinkhole form?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
9. Describe the two processes that cause glaciers to move.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
10. What are the two major types of glaciers, and where are they found?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
11. Describe the land features left behind by glaciers that have melted and shrunk.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
12. Identify two ways in which the erosion effects of glaciers differ from those of rivers.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
13. How would glaciers be affected by changes in climate, such as global warming and
global cooling?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
14. Make a Venn Diagram to compare and contrast alluvial fans and deltas.
Lesson 9
Review of Erosion and Deposition: Part Two
Erosion and Deposition in 7th Grade Science. As you read today’s Lesson, take notes and
assistance with.
Erosion and Deposition: Waves and Wind

Waves are powerful forces in the shaping of the landscape of shorelines. Waves, which
are powered by wind, can wear away rock and move thousands of tons of sand on
beaches. Wind itself can also shape the landscape as it picks up sand particles and
moves them around to build dunes. Fine sediment can travel thousands of kilometers
after it has been picked up by the wind.
Steep rock cliffs make up some shorelines. As the waves crash against the rock, they
wear away the bottom of the cliffs. Eventually, the cliffs break away, dropping rocks into
the water where they are worn down and carried away by the water.
Some shorelines are low and sandy. These types of shorelines are built up by the
movement of the water. The sediment that rivers and streams carry into oceans and lakes
mixes with the sediment in the body of water. As the waves reach the shore, they deposit
sediment and form beaches.
Longshore drift is the term
used to describe the
movement of sand along a
beach. As waves hit a
beach, they usually hit the
shore at an angle. These
angled waves carry sediment
onto the beach and then
carry some sand back as
gravity pulls the water back.
As the waves continue to hit
the beach at an angle, the
sand is carried down the
beach in a zigzag pattern.
This causes the sand to
gradually move down the
beach.
Source: Bigstock Author: Yefi
A longshore current is the movement of the water along a shore as the waves hit it at an
angle.
Sandbars - Sometimes the sand that longshore currents deposit along the shore may
build up to form sandbars. A sandbar is a ridge of sand built up by the action of waves
and currents.
If a sandbar
builds up
above the
water’s
surface and
joins with the
land, it is
called a spit.
Source: Big Stock
Sidney Spit
Sidney Spit
island/British
Columbia/CDA
If there is a strong longshore current that moves in the same direction for a long period of
time, it may produce a sandbar that builds up into a barrier island. A barrier island is a
long, narrow island that develops parallel to a coast.
Barrier islands are

named such because
they form a barrier
between the ocean
waves and the shore of
the mainland. As
barrier islands grow,
vegetation begins to
grow on them. Some
barrier islands grow
large enough to
support entire
communities. Barrier
islands are common
along gently sloping
coasts around the
world.
Source: Bigstock
Great Barrier Islands
Because they are

formed by sediment
carried by waves,
barrier islands are
constantly changing
in shape. During
large storms or
hurricanes, waves
can surge across the
land. As these
waves move across
the land, they carry
away huge amounts
of sediments and
deposit it
somewhere else.
Source: Bigstock Bora Bora
Wind
Winds can carry sand particles thousands of miles. Often, sand dunes can be found near
the coasts of large bodies of water. A dune is a mound of sand built up by the wind. Wind
can carry and move sand in places where there is little vegetation to hold it in place. In
some places, the wind carries away enough of the loose particles, that the remaining land
becomes as hard a cement.
Dunes
When strong winds pick up
and carry sand particles, this
sand is dropped when the
wind dies down or hits
something. Over time, the
continuous deposition of sand
will build a dune. Some
dunes begin as ripples in the
sand that grow larger as the
wind moves over it and
deposits more sand. Other
dunes form around objects,
such as logs, that are hit by
wind carrying sand particles. Source: Bigstock
Dunes can only form where there are strong winds and loose sand. They can be found on
the inland side of beaches, the sandy floodplains of large rivers, and in sandy deserts.
Dunes can form in a wide variety of shapes and sizes. Some dunes are mound-shaped
hills, others are curved and some are straight ridges. Dunes usually have a gentle slope
on the side that faces the wind and a steeper slope on the side that was protected from the
wind.
Loess - Wind can shape the landscape in ways besides moving sand. Over time, wind
can change the shape of the land by depositing large amounts of dust. We don’t usually
think of dust as something large enough to create landforms, but if enough of it is
deposited, hills can form. A strong windstorm can pick up and carry millions of tons of dust.
When the wind dies down, the dust is deposited and these deposits of fine, wind-blown
sediment are called loess.
Loess is a valuable resource. The sediment that forms them forms good soil for growing
crops. Loess covers about 10 percent of the land surface of the Earth. China has very
large amounts of loess. Some of the deposits cover hundreds of thousands of square
miles and are more than 1000 feet thick! Deposits of this size take a very long time to
develop. Some of the loess deposits in China are over 2 million years old. Winds blowing
over the dry regions and deserts in Asia carried the dust that formed these large deposits.
Desert Pavement - Wind
also shapes the landscape
by removing dust and sand.
When the wind carries
away the small particles on
the land’s surface, it leaves
behind a layer of stones
and gravel. The stony
surface that is left
resembles cobblestone
pavement, thus the name
desert pavement.
Source: Wikimedia Commons /Desert
pavement on alluvial fan of Hanaupah
Canyon in Death Valley National Park
Photo by Daniel Mayer. Released under
terms of the en:GNU FDL
Glacier is a large mass of ice that moves over land. Glaciers form in cold regions when
more snow falls than melts each year. As the layers of snow build up, they put pressure
on the lower layers and turn them into ice. On flat land, this ice spreads out into sheets;
on a mountain, the weight of the ice could cause it to slowly flow down the mountain.
Glaciers grow, melt, and move; as this happens, the ice shapes the landscape.
Glaciers can only exist in places where it is cold enough for the water to stay frozen all
year. Glaciers currently cover about 10 percent of the Earth’s surface; you can find them
in mountain ranges and in areas near the north and south poles.
Once, glaciers covered almost 30 percent of the Earth. During long periods of cold
temperatures, called ice ages, glaciers expand. The last major ice age was about 30,000
years ago. Ice covered most of North America and Eurasia during that period. Since then,
global temperatures have risen and caused the glaciers to melt to their current sizes.
Alpine glaciers and continental glaciers are the two major types of glaciers.
Alpine Glaciers
Glaciers that form
in mountains and
flow down through
valleys are called
Alpine Glaciers.
As these glaciers
slowly move down
the mountain,
they cause
erosion. The
weight of the
glacier breaks up
rocks, which then
carries and
pushes the
resulting sediment
away. Over time,
glaciers can
change V-shaped
mountain valleys
into wider, U-
shaped valleys
with wide, flat
bottoms.
Source: Bigstock
Athabasca Glacier, Jasper,
Alaska
Some alpine glaciers can extend all the way down into the land at the base of the
mountain. At this lower end, the glacier experiences warmer temperatures and begins to
melt, dropping sediment. Streams carry some of this sediment away. If an alpine glacier
flows into the ocean, large blocks may break off and become icebergs.
Continental Glaciers
Continental glaciers are
much larger than alpine
glaciers. These glaciers,
called ice sheets, can cover
entire continents. A single
ice sheet covered most of
the United States and
Canada during the last ice
age, then 10,000 years ago,
this ice melted and shrank.
Greenland and Antarctica
are still mainly covered in
ice sheets. These glaciers
are shaped like wide domes
stretched over the land.
The ice sheet on Antarctica
can be as thick as 15,000
feet in places.
Source: Bigstock Antarctica
Glaciers and Sediment

Each time that a glacier moves, expands, or melts; it transports large amounts of
sediment. Glaciers can move small rocks, sand, clay, and even large boulders! The
movement of the glacier is like a plow, pushing the rocks and soil as it goes. As glaciers
move over rock, they leave long gouges, or scrapes, in the rock. This is another example
of the weathering process called abrasion. These scrapes are visible reminders that a
glacier once passed through the area.
Moraines
As the glacier moves, its plowing action pushes sediment to the front and sides of the
glacier. When the glacier melts, or retreats, it leaves these piles of sediment behind. Till
is the name for sediment left directly on the ground by a retreating glacier. A large deposit
of till left behind by a retreating glacier is called a moraine. The ridges of till left behind at
the sides of a retreating glacier are called lateral moraines. The ridge of till that is left
behind as evidence of a glaciers farthest advancement is called an end moraine. These
moraines can be very large; in fact some found in North America are several miles long.
The till that is left behind by the bottom of the glacier is called a ground moraine.
Scientists identify ground moraines by studying the rocks. Rocks from many different
places and time periods may be found in a single layer of till left behind by a glacier.
Lakes
Melting glaciers also leave behind depressions, or large dents, in the Earth. These
depressions can fill with water from the melting glacier and form a lake. Areas that were
once covered by glaciers are often covered by many small, and some large, kettle lakes.
A kettle lake is a bowl-shaped depression that was formed by a block of ice from a glacier
and then became filled with water.
Source: Bigstock Kettle Moraine, Wisconsin
States like Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota are filled with kettle lakes.
The Great Lakes
Many of the large lakes found in North America formed when the glaciers melted. Some of
these lakes formed when the glaciers melted in valleys and left behind moraines that
dammed the valleys. The Great Lakes in Michigan were formed thousands of years ago
when a great ice sheet moved across the region and then melted. Some of the lakes were
formed when valleys filled with water; some were formed when the glaciers gouged out
huge areas as they moved and then left behind large piles of debris that blocked the water
from draining. In some places, the weight of the glacier actually caused the land to sink
over a mile!
Lesson 9
Review of Erosion and Deposition: Part Two
NAME: _________________________________________________________________
DATE: __________________________________________________________________
1. What type of landforms do longshore drift and longshore currents produce?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. How do dunes form?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. How does loess form, and why is it important?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4. Are longshore drifts the cause or effect of a longshore current? Explain.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
5. What effect would a barrier island have on the shoreline of the mainland?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
6. Describe the two processes that cause glaciers to move.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
7. What are the two major types of glaciers, and where are they found?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
8. Describe the land features left behind by glaciers that have melted and shrunk.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
9. Identify two ways in which the erosion effects of glaciers differ from those of rivers.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
10. How would glaciers be affected by changes in climate, such as global warming and
global cooling?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Lesson 10
Weathering Soil/Erosion and Deposition Test
Lessons 7 - 9
Student Assignment: Today’s Lesson is a test on Lessons 7-9 which were a review of
Weathering Soil/Erosion and Deposition from 7th Grade Science. Complete each of the
following test items without the use of notes. Good Luck!
Lesson Wrap Up: How do you think you did?
Lesson 10
Weathering Soil/Erosion and Deposition Test
NAME: ______________________________________________DATE:____________________

Weathering Soil
Part 1: Vocabulary
Complete the chart for each term. The first one has been done for you.
Term Definition Example
Chemical weathering The breakdown of rocks by Iron reacts with air and
chemical reactions that water to form iron oxides or
change the rocks’ mineral rust.
composition.
1. Mechanical
weathering
2. Abrasion
3. Exfoliation
4. Desertification
Erosion and Deposition

Part 1: Vocabulary
Complete the chart by explain how each landscape feature is formed.
Feature How it Forms
Example:
Delta A river deposits sediment as it enters the ocean.
5. Alluvial fan
6. Sinkhole
7. Sandbar
8. Barrier island
9. Dune
10. Loess
11. Moraine
12. Kettle lake

Choose the letter of the best answer.
13. The force of expanding water in the cracks and pores of a rock is an example of
a. chemical weathering c. oxidation
b. mechanical weathering d. desertification
14. The breakdown of a rock by acidic water is an example of

a. chemical weathering c. oxidation
b. mechanical weathering d. desertification
15. Soil is a mixture of what four materials?

a. granite, limestone, nitrogen, and air
b. plant roots, iron oxides, water, and air
c. rock particles, plant roots, humus, and nitrogen
d. rock particles, humus, water, and air
16. What is the main component of soil?

a. humus c. air
b. water d. rock particles
17. What is humus?

a. the decomposed rock particles in soil
b. the decomposed organic matter in soil
c. the material that makes up the B horizon
d. the material that makes up the C horizon
18. Three factors that affect the rate of weathering are

a. microorganisms, plants, and animals
b. weather, landforms, and rainfall
c. surface area, rock composition, and climate
d. texture, color, and pore surface
19. Microorganisms affect the quality of soil by

a. decomposing organic matter c. absorbing water
b. creating tunnels d. increasing mechanical weathering
20. The movement of air and water through a soil is influenced most by the soil’s
a. color and chemistry c. pH and nitrogen content
b. texture and pore space d. microorganisms
21. Contour plowing, strip-cropping, and terracing are conservation methods designed
to reduce the
a. runoff of water c. acidity of soil
b. activity of microorganisms d. pore space of soil
22. The first stage in the erosion process is

a. deposition c. drainage
b. mass wasting d. weathering
23. The main natural force responsible for mass movements of rocks and debris is
a. rainwater c. gravity
b. wind d. fire
24. A sinkhole is formed by the collapse of

a. an alluvial fan c. a moraine
b. a cavern d. a kettle lake
25. Rivers transport sediment to

a. drainage basins c. the water table
b. oceans and lakes d. moraines
26. Drainage basins are separated by

a. a moraine c. a tributary
b. a divide d. a barrier island
27. In high mountains, a valley carved by a stream has the shape of

a. a U c. a plate
b. a crescent d. a V
28. An oxbow lake is formed by the cutting off of

a. a meander c. a sinkhole
b. a drainage basin d. a glacier
29. Sandbars, spits, and barrier islands can all be built up by

a. glaciers c. wind
b. running water d. mass wasting
30. A dune is a sand mound built up primarily by

a. gravity c. glaciers
b. running water d. wind
31. Strong winds can transport large quantities of

a. gravel c. dry sand
b. wet sand d. clay
32. A mountain valley carved by a glacier has the shape of

a. a U c. a bowl
b. a crescent d. a V

Write a few sentences to answer each question.
33. How do farming, construction and development, and mining affect soil?
________________________________________________________________________
34. How do ice wedging, pressure release, plant root growth, and abrasion cause
mechanical weathering?
________________________________________________________________________
35. How do air and water cause chemical weathering?
________________________________________________________________________
36. How is deposition part of the erosion process?
________________________________________________________________________
37. How can rainwater in the Rocky Mountains end up in the ocean?
________________________________________________________________________
38. What is the effect of a longshore current on a beach?
________________________________________________________________________
39. Why is mass movement of mud called a flow?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
40. What visual evidence is a sign of creep?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
41. What is the connection between icebergs and glaciers?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Part 4: Soil Profile

Use the photograph to answer the following questions.
42. Make a sketch of the soil profile above, labeling the A, B, and C horizons.
43. What does the color of the top layer indicate about this soil?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
44. Which part of the profile is most affected by chemical and mechanical weathering?
Why?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Part 5: Glaciers
The image below shows two glaciers joining to form one (A). Make a sketch of the
glaciers to answer the next three questions.
1 2
B
A
45. Place an arrow to show which direction the main glacier (A) is moving.
46. Mark the places where you think till would be found.
47. Mark the location of a lateral moraine.
48. Why does the main glacier not have an end moraine?
________________________________________________________________________
49. Compare the main glacier valley in the image with the valley at the far right (B).
How are the valleys different? Explain why they might be different.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Answer the following questions in a sentence or two.
50. Suppose that you own gently sloping farmland. Describe the methods that you
would use to hold the soil in place and maintain its fertility.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
51. Describe the composition, color, texture, and amount of pore space of a soil that
would be good for growing crops.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
52. How does mechanical weathering differ from chemical weathering? How are the
two processes similar?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
53. What effect will the continued growth of the world’s population likely have on soil
resources?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
54. Soil loss is a problem all over the world. Where might lost soil end up?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
55. Can lost soil be replaced? Explain.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Lesson 11
Review of Matter
Student Assignment:
Lesson Wrap-Up:
Matter: Mass and Volume

Matter
Mass
I, the copyright holder of this work, hereby release it into

the public domain. This applies worldwide.
I grant any entity the right to

use this work for any purpose, without any conditions, unless
such conditions are required by law.
Weight
Volume - volume.
Displace
Matter: Atoms
atom
molecule
Atoms and Molecules in Motion
Forming Different Substances
Element
Compound
Mixture
Mixtures and Compounds
Parts of a Mixture
heterogeneous
homogenous
Different Physical States

States of matter
solid
Source: Wikimedia Commons / Space-filling model of the aspirin molecule, as

found in the solid state. Author: Ben Mills
liquid
gas
Solids
Liquids
Gas
Lesson 11
Review of Matter: Part One
NAME: _________________________________________________________________
DATE: __________________________________________________________________
Directions:
Lesson 12
Review of Matter: Part Two
Student Assignment:
Lesson Wrap-Up:
Properties of Matter: Observable
physical properties
Density -
Density
Physical Properties - physical change
Chemical Properties
chemical
change
Production of an Odor:
Change in Temperature:
Change in Color:
Formation of Bubbles:
Formation of a Solid:
Matter: Changes of State
Melting
melting point
Freezing
freezing point
Liquids and Gases -

Evaporation
sublimation
Boiling
boiling point
Condensation
Matter: Properties Identify Substances
Properties Used for Identifying Substances
Density -
Heating Properties -
Solubility -
Electric Properties -
Magnetic Properties -
Separating Mixtures -
Lesson 12
Review of Matter: Part Two
NAME: _________________________________________________________________
DATE: __________________________________________________________________
Directions:
Lesson 13
Matter Test: Lessons 11 - 12
Matter from 7th Grade Science. Complete each of the following test items without the use
of notes. Good Luck!
Lesson 13
Matter Test: Lessons 11 - 12
NAME: _________________________________________________________________
DATE: __________________________________________________________________
Directions: Complete the following.
Part 1: Vocabulary
Complete the chart below. If the right column is blank, give a brief description or definition.
If the left column is blank, give the correct term.
Term Description
1. The downward pull of gravity on an object.
2. Liquid
3. The smallest basic unit of matter
4. Solid
5. State of matter with no fixed volume and no fixed shape
6. A combination of different substances that remain individual

substances
7. Matter
8. A measure of how much matter an object contains
9. Element
10. A particle made of two or more atoms bonded together
11. compound
Vocabulary - continued
12. Physical property, physical change
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
13. Chemical property, chemical change
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
14. Density, matter
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
15. Melting, melting point, freezing point
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
16. Boiling, boiling point, liquid

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
17. Evaporation, condensation
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
18. Sublimation, solid
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Choose the letter of the best answer
19. The standard unit for measuring mass is the

a. kilogram c. milliliter
b. gram per cubic centimeter d. milliliter per cubic centimeter
20. A unit for measuring the volume of a liquid is the

a. kilogram c. milliliter
b. gram per cubic centimeter d. milliliter per cubic centimeter
21. The weight of an object is measured by using a scale that

a. compares the mass of the object with a standard unit of mass
b. shows the amount of space the object occupies
c. indicates how much water is displaced by the object
d. tells how hard the object is by pushing or pulling on it
22. To find the volume of a rectangular box

a. divide the length by the height
b. multiply the length, width, and height
c. subtract the mass from the weight
d. multiply one atom’s mass by the total
23. Compounds can be separated only by

a. breaking the atoms into smaller pieces
b. breaking the bonds between the atoms
c. using a magnet to attract certain atoms
d. evaporating the liquid that contains the atoms
24. Whether a substance is a solid, a liquid, or a gas depends on how close its atoms are
to one another and
a. the volume of each atom c. how free the atoms are to move
b. how much matter the atoms have d. the size of the container
25. A liquid has

a. a fixed volume and a fixed shape c. a fixed volume and no fixed shape
b. no fixed volume and no fixed shape d. no fixed volume and no fixed shape
26. Color, shape, size, and texture are

a. physical properties c. physical changes
b. chemical properties d. chemical changes
27. Density describes the relationship between a substance’s

a. matter and mass c. volume and area
b. mass and volume d. temperature and mass
28. Dissolving sugar in water is an example of a

a. physical change c. change in state
b. chemical change d. pressure change
29. An electric current can be used to decompose, or break down, water into oxygen gas
and hydrogen gas. This is an example of a
a. physical change c. change in state
b. chemical change d. pressure change
30. The formation of rust on iron is a chemical change because

a. the color and shape have changed
b. the mass and volume have changed
c. the substance remains the same
d. a new substance has been formed
31. The process by which a solid becomes a liquid is called

a. boiling c. melting
b. freezing d. evaporating
32. The process by which a liquid become a solid is called

a. boiling c. melting
b. freezing d. evaporating
33. Two processes by which a liquid can become a gas are

a. evaporation and boiling c. sublimation and condensation
b. melting and freezing d. evaporating and condensation

Answer each of the following questions in a sentence or two.
34. Describe the movement of particles in a solid, a liquid, and a gas.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
35. In bright sunlight, dust particles in the air appear to dart about. What causes this
effect?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
36. Why is the volume of a rectangular object measured in cubic units?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
37. Describe how the molecules n the air behave when you pump air into a bicycle tire.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
38. When a sculptor shapes marble to make a statue, is this a physical or a chemical
change? Explain your answer.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
39. Describe and identify various physical changes that water can undergo.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
40. Why does dew often form on grass on a cool morning, even if there has been no rain?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
41. Describe the difference between evaporation and boiling in terms of the movement of
the liquid’s particles in each case.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
42. What effect does altitude have on the boiling point of water?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
43. Whole milk is a mixture. When bacteria in the milk digest part of the mixture,
changes occur. Lactic acid is produced, and the milk tastes sour. Explain why this
process is a chemical change.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
44. Sharpening a pencil leaves behind pencil shavings. Why is a sharpened pencil a
physical change instead of a chemical change?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
45. Dumping cooked spaghetti and water into a colander separates the two substances
because the water can run through the holes in the colander but the solid spaghetti
cannot. Explain how this is an example of separating a mixture based on the physical
properties of its components.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Part 4: Thinking about Matter
46. Write the heading Matter and Not Matter in the table provided below. Place each of
these terms in the correct category: wood, water, metal, air, light, sound.
47. If you could break up a carbon dioxide molecule, would you still have carbon
dioxide? Explain your answer.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
48. In what ways is sand in a bowl like a liquid? In what ways is it different?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
49. If you cut a hole in a basketball, what happens to the gas inside?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
50. Create Venn diagram that shows how mixtures and compounds are alike and
different.
51. If you place a solid rubber ball into a box, why doesn’t the ball change its shape to fit
the container?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Lesson 14
Review of Energy
Energy in 7th Grade Science. As you read today’s Lesson, take notes and record the
vocabulary words that you may be having difficulty with or don’t understand in your
Science Notebook.
assistance with.
Energy: Forms
Energy is the ability to cause change. All forms of energy have one thing in common –
they cause changes to occur. Almost everything you see happening around you involves
energy. Your television operates on electrical energy, plants use energy from the Sun to
grow, and you use energy from food to carry out your daily activities.
Scientists classify energy into many forms. Each form of energy causes a different type of
change.
Mechanical Energy - Mechanical energy is the form of energy that moves objects. The
energy that you use to turn the page in a book is mechanical energy. The energy that you
use to write your notes is mechanical energy.
Sound Energy - Vibrations of particles in a solid result in sound. The structures in the
ears of people, and other animals, allow them to detect these tiny vibrations and hear
sounds. When you hear a car drive by, you are detecting the vibrations in the air that were
produced by sound energy. Sound energy can only travel through a medium – if there
were no air or substance between you and the car, you would not be able to hear it.
Chemical Energy - Energy that is stored in the chemical composition of matter is called
chemical energy. The types and arrangements of atoms in a substance determine the
chemical energy of that substance. Fire is an example of releasing chemical energy. As
the wood burns, the energy in the wood produces heat.
Thermal Energy - Energy from the movement of particles in matter is called thermal
energy. All atoms and molecules are continually moving; the energy of this motion in an
object is the object’s thermal energy.
Electromagnetic Energy - Light is a form of electromagnetic energy. Electromagnetic

energy is transmitted through space in the form of electromagnetic waves. These waves
can travel through empty space; they do not need air or other substances to travel
through. Visible light, x-rays, and microwaves are all examples of electromagnetic energy.
Nuclear Energy - The nucleus, or center, of an atom contains large amounts of energy to
hold the particles together. This energy is nuclear energy. When the particles in an atom’s
nucleus break apart, or when the nuclei of two small atoms join together, nuclear energy is
released.
All of the forms of energy can be classified into two general types of energy: kinetic and
potential.
Kinetic energy is the energy of motion. Kinetic energy depends on an object’s mass and
the speed at which the object is moving. All objects are made of matter and that matter
has mass. The more matter that an object contains, the greater its’ mass is.
As mass increases, so does kinetic energy.
If a bowling ball and a soccer ball were

moving at the same speed, the bowling ball
would have a greater kinetic energy because it
has a greater mass than the soccer ball.
Source: Bigstock Source: Bigstock
As the speed of an object increases, so does the kinetic energy. Now let’s say we have
two bowling balls moving at different speeds. The ball that is moving faster would have a
greater kinetic energy. While the balls have the same mass, the greater speed causes a
greater kinetic energy.
Potential energy is the stored energy that an object has due to its position or chemical
composition. If you pick up your shoe off the floor, it has potential energy because of its
position above the ground.
Gravity is the cause for the most obvious form of potential energy. Gravity is the force that
pulls objects towards the Earth’s surface. If you hold your shoe up above the floor, gravity
is waiting to pull it downward after you let go. The mass of your shoe and its height above
the floor determines how much potential energy the shoe has due to gravity.
Kinetic energy is easy to detect because the objects are moving. Potential energy is more
difficult to detect because objects can have potential energy from different sources. Some
substances contain potential energy because of the atoms that they contain – their
chemical composition.
When you stretch or compress an object, you are also creating potential energy. As you
push down on a spring, you are increasing the potential energy of the spring. As you
release the spring, you are decreasing the spring’s potential energy. Pushing down on the
spring, you are storing energy; when you release the spring, that stored energy is also
released and the spring bounces. Source: Bigstock
Chemical energy is less visible, but is still potential energy. Chemical energy does not
depend on the position of an object, but the chemical composition of an object. The food
that you eat contains potential energy. This energy comes from the energy that bonds, or
holds together the atoms and molecules of the substance. As your body digests the food,
the bonds in the food are broken and then release energy.
Fuel also contains chemical energy. The potential energy of the fuel depends on the
strength of the bonds between the atoms and molecules in the fuel. As the fuel is burned,
the arrangement of the molecules and atoms in the fuel are rearranged. This
rearrangement of the atoms releases the fuel’s potential energy.
Energy: Changing Forms
Energy changes form. Energy can be converted from one form to another. Energy from
the Sun is converted into chemical energy when plants store it in their cells. When we eat
the food that comes from these plants, we release this chemical energy. We then convert
this energy into kinetic energy as we move around and perform tasks.
The results of some energy conversions are obvious. When the electrical energy in a
lamp is converted to light and heat, we can see and feel the results. Other conversions of
energy are not so obvious. Potential energy can be converted into kinetic energy and back
into potential energy. Take a look at the diagram of a skateboarder below.
At the top of the ramp, the skateboarder has potential energy (PE) due to his location. As
he starts moving down the ramp, some of his potential energy changes into kinetic energy
(KE). The kinetic energy moves him down the slope to the ramp at the end.
PE
When the skateboarder leaves the ramp, some of his kinetic energy is changed back to
potential energy as he rises into the air. When the skateboarder descends to the ground,
his potential energy will again convert to kinetic energy.
Using Energy Conversions
People convert energy from one form to another for many different purposes. We have
developed ways to convert energy to make our lives easier. Many cities are provided
electricity when the water stored behind a dam is converted into electrical energy.
While the water is being held behind the dam, it has potential energy. As some of the
water is allowed to flow through the dam, the potential energy is converted back into
kinetic energy. This kinetic energy moves turbines inside the dam; the kinetic energy of the
turbines is converted into electrical energy by generators. The electrical energy is then
carried away to be used by people.
The energy has been converted from potential energy to kinetic energy to electrical
energy. Another source of useful energy begins with the electromagnetic energy from the
Sun. Almost all of the energy on Earth began as electromagnetic energy from the Sun.
This energy is converted in many ways. Plants convert it into chemical energy so that they
can grow. The energy from fossil fuels was stored in plants millions of years ago. These
fossil fuels are then converted into other forms of energy to suit the needs of people.
Conservation of Energy
The law of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be created nor
destroyed. This means that even though it appears that energy is being used up, it is not
disappearing. The law of conservation of energy is true in all known cases – energy is
never lost, it just changes form.
All of the energy in the universe is balanced. When you kick a ball, you transfer energy to
that ball and to the sound created when your foot hits the ball. It would appear that the
energy disappears when the ball stops moving, but it does not. It has been converted into
other forms of energy. As the ball slows down, it transfers energy back into the universe
through the noise that it makes and the heat that it produces as it rolls.
Energy conversions do not always produce only wanted forms of
energy. When we turn on a lamp, we are trying to convert
electrical energy into light. However, not all of the energy is used
as light, as light bulbs burn, they produce heat. Some of the
energy in this conversion is lost to heat, but the overall amount of
energy is the same.
When you turn a fan on, the electrical energy is converted into
kinetic energy as the fan blades move. In the motor of the fan,
some of the electrical energy is turning into heat. As the blades
move or the fan moves back and forth, sound is produced – the
heat and sound are unwanted energy.
Source: Bigstock
Energy efficiency is a measurement of usable energy after an energy conversion. The

more energy efficient a fan is, the less energy is lost to heat in the motor and sound
produced by the movement. Higher energy efficiency means that the fan is using more
electrical energy to produce kinetic energy in the fan blades. Because an appliance with
higher energy efficiency uses the electrical energy more efficiently, the appliance needs
less energy to operate.
Energy Technology - Most of the wasted energy in common energy conversions is
released as heat. Scientists are continually trying to find ways to use energy in ways that
transfer higher rates of energy into its intended purpose.
Efficient Lights - Normal incandescent light bulbs
convert only about 5 percent of the energy that enters
them into light. Ninety-five percent of the energy used
to power an incandescent light is lost to unwanted
forms of energy. LED’s, or light-emitting diodes, are
the result of investigations into ways to reduce this
energy loss. An LED converts most of the energy that
it uses into light. LED’s are used in all sorts of
devices: television remote controls, computer
displays, outdoor signs, and traffic signals. LED’s can
also be used to transmit information through fiber
optic cables that carry cable signals to our televisions.
Source: Big Stock
Efficient Cars - Burning gasoline in cars is another example of a very inefficient energy
conversion. Advances in technology are continually improving the amounts energy from
burning gasoline that is actually converted into the car’s kinetic energy.
Fuel injectors are devices that monitor and control the amount of fuel that is fed into a car’s
engine. By controlling the fuel amounts, fuel injectors increase the distance that a car can
travel on a tank of gasoline. Hybrid cars use both gasoline and electrical energy from
batteries. The combination of energy types allows the car to be more fuel efficient. Hybrid
cars even utilize some of the kinetic energy lost during braking to generate electrical
energy to recharge the car’s batteries.
Improvements in the Use of Energy Resources
Because much of the energy that we use on Earth comes from fossil fuels such as coal,
petroleum, and natural gas; scientist are exploring alternative energy sources. Fossil fuels
are non-renewable resources that can run out! We need alternative sources of energy that
cannot disappear.
Solar Energy does not have a limited supply and does not produce some of the harmful
waste products that using fossil fuels creates. Solar energy is collected with solar cells.
Solar cells are made of several layers of light-sensitive materials which convert sunlight
directly into electrical energy.
Solar cells produce electricity quietly and cleanly, but the materials used to make solar
cells are expensive. The cost does not allow for solar energy to be widely used. Also, solar
cells are not very efficient. It takes a large number of solar cells to produces a relatively
small amount of electrical energy. Only approximately 12 to 15 percent of the sunlight that
reaches a solar cell is converted into electrical energy. People also use the Sun’s energy
as heat. Heat from the sun is used to grow plants in greenhouses and to warm buildings.
Large glass windows can allow the heat from sunlight to enter a house or building and trap
that heated air inside.
Wind Energy Source: Bigstock
People have been using the kinetic energy of the
wind to produce electrical energy for hundreds of
years. Advances in technology have greatly
improved the efficiency and usefulness of wind
energy. Specially shaped windmill blades have
been designed that help to increase the efficiency
of capturing wind energy. Some areas that receive
a consistent amount of wind are home to huge
windmill farms. The wind energy is converted to
electrical energy to help provide a clean source of
electricity.
Source: Bigstock
Lesson 14
Review of Energy
NAME: _________________________________________________________________
DATE: __________________________________________________________________

1. List three ways you use energy. How does each example involve a change?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. What are some changes that can be caused by sound energy? By electromagnetic
energy?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. What two factors determine an object’s kinetic energy?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4. How do the different forms of potential energy depend on an object’s position or

chemical composition?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
5. What forms of potential energy would be found in an apple on the branch of a tree?
Explain.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
6. Explain the law of conservation of energy in your own words.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
7. Give an example of an energy conversion that produces unwanted forms of energy.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
8. Suppose you are jumping on a trampoline? Describe the conversions that occur
between kinetic energy and potential energy.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
9. Describe an energy conversion you have observed in your own life.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
10. Look at the skateboarder in this Lesson. Has all of his potential energy been changed
into kinetic energy the moment he lands? Explain.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
11. Provide an example of a common technology that does not efficiently convert energy.
Explain
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
12. Describe two ways in which hybrid cars are more energy-efficient than gasoline
powered cars.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
13. List two advantages and two disadvantages of solar power.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
14. How are LED’s similar to incandescent light bulbs? How are they different?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
15. What are two ways in which the Sun’s energy can be captured and used? How can
both be used in a home?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
16. Can an object have kinetic and potential energy at the same time?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Lesson 15
Review of Temperature and Heat
Temperature and Heat in 7th Grade Science. As you read today’s Lesson, take notes and
assistance with.
Temperature and Heat: Particle Movement

All things have energy, even those that do not appear to be moving. In a previous Lesson,
you learned that all atoms and molecules in a substance are always moving, even if you
can’t see it. This means that even objects that do not appear to be moving have kinetic
energy. People have kinetic energy even when they are not moving, chairs have kinetic
energy and even houses have kinetic energy!
Kinetic Theory of Matter
The kinetic theory of matter states that all of the particles that make up matter are
constantly in motion. Therefore, all particles in matter have kinetic energy. The kinetic
theory of matter helps to explain the three states of matter.
Solid - The particles in a solid are not free to move around very much, but they vibrate
back and forth in the same position. They are held together by strong forces of attraction.
Liquid - The particles in a liquid move around much more easily than the particles in a
solid. They slide around and tumble over one another as they move.
Gas - The particles in a gas are much farther apart than the particles in a liquid and move
at high speeds. They might collide with one another, but they do not interact very much.
Not all of the particles in a substance are moving at the same rate. Some particles are
moving faster than others. If one of these fast-moving particles hits a slower moving
particle, it will lose some speed. Likewise, if a slow-moving particle is hit by a fast-moving
particle, it will gain some speed. The speed of particles in a group has a wide range of
speeds and will often change speeds.
Temperature and Kinetic Energy
Within a substance, each of the particles may have a different kinetic energy. Remember,
kinetic energy depends on mass and speed. If the particles are moving at different speeds,
they will have different kinetic energies. To determine the kinetic energy of an object, you
must determine the average kinetic energy of all the particles.
Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic

energy of all the particles in an object. If a liquid has
a high temperature, the particles in the liquid are
moving very fast and have a high average kinetic
energy. If a liquid has a low temperature, the
particles in the liquid are moving very slowly and
have a low kinetic energy.
Source: Bigstock
Temperature is the measure of the average kinetic energy of particles, not just their speed.
Different objects can be the same temperature even though their particles cannot move at
equal speeds. The particles in a bowl sitting on a table cannot move as fast as the air
particles that surround it. However the particles in the bowl have more mass than the air
particles. Because kinetic energy depends on both mass and speed, the bowl and the air
can have the same temperature.
Measuring Temperature
Have you ever passed a temperature sign that said it was 30 and you assumed that it
must be broken because it was much warmer than 30 outside? The sign probably wasn’t
broken; it was probably displaying a different temperature scale than the one you are used
to seeing.
Temperature Scales
There are two common temperature scales that are used to measure temperature. Both of
these scales measure the average kinetic energy of particles.
To establish a temperature scale, you need two known values and the number of units
between these values. The freezing and boiling points of water are often used as the
standard values because they are always the same under the same conditions and they
are easy to reproduce.
In both of the common scales, temperature is measured in units called degrees ( ).

Degrees are equally spaced units between two points. In the United States, the scale that
is commonly used is the Fahrenheit scale ( F). This scale was developed by Gabriel
Fahrenheit in the early 1700s. On the Fahrenheit scale, pure water freezes at 32 F and
boils at 212 F. There are 180 degrees, 180 equal units, between the freezing and boiling
point of water.
In the rest of the world, the scale that is commonly used is the Celsius scale ( C). Anders
Celsius developed this scale in the 1740s. On the Celsius scale, pure water freezes at
0 C and boils at 100 C. On the Celsius scale, there are 100 equal units between these
two temperatures.
30
Remember the 30 sign? Perhaps it was a Celsius scale! On a nice warm day it could be
30 C, or 86 F.
Thermometers
To measure temperature, we use a device called a thermometer. A thermometer
measures temperature through the regular variation of some physical property of the
material inside the thermometer. Mercury and alcohol are often used inside thermometers
because these liquids always expand or contract a certain amount in response to a
change in temperature.
Liquid-filled thermometers measure how much the liquid inside expands in a narrow tube
as the temperature increases. The tube is marked with distances so that the temperature
can be read. Mercury is a liquid that expands and contracts evenly at both high and low
temperatures. This means that mercury expands or contracts by the same amount in
response to a given change in temperature.
Mercury used to be the standard material found in thermometers, but since mercury is
dangerous to handle, many thermometers today are made with alcohol. Some
thermometers are made with materials whose electrical properties change in response to
changes in temperature. These thermometers are read by computers and the temperature
is displayed on a display panel; much like the sign from earlier in the Lesson.
Thermal Expansion is the name for the property that makes liquid-filled thermometers
work. Thermal expansion affects many substances; all gases, many liquids, and most
solids expand when their temperature increases.
Thermal expansion is important to consider for many reasons. Engineers have to take
thermal expansion into consideration when they plan buildings because steel and concrete
both expand with rising temperatures. Engineers must make the connections in buildings
strong enough to withstand the force of the expanding material.
Thermal expansion in solids occurs because the particles of solids vibrate more as the
temperature rises. As the particles move slightly apart with this movement, the solid
expands. If you look at the sidewalk in front of your house, you will notice lines every few
feet. These lines are expansion joints that allow the concrete to expand without crushing
the concrete around it.
Temperature and Heat: Flowing Energy

People often confuse the concepts of heat and temperature. As you learned in the last
Lesson, temperature is the measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a
substance. Heat is a flow of energy from an object at a warmer temperature to an object at
a cooler temperature.
If you add energy to a pot of water, the water’s temperature starts to increase. The added
energy increases the kinetic energy of the water molecules. However, once the water
starts to boil, adding energy no longer changes the temperature of the water. The heat
then goes into changing the physical state of the water from liquid to gas instead of
increasing the kinetic energy of the water molecules. Heat and temperature are not the
same things.
Heat and Thermal Energy
Heat is always the transfer of energy from an object at a higher temperature to an object at
a lower temperature. If you put an ice cube in a bowl on the table, at first the bowl and ice
cube would have different temperatures. As the ice cube began to melt, the water that
comes off of the ice cube will eventually have the same temperature as the bowl. The
temperature will be lower than the original temperature of the bowl, but higher than the
original temperature of the ice.
The ice did not cool the bowl. The energy from the bowl flowed into the cooler water
melting from the ice cube. When energy flows from a warmer object to a cooler object; the
thermal energy of both objects changes.
Thermal energy is the total random kinetic energy of particles in an object. Thermal
energy and temperature are not the same things. Remember, temperature is the average
kinetic energy of all of the particles in an object. Thermal energy is the total of all of the
different kinetic energies added together. Temperature is an average; thermal energy is a
total.
Source: Bigstock Source: Bigstock
Lake Michigan and a glass of ice water may be the same temperature, but Lake Michigan
has a much higher thermal energy because the lake contains many more water molecules.
Measuring Heat
Heat is measured in calories and joules. One calorie is the amount of energy needed to
raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1 C. The joule (J) is the standard scientific
unit used to measure energy. One calorie is equal to 4.18 joules.
Most people think of calories in terms of food. When talking about food, or nutrition, one
Calorie (C) is one kilocalorie, or 1000 calories. So, one food Calorie contains enough
energy to raise the temperature of 1 kilogram of water by 1 C. Each Calorie in food
contains 1000 calories of energy.
To determine the amount of Calories in food, the food is burned in a device called a
calorimeter. The amount of energy released from the food through heat is the number of
Calories transferred from the food to the calorimeter. The energy transferred to the
calorimeter is equal to the original amount of energy in the food. A thermometer inside the
calorimeter measures the increase in temperature from the burning food and this is used
to calculate how much energy is released.
Specific Heat
4.5
4.18
4
3.5
Specific Heat (J / gºC)
2.5
1.5
2 0.9
0.67
1.5
0.66
0.45
1
0.5
water wood aluminum sand glass iron
Some substances change temperature more easily than others. If you have ever taken a
bite of hot pizza, you know that the crust is always cooler than the cheese and sauce on
the pizza. This is because the crust cools more quickly than the sauce and cheese which
contain more water.
The amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of a substance by 1 C

is the specific heat of that substance. Every substance has its own specific heat value.
To show the same increase in temperature, every substance absorbs a different amount of
energy.
We know that one calorie raises the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1 C, so we know
that water has a specific heat of exactly 1 calorie per gram per C. One calorie is equal to
4.18 joules, so we know that it takes 4.18 joules to raise the temperature of 1 gram of
water by 1 C.
In joules, water’s specific heat is 4.18 J per gram per C, or 4.18 J/g C. Look at the chart
below, you will see that 4.18 is much higher than the specific heat of any of the other
substances shown. Water has a very high specific heat.
Any substance that has a high specific heat has to absorb a large quantity of energy for its
temperature to increase. Likewise, it must release a large quantity of energy for its
temperature to decrease. This is why the cheese and sauce on your pizza is still hot while
the crust is cool. The liquid in the cheese and sauce takes longer to cool.
Specific Heat and Mass
Thermal energy depends on an object’s mass. Remember that thermal energy is the total
of the kinetic energy of all of the particles. A large object at a lower temperature can have
the same thermal energy as a small object at a much higher temperature because the
large object has more molecules.
Two objects made of the same substance will have the same specific heat. However, a
smaller object will cool much faster than a large one. The large object has to release more
thermal energy to its surroundings through heat to show a decrease in temperature
because it has so much more mass.
This is why the temperature of large objects changes so slowly. A large body of water
changes temperatures very slowly. The temperature of the lake affects the temperatures of
the surround at the shores. In the spring and summer, the land near the shore will warm
much more slowly because the lake is warming slowly. The energy in the air is being
absorbed by the lake to heat the lake.
In the fall and winter, the lake cools slowly and keeps the nearby land warmer than
surround land. As the lake cools it is releasing energy through heat which keeps the
shores warmer.
Temperature and Heat: Controlling Energy Transfer
We know that heat is always a transfer of energy from objects at a higher temperature to a
lower temperature, but how does the energy get transferred? The transfer of energy can
occur in three different ways: by conduction, convection, and radiation. So if we want to
control heat, we need to control conduction, convection, and radiation.
Conduction is the process that moves energy from one object to another when they are
touching physically. You have experienced conduction if you have ever burned yourself by
touching a hot pan.
Any time that two objects at different temperatures come into contact with each other,
conduction occurs. We know that in the warmer object, the average kinetic energy of the
particles is higher. When these particles collide with the slower moving, cooler particles,
some of the kinetic energy is transferred from the fast particles to the slow particles. As
long as the two objects are in contact, conduction will continue until both objects are the
same temperature. Conduction can also occur in a single object. The energy in the object
is transferred from the warmer part of the object to the cooler part of the object by heat.
Some materials transfer the kinetic energy of particles better than other materials.
Conductors are materials that transfer energy easily. Conductors often have a low
specific heat. Metals are often good conductors because of their low specific heat.
Other materials are poor conductors. These materials are called insulators. Insulators
often have a high specific heat. Wood and plastic foam are good insulators.
Convection is the process that transfers energy by the movement of large numbers of
particles in the same direction within a liquid or gas. In most substances, as the kinetic
energy of the particles increases, the space between the particles increases. This increase
in space between particles causes the density of the substance to decrease. Convection
occurs when a cooler, denser mass of the gas or liquid replaces a warmer, less dense
mass of the gas or liquid by pushing it up.
Most winds and ocean currents are caused by convection. When the temperature of a
region of air increases, the particles spread out and the air becomes less dense.
Cooler, denser air then flows in underneath the warmer, less dense air and pushes the
warmer air upward. When this air cools, it becomes denser than the warmer air beneath it.
The cooled air then sinks and moves under the warmer air.
Convection in liquids is similar to convection in gases. Warm water is less dense than cold
water so it is pushed up by cooler water and the cycle begins.
Radiation is energy that travels as electromagnetic waves, which include visible light,
microwaves, and infrared light. While the Sun is the most significant source of radiation, all
objects emit radiation and release energy into their surroundings.
When radiation is emitted from one object and then absorbed by another object, the result
is the transfer of energy through heat. When the sun emits radiation and your body
absorbs this radiation through heat, it increases the movement of the particles in your skin
and you feel an increase in temperature. Radiation can transfer energy from warmer to
cooler objects much like conduction and convection. Unlike conduction and convection,
radiation does not need to travel through a substance. Radiation can move through empty
space.
Using Materials to Control the Transfer of Energy
It is often important to slow down the transfer of energy. If energy were always transferred
quickly it would be impossible to keep things warm. Insulators are used to help slow the
transfer of energy from warmer objects to cooler objects because they are poor
conductors. Insulators help to keep warm things warm and cool thing cool.
Most people think that insulators keep the cold out when in fact, insulators work by
trapping energy. In the winter many people wear wool because it is a poor conductor. The
wool traps air against your body, because air and wool are both poor conductors, your
body loses energy at a slower rate. The insulation in building walls works in the same way.
During the winter, the insulation keeps the warm air trapped on the inside. During the
summer, the insulator slows the movement energy into the building.
Insulated cap
Silvered inner wall
Vacuum between
glass walls Hot coffee
Outer casing of
plastic or metal
Insulated support
A thermos works in a slightly different way. A thermos has two layers with empty space in
between. This space prevents conduction from the inside layer to the outside layer. The
inside of a thermos is often made of a shiny material that reflects much of the radiation that
strikes it. This helps to prevent radiation from entering or leaving the thermos.
Polar bears have a system

of insulating themselves
that is similar to the way a
thermos works. A polar
bear has a layer of hollow
hairs that extend beyond
their normal fur. These
hollow hairs contain air and
because air is not a good
conductor, the bear’s body
heat is not easily released
into the arctic air.
Source: Bigstock
Lesson 15
Review of Temperature and Heat
NAME: _________________________________________________________________
DATE: __________________________________________________________________
1. Describe the relationship between temperature and kinetic energy.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. Describe the way in which thermometers measure temperature.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. How can you explain thermal expansion in terms of kinetic energy?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4. Suppose a mercury thermometer shows that the air temperature is 22 C (72 F). Do
particles in the air have more average kinetic energy than particles in the mercury?
Explain.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
5. If a puddle of water is frozen, do the particles in the ice have kinetic energy? Explain.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
6. How is temperature related to heat?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
7. How do the units that are used to measure heat differ from the units that are used to
measure temperature?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
8. Describe specific heat in your own words.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
9. How are a calorie and a joule similar? How are the different?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
10. Describe the relationship among kinetic energy, temperature, heat, and thermal
energy.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
11. What are three ways in which energy can be transferred through heat? Provide an
example of each.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
12. Explain how convection is a cycle in nature.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
13. Describe how an insulator can slow a transfer of energy.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
14. Describe the similarities and differences among conduction, convection, and radiation.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
15. Do you think solids can undergo convection? Why or why not? Explain.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Lesson 16
Energy/Temperature/Heat Test: Lessons 14 - 15
Energy and Temperature/Heat from 7th Grade Science. Complete each of the following
test items without the use of notes. Good Luck!
Lesson 16
Energy/Temperature/Heat Test: Lessons 14 - 15
NAME: _________________________________________________________________
DATE: __________________________________________________________________

Part 1: Vocabulary
Review vocabulary terms by making a four square diagram for each term as shown in the
example below. Include a definition, characteristics, examples from real life, and, if
possible, non-examples of the term.
Definition Characteristics
Kinetic Energy
Example Non example
1. Energy
2. Potential Energy
3. Conservation of energy
4. Energy efficiency
For each vocabulary word below, create a web that links at least 4 other pieces of
information to the term. Use definitions, examples, descriptions, parts, or pictures.
5. Kinetic theory of matter
6. Heat
7. Thermal energy
8. Conduction
9. Convection
10. Radiation
In two or three sentences, describe how the terms in the following pairs are related to each
other. Underline the term in your answer.
11. Calorie, joule
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
12. Conductor, insulator
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

Choose the letter of the best answer
13. All forms of energy are a combination of

a. mechanical energy and chemical energy
b. chemical energy and kinetic energy
c. potential energy and thermal energy
d. potential energy and kinetic energy
14. Which type of energy is transmitted by vibrations of air?

a. electromagnetic
b. nuclear
c. sound
d. chemical
15. When energy is converted from one form to another, what is usually produced?
a. chemical energy
b. heat
c. gravity
d. potential energy
16. An object’s kinetic energy is determined by it

a. position and composition
b. speed and position
c. mass and speed
d. height and width
17. Which of the following is a conversion from chemical energy to mechanical energy?
a. a dark light bulb starting to glow
b. food being heated in an oven
c. a ball rolling down a hill
d. a person lifting a weight
18. An energy-efficient electric fan converts a large portion of the electrical energy that
enters it into
a. an unwanted form of energy
b. kinetic energy of the fan blades
c. thermal energy in the fan’s motor
d. sound energy in the fan’s motor
19. The energy in wind used to generate electricity is

a. chemical energy
b. sound energy
c. potential energy
d. kinetic energy
20. A skier on a hill has potential energy due to

a. speed
b. energy efficiency
c. compression
d. position
21. What is the zero point in the Celsius scale?

a. the freezing point of pure water
b. the boiling point of pure water
c. the freezing point of mercury
d. the boiling point of alcohol
22. Energy is always transferred through heat from

a. an object with a lower specific heat to one with a higher specific heat
b. a cooler object to a warmer object
c. an object with a higher specific heat to one with a lower specific heat
d. a warmer object to a cooler object
23. The average kinetic energy of particle in an object can be measured by its
a. heat
b. thermal energy
c. calories
d. temperature
24. How is energy transferred by convection?

a. by direct contact between objects
b. by electromagnetic waves
c. by movement of groups of particles in gases or liquids
d. by movement of groups of particles in solid object.
25. The total kinetic energy of particles in an object is

a. heat
b. thermal energy
c. calories
d. temperature
26. Water requires more energy than an equal mass of iron for its temperature to
increase because water has a greater
a. thermal energy
b. specific heat
c. temperature
d. kinetic energy
27. Energy from the Sun travels to Earth through

a. temperature
b. conduction
c. radiation
d. convection
28. An insulator keeps a home warm by

a. slowing the transfer of cold particles from outside to inside
b. increasing the specific heat of the air inside
c. slowing the transfer of energy from inside to outside
d. increasing the thermal energy of the walls
29. Conduction is the transfer of energy from a warmer object to a cooler object through
a. a vacuum
b. a gas
c. direct contact
d. empty space
Answer the following questions in a sentence or two.
30. Explain how the law of conservation of energy might apply to an energy conversion
that you observe in your daily life.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
31. Describe a situation in which chemical energy is converted into mechanical energy.
Explain each step in the energy conversion process.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
32. How are kinetic energy and temperature related to each other?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
33. What is the difference between heat and temperature?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Part 4: Changes in Form
The illustrations below show a skateboarder on a ramp. Use the illustrations to answer the
next five questions.
A.
5
1
4
2
3
B.
1 5
2 4
3
34. At what point in the illustrations would the skateboarder have the most potential
energy? The most kinetic energy? Explain.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
35. At what point in the second illustration will the skateboarder’s kinetic energy begin
to be changed back into potential energy? Explain.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
36. When the skateboarder’s kinetic energy is changed back into potential energy, will
this amount of potential energy likely be equal to the skater’s potential energy in
the first illustration? Why or why not?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
37. Describe how energy may appear to decrease in the example shown above. What
energy conversions that produce unwanted forms of energy are occurring?
Explain.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
38. Draw colored bars that might represent the potential energy and kinetic energy of
the skateboarder at each of the five labeled points on illustration A. Explain why
you drew the bars the way you did. Use your digital tools
1. _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
2. _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
3. _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
4. _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
5. _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

The illustrations below show particle movement is a substance at two different
temperatures. Use the illustration below to answer the next four questions.
39. Which illustration represents the substance when it is at a higher temperature?

Explain.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
40. What would happen to the particles in illustration A if the substance were chilled?
What would happen if the particles in illustration B were chilled?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
41. If energy is transferred from one of the substances to the other through heat, in which
direction would the energy flow (from A to B, or from B to A)? Why?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
42. Suppose energy is transferred from one of the substances to the other through heat.
Draw a sketch that shows what the particles of both substances would look like when
the transfer of energy is complete.
43. How are conduction and convection similar? How are they different?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
44. Suppose you are outdoors on a hot day and you move into the shade of a tree. Which
form of energy transfer are you avoiding? Which type of energy transfer are you still
feeling? Explain.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
45. Draw a sketch that shows how convection occurs in a liquid. Label the sketch to
indicate how the process occurs in a cycle.
Lesson 17
Review of Waves
Waves in 7th Grade Science. As you read today’s Lesson, take notes and record the
Science Notebook.
assistance with.
Waves: Transferring Energy

A wave is a disturbance that transfers energy from one place to another. Waves can
transfer energy over distance without moving matter the entire distance because the wave
travels through the matter. The movement of a wave is a motion known as a disturbance.
The disturbance travels through the wave, transferring energy.
Forces and Waves
Force is required to change the motion of an object. Forces can also start a disturbance
which sends a wave through a material.
Disturbance
Wall
Hand – Source: Wikimedia Commons - genome.gov
Rope Wave - If you tied a rope to a doorknob and then applied a force to the other end by
flicking it up and down, you would send a wave through the rope. Both the up and down
forces are required to start a wave.
Water Wave
Forces are also required to start water
waves. If you dip an object (such as the
leaf pictured) into a calm pool of water, you
are applying a downward force on the
water. When you remove the object and the
water rushes back up, a wave moves
across the pool.
Source: Bigstock
Earthquake Wave
When there is a sudden
release of energy that
has built up in a rock as
the result of another
rock pushing and pulling
it, an earthquake
happens. When the
pushing and pulling
forces on the rock
cause the rock to break,
the energy is transferred
as a wave through the
ground.
Source: eoearth.org
Published: July 18, 2010, 2:05 pm
Edited: July 18, 2010, 2:05 pm
Lead Author: Michael Pidwirny
Creative Commons Attribution-
Share Alike license.
Materials and Waves

A medium is any substance that a wave moves through. In the examples above, the rope
is the medium for the rope wave; the water is the medium for the water wave; and the
ground is the medium for the earthquake wave.
A wave that transfers energy through matter is known as a mechanical wave. All of the
waves that you have learned about so far are mechanical waves.
Energy and Waves
Earthquake waves are a good example of energy transfer. As the wave, or disturbance,
travels through the ground, the ground shakes. These waves can travel miles from their
source, but the ground does not travel at all. Only the energy travels in the wave. The
kinetic energy of the quake is transferred. In a wave, the medium only moves up and
down, the energy moves from place to place.
Wave Classifications
Waves can be classified by how they move. Some waves move up and down or in a side
to side motion. Other waves move in a forward and backward motion.
Transverse Waves move at right angles or perpendicular to the direction of the

disturbance. In the top image below, you will see a transverse wave. Transverse means
“across” or “cross-wise”. A wave created by a vertical motion will move crosswise
compared to that vertical motion. The rope wave and water wave are both transverse
waves. The rope and water particles move up and down, but the motion of the wave is
perpendicular to the medium.
Source: wikipremed.com / Creative Commons Attribution Share Alike 3.0 License.
Longitudinal Waves are waves that travel in the same direction as the disturbance. Look
at the picture of the spring above. The longitudinal wave is started by moving the spring
forward and backward. The wave also moves forward and backward. The coils of the
spring move forward and bunch up. As the wave moves backward, the coils spread out -
this bunching up is called a compression. Longitudinal waves are often called
compressional waves.
Sound waves are longitudinal or compressional waves. Vibrations push and pull on the
surround air molecules, causing them to move forward and backward. These air molecules
then set more air molecules in motion and a sound wave pushes forward. In a sound
wave the vibrations of the air molecules are in the same direction as the movement of the
wave.
Waves: Properties
Waves have properties that can be measured. All waves have heights that can be
measured and speeds that can be measured by finding the time that it takes for one wave
peak to travel a set distance. You can also measure the distance between waves and the
length of a single wave. These properties are called amplitude, wavelength, and
frequency.
Measuring Wave Properties
Wave Properties
Wavelength (2) Crest
Crest
Amplitude
Equilibrium Position
Trough
Trough
Trough
A crest is the highest point, or peak, of a wave. A trough is the lowest point, or valley, of
a wave.
Amplitude is the distance between an imaginary line through the middle of a wave and a
crest or trough. In a water wave, the amplitude measures how far above the water a wave
will rise or how far below the level of the water a wave dips. The original position of the
water is referred to as the rest position of the water. Amplitude indicates how much energy
a wave is carrying. The bigger the amplitude, the more energy a wave is carrying.
The distance from one wave crest to the next wave crest is called the wavelength. You
can also measure wavelength from trough to trough.
Frequency is the number of wavelengths that pass a fixed point in a certain amount of
time. The frequency measures how often a wavelength occurs. Frequency is often
measured by counting the number of crests or troughs that pass a given point in one
second.
Frequency and Wavelength - As the frequency of a wave increases, it means that the
wave is passing a fixed point more often. This means that the wavelength shortens. As
frequency increases, wavelength decreases. Also, as frequency decreases, wavelength
increases.
If you were to go back to the rope wave example and flick the rope once every second to
create a wave you would have a frequency of one wavelength per second. If you wanted
to increase the frequency of the wavelengths, you would have to flick the rope faster. As
you increase the frequency, you will notice that the waves get closer together. You have
decreased the wavelength.
Measuring Wave Speed
To measure the speed of a wave, you can measure how long it takes for a wave crest to
get from one point to another. An easier way to find wave speed is to calculate it. The
speed of any wave is equal to the wavelength multiplied by the frequency.
Speed = wavelength x frequency
S= x
Different types of waves travel at

different speeds. If you have ever
watched a thunderstorm, you have
experienced this. During a
thunderstorm, you see the lightening
seconds before you see the thunder
that accompanies the lightening. This
is because the light waves travel
faster than the sound waves.
Wave speed is a useful tool for
scientists. Knowing the speed that a
wave can travel through certain
mediums allows scientist to send
waves into the ground and then
measure the speed that they bounce
back with. The speed that the waves
bounce back with indicates what the
ground is made of. This is how
geologists find oil deep underground.
Source: Bigstock
Waves: Predictability
You have learned that waves travel through mediums like water, air, or the ground. Now
you will be learning about how a wave acts when it encounters a new medium. Waves
behave predictably, all waves show specific behaviors called reflection, refraction, and
diffraction.
Reflection
When waves hit a solid barrier, they bounce back. Reflection is the bouncing back of a
wave after it strikes a barrier.
A water wave transfers energy. When a water wave meets a barrier, it pushes against the
barrier. The barrier then applies an equal but opposite force on the water, sending the
wave back in the opposite direction.
REFLECTING SURFACE
INCIDENT WAVE
ANGLE OF INCIDENCE
NORMAL OR PERPENDICULAR
--------------------------------------------- --------------
ANGLE OF REFLECTION
REFLECTIVE WAVE
Eye Source: Wikimedia Commons / Madeleine Price Ball (Madprime) Flashlight Source: Bigstock
Sound and light waves also reflect. If you have ever heard an echo, you have heard sound
waves bouncing off of a barrier. If you have looked at your reflection in a mirror, you have
seen sound waves bouncing off the smooth metal behind the glass surface of a mirror.
Refraction
Sometimes a wave does not bounce back when it meets a barrier. The wave continues to
move forward and enters a new medium at an angle; the wave then bends, or refracts.
Refraction is the bending of a wave as it enters a new medium at an angle other than 90
degrees. Refraction occurs because waves travel at different speeds in different mediums.
Because the wave enters the new medium at an angle, one side of the wave enters the
new medium before the rest of the wave. A wave bends when one side speeds up or
slows down before the other side.
If you place an object half in and half out of water,

the object looks like it has split. What you are seeing
is the refraction of the light waves caused by the
change in medium from air to water.
Source: Wikimedia Commons / BCrowell
Diffraction
Diffraction is the spreading out of waves through an opening or around the edges of an
obstacle. Diffraction occurs with all types of waves.
As a wave encounters a partial barrier, such as an opening in a wall, the waves spread out
as they pass through the opening. Sound waves also diffract. As sound waves enter a
doorway, they spread out. This is why you can hear the television from different rooms in
the house. Diffraction also occurs as waves pass the edge of an obstacle. Light waves
diffract around the edges of an obstacle creating a familiar sight. Shadows are created as
the light waves spread out around an obstacle.
Waves Interact with Other Waves - Besides encountering new mediums, wave
sometimes encounter other waves. Two waves can either add energy or take away energy
in the place where they met. Interference is the meeting and combining of waves.
Waves Adding Together - If two waves with identical properties were coming from
opposite directions to come together at one point, the waves would merge. The
amplitudes would be added together, and the result would be one bigger wave. After the
waves have merged, they return to their original amplitude and continue in their original
directions.
WAVE ONE CONSTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE
WAVE TWO + =
The adding of two waves is called constructive interference. Constructive interference
builds up, or constructs, a larger wave out of two smaller ones. The amplitude of the new
wave that is created in constructive interference is the sum of the amplitudes of the two
original waves.
Waves Canceling Each Other Out

WAVE ONE
WAVE TWO
+ =
DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE
If two waves come together that are not lined up, the energy of one wave is subtracted
from the other. If when two waves meet, the crest of one wave is lined up with the trough
of another wave, they cancel each other out. The new wave is smaller. If the waves were
of identical amplitude, they would cancel each other completely out!
However, when identical waves meet, they are usually not aligned. Instead the crests
meet up with crests in some places and crests meet up with troughs in other places. As a
result, the waves add in some places and subtract in others.
Lesson 17
Review of Waves
NAME: _________________________________________________________________
DATE: __________________________________________________________________

1. Describe the forces that start waves.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. Explain how a wave can travel through a medium and yet the medium stays in place.
Use the term energy in your answer.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. Describe two ways in which waves travel, and give an example of each.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4. Does water moving through a hose qualify as a wave? Explain why or why not.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
5. Suppose you drop a cookie crumb in your milk. At once, you see ripples spreading
across the surface of the milk. What type of waves are these? What is the disturbance?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
6. Make a simple diagram of a wave, labeling amplitude, frequency, and wavelength. For
frequency, you will need to indicate a span of time, such as one second.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
7. What two measurements of a wave do you need to calculate its speed?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
8. Suppose you are watching water waves pass under the end of a pier. How can you
figure out their frequency?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
9. A wave has a speed of 3 m/s and a frequency of 6 wavelengths. What is its

wavelength?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
10. Explain what happens when wave encounter a medium that they cannot travel
through.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
11. Describe a situation in which waves would diffract.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
12. Describe two ways that waves are affected by interference.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
13. Explain how reflection and diffraction can happen at the same time in a wave.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
14. How is interference similar to net force? How do you think the concepts might be
related? Hint: Think about how forces are involved in wave motion.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Lesson 18
Review of Sound: Part One
Sound in 7th Grade Science. As you read today’s Lesson, take notes and record the
Science Notebook.
assistance with.
Sound: Sound is a Wave

Sound is a wave that is produced by a vibrating object and travels through matter. The
disturbances that travel in a sound wave are vibrations. Vibrations are rapid, back-and-
forth motions. Sound is a longitudinal wave because the medium vibrates back and forth
in the same direction the wave travels. Sound waves are mechanical waves; they transfer
energy through a medium.
How are sound waves produced? The disturbances in a sound wave are vibrations that
are too small to see. Vibrations are also required to start sound waves. To create a sound
wave, a vibrating object pushes and pulls on the medium around it and sends out waves in
all directions.
Human vocal cords produce sound waves when the muscles in your lungs push air up
through the narrow opening between your vocal cords. The force of this air causes the
vocal cords to vibrate. The vibrating vocal cords produce sound waves that escape
through your mouth.
How Sound Waves are Detected
Ear Source: Sound makes the
Bigstock eardrum vibrate The auditory nerve
sends the message
to the brain
Sound
Waves
The eardrum makes The bones make the fluid

the bones vibrate move and the hair cells
bend inside the cochlea
The shape of the human ear helps it to collect sound waves. The outer ear collects sound
waves and reflects them into a tiny tube called the ear canal. At the end of the ear canal is
a thin, skin-like membrane stretched tightly to cover the opening. This membrane is the
eardrum. When sound waves strike the eardrum, they cause it to vibrate. The middle ear
contains three tiny, connected bones called the hammer, anvil, and stirrup. These tiny
bones carry vibrations from the eardrum to the inner ear.
The cochlea, in the inner ear, contains about 30,000 hair cells. Each of these hair cells
contains a tiny hair. The hairs bend as a result of the vibrations. This movement triggers
changes that cause the cell to send electrical signals along nerves and into your brain.
When the brain receives and processes these signals, you hear a sound.
Sound Waves Vibrate Particles
Sound waves transfer the motion of particles too small to see from one place to another.
What happens between the time that a sound wave is created and the time that the sound
is heard?
What happens between the time that a drum is struck and you hear the drumbeat? First,
the drum skin vibrates rapidly. The drum skin pushes out then in, over and over again.
This happens very, very quickly. The vibrating drum skin pushes against nearby particle in
the air. The particles become compressed - bunched together.
When the drum skin pushes in the opposite way, a space opens up between the drum’s
surfaces and the particles. The particles rush back to fill the space.
The back and forth movement, or vibration, of the particles is the disturbance that travels
to the listener. The bunched up areas, or compressions, and the spaces between the
compressions are parts of the wave.
The wave consists of repeating patterns of compression and spaces between the
compressions. The compressions are areas of high air pressure. The spaces between the
compressions are areas of low air pressure. The high and low pressure air pushes and
pulls on the surround air then this air pushes and pulls on the air surrounding it. Soon a
sound wave has traveled through the air and has transferred kinetic energy from one place
to another.
In the 1600s, scientists were doing experiments to learn more about air. They figured out
how to pump air out of an enclosed space to create a vacuum. A vacuum is empty space.
It has no particles.
A British scientist, Robert Boyle, designed an experiment to see if sound could travel
through a vacuum. Boyle put a ticking clock into a sealed jar and then pumped some of
the air out of the jar. The ticking of the clock became fainter as he did this. When he had
pumped all of the air out of the jar, he could not hear any ticking at all. Boyle had
demonstrated that sound does not travel through a vacuum.
Sound can only move through a medium that is made up of matter because sound is a
mechanical wave.
The Effects of a Medium on Sound

Earlier we discussed the fact that sound travels slower than light. This is why you can see
lightening before you hear the thunder that accompanies it. While speed always travels
more slowly than light; it does not always travel at the same speed. There are two factors
that affect the speed of sound: the material that makes up the medium and the
temperature.
Material of the Medium
The medium that we most often her sound in is air. We hear birds chirping, traffic driving
by, and the voices of our neighbors. These sound waves travel through air, a mixture of
gases.
Think about the last time you went
swimming. While you were
underwater, you were able to hear the
sounds of people splashing around
you, even the sounds of people talking
above water. Sound can travel
through liquid. In fact, sound travels
faster through liquid than it does
through air. Air is made up of gases;
most gases are not very dense. Water
is much denser than air, this means
that the particles are closer together.
It takes less time for a water particle to push on the water particles around it because they
are much closer together than the air particles. As a result, you can hear sounds
underwater sooner than those above the water would.
Sound can also travel through solids that are elastic, which means that they can vibrate
back and forth. In a solid material, the particles are packed even closer than the particles
in a liquid. This means that sound can travels the fastest through solids.
Temperature and Sound
Sound also travels faster through a medium with a higher temperature than a medium with
a lower temperature. As you increase temperature, particles begin to move faster. It is
easier for particles that are already moving quickly to press against the particles that are
around them than it is for particles that are moving slowly.
Frequency and Pitch

Pitch is the quality of highness or lowness of a sound. The frequency of a sound wave
determines the pitch of the sound that you hear. You learned in a previous Lesson that the
frequency is the number of wavelengths passing a fixed point in a given period of time. A
high-frequency wave with short wavelengths produces a high-pitched sound. A low-
frequency wave with long wavelengths produces a low-pitched sound.
An object vibrating very fast producing a high-pitched sound while an object vibrating
slower produces a lower-pitched sound.
High and Low Frequencies - high frequency wave sounds higher than low frequency
wave.
Source: Wikimedia Commons / drawn by Theresa knott
The unit for measuring frequency, and also the pitch of a sound is the hertz. A hertz (Hz)
is one complete wavelength per second. A wave with a frequency of 30 Hz has 30
wavelengths per second. A sound with a frequency of 150 Hz has 150 wavelengths that
pass a given point every second. A complete cycle can be called a cycle.
Human ears can hear a wide variety of pitches. Most people with good hearing can her
sounds in the range of 20 hertz to 20,000 hertz.
Sound waves below 20
Sound Frequencies Heard by Animals hertz are called
Sound Frequencies Heard by Animals infrasound. People
cannot hear sounds in
porpoise 150000
this range. The waves of
bat 110000 an infrasound have very
dog 50000 long wavelengths and
chimpanzee 33000 can travel great distances
human 20000
without losing much
energy. Elephants use
elephant 12000
infrasound to
tree frog 4000
communicate over long
mosquito 400 distances.
Sound waves in the range above 20,000 hertz are called ultrasound. Humans cannot
hear ultrasounds either. Ultrasounds are very useful.
Natural Frequencies
A natural frequency is the frequency at which an object vibrates. When a sound wave with
a particular natural frequency encounters another sound wave with the same natural
frequency, constructive interference happens. The amplitude of the vibrating object
combines together with the amplitude of the sounds wave. The strengthening of a sound
wave in this way is called resonance.
Sound Quality
Two sounds may have the exact same pitch but do not sound the same. The reason for
this is that each sound has its own particular sound, or quality. Timbre is the term for this
quality. Timbre can be explained by the fact that most sounds are not single waves but are
actually a combination of waves. The pitch that you hear is called the fundamental tone.
Higher frequency pitches are called overtones. The combination of pitches is the main
factor that affects the quality of a sound.
The way that a sound starts and stops is also a factor in the quality of sound. Some
sounds start and stop in blasts, other sounds start and stop much more gently.
The Doppler Effect
The Doppler Effect is the change in perceived pitch that occurs when the source or the
receiver of a sound is moving. In the 1800s, an Austrian scientist named Christian Doppler
wrote a paper about sound waves. He described how pitch changes when a sound source
moves rapidly toward and then away from the listener.
Imagine that you are sitting in a car as an

ambulance approaches. The siren on the
ambulance continually sends out sound
waves. As the ambulance pull closer to you, it
catches up with the sound waves it is sending
out. As a result, the waves that reach your
ears are spaced closer together. The
frequency, and therefore the pitch, is higher
when it reaches you. As the ambulance
continues, it gets farther and farther away
from you, while the sound still moves toward
you. Now the waves arrive farther and farther
apart. As the frequency of the waves
decreases, you hear a lower pitch.
Source: Bigstock
Lesson 18
Review of Sound: Part One
NAME: _________________________________________________________________
DATE: __________________________________________________________________

1. Describe how sound waves are produced.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. Describe how particles move as energy is transferred through a sound wave.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. Explain how temperature affects the speed of sound.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4. Would the sound from a distant train travel faster through air or through steel train
tracks? Explain.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
5. Suppose an audience watching a science fiction movie hears a loud roar as a

spaceship explodes in outer space. Why is this scene unrealistic?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
6. Describe what is different about the sound waves produced by a low note and a high
note on a musical instrument.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
7. Explain why two people singing the same pitch do not sound exactly the same.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
8. How does perceived pitch change as a sound source passes a listener?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
9. Suppose you could view the waves produced by a high-pitched and a low-pitched
voice. Which wave would display the greater number of crests and troughs? Why?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Lesson 19
Review of Sound: Part Two
Sound in 7th Grade Science. As you read today’s Lesson, take notes and record the
Science Notebook.
assistance with.
Sound: Intensity
The intensity of a sound is the amount of energy its’ sound wave has. The more intense a
sound is, the louder it will sound to listeners. The decibel (dB) is the unit used to measure
sound intensity. Some of the softest sounds measure less than 10 decibels. Other sounds,
such as a loud television or an airplane taking off can hurt your ears; very loud sounds
measure more than 100 decibels.
The amplitude of a sound wave can tell us about its intensity. Amplitude is the measure of
wave energy. A drummer can vary the loudness, or intensity, of a sound by varying the
energy with which he hits the drum. The distance between the source and the listener also
affects the loudness.
Sound waves travel in all directions from their source. As the waves travel farther from
their source, they become spread out over a greater area. This means that their intensity is
decreased. Sound waves with lower intensities are heard a quieter sounds.
There are other forces that can take energy away from sound waves. The force of friction
can act on the medium of a sound wave to decrease the intensity of the waves.
Approximate Sound Intensities

airplane taking off 150
firecrackers 150
amplified music 120
motorcycle 100
lawn mower 90
traffic 70
dog barking 60
conversation 50
whisper 30
light rainfall 20
leaves rustling 10
Decibels (dB)
Controlling the Intensity of Sound

A sound wave gets weaker over time and distance. The pitch does not typically change as
the sound grows weaker. Even as the amplitude of a sound wave decreases, the
frequency stays the same. Sometimes it is desirable and even necessary, to change the
intensity of a sound without changing the pitch and quality of the sound. We can do this by
adding or taking energy from a sound wave. Changing the intensity of a sound wave
changes its amplitude.
Devices like mufflers can control the intensity of sounds. Mufflers reduce the intensity of
the sound wave that travels through them. Mufflers are designed to absorb some of the
energy of the sound waves which decreases the amplitude of the wave. As a result, the
intensity of the sound that you hear is much lower than it would be without the muffler.
Amplification is the
increasing of the
strength of an electrical
signal. It is often used
to increase the intensity
of a sound wave. When
you listen to a stereo,
you experience the
effects of amplification.
Sound input to a stereo
is in the form of a weak
electrical signal form a
microphone.
Transistors in an
electronic circuit amplify
the signals. The
electrical signals are
converted into vibrations
in a coil in your stereo’s
speakers. The coil is
attached to a cone,
which also vibrates and
sends out sound waves.
You can control the
intensity of the sound
waves by adjusting you
stereo’s volume.
This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0/ Unported license. Wikimedia Commons
Acoustics is the scientific study of sound. Acoustics involves both how sound is produced
and how it is received and heard by humans and animals.
Acoustics also refers to the way sound waves behave inside a space. Engineers design
buildings to reduce unwanted echoes by designing walls and ceiling with acoustical tiles in
a way that controls sound intensity. Acoustical tiles are designed to absorb or redirect
some of the energy of sound waves.
Sound can Damage Hearing
Continual exposure to sounds of 90 dB or louder can damage your hearing. The hair cells
in the cochlea are extremely sensitive. This sensitivity makes hearing possible, but it also
makes it easy to damage the cells.
Earplugs can help prevent damage from exposure to high intensity sounds. In the United
States, there are laws that require employers to reduce sounds at work sites to below 90
dB or to provide workers with ear protection.
Brief, one-time exposures to extremely loud noise can destroy hair cells in the cochlea.
Noises above 130 dB are especially dangerous; noises above 140 dB can even be painful!
Sound: Uses
Ultrasound Waves
Sound has uses beyond communication. Animals and people use reflected ultrasound
waves to detect objects. Some animals use ultrasound waves to find food. People use
ultrasound waves to detect objects underwater or even to create images of the inside of
the body.
Echolocation is sending
out ultrasound waves and
interpreting the returning
sound echoes. Bats use
echolocation to find food in
the dark. They send out
as many as 200
ultrasound squeaks per
second. When they
receive the returning
echoes, they can tell
where prey is and how it is
moving. Bats can also use
echolocation to avoid
running into walls, trees,
and other big objects.
Animals such as dolphins,
whales, and porpoises
also use echolocation to
find fish and other food in
the water.
Source: Bigstock
Sonar - instruments that use echolocation to locate objects. Sonar stands for “sound
navigation and ranging”. During World War I, scientists developed instruments that used
sound waves to locate enemy submarines. This technology has developed into modern
sonar. Sonar information is used to create images of underwater objects and obstacles.
People use sonar for many things. Fishing boats use sonar to locate schools of fish.
Oceanographers use sonar to map the sea floor. People have even used sonar to find
ancient sunken ships in deep water.
Medical Uses of Ultrasound
Ultrasound has many uses in medicine. Because humans cannot hear ultrasounds,
ultrasound can be used at very high intensities. The high-intensity vibrations can be used
to break up kidney stones in patients. Medical equipment is cleaned with the energy
transferred by ultrasound waves.
The ultrasound scanner is

one of the most important
uses of ultrasound.
Ultrasound scanners rely
on the same principles as
sonar. The ultrasound
scanner sends waves into
a human body and then
records the echoes that
are reflected from inside
the body.
The ultrasound scanner is
used to examine internal
organs or a fetus during
pregnancy. Ultrasound is
safer than other imaging
such as x-rays which are
harmful.
Source: Bigstock
Sound can be Recorded and Reproduced

In the late 1800s, two inventions changed the world of sound. In 1876, the telephone was
invented and in 1877, Thomas Edison played the first recorded sound on a phonograph.
The invention of the telephone has made long distance communication possible. Before
the invention of the phone, people had no way to send their voices long distances except
by yelling.
A telephone must do two things,

it must record the sound that is
spoken into it and it must
reproduce the sound that arrives
as a signal from somewhere
else. When you speak into the
mouthpiece of a telephone, a
small disk inside the mouthpiece
begins to vibrate. A microphone
turns these vibrations into
electrical signals. The phone
then sends these electrical
signals through wires and to a
switching station. Your friend
then receives the signals by
listening to the earpieces on his
phone. The electrical signals that
arrive are turned into vibrations
that shake a different disk called
a diaphragm. The vibrating
diaphragm produces sound
wave that are a copy of your
voice.
Source: Bigstock
The first devices to record sound used needles to cut grooves in pieces of foil. The sound
waves were translated into bumps along the grooves. These grooves contained all of the
information necessary to reproduce the sound waves.
Today, most people listen to music from CDs. A CD is a hard plastic disc that has millions
of microscopic pits arranged in a spiral. These pits contain all of the information that a CD
player can change into electrical signals that are then turned into sound waves.
Lesson 19
Review of Sound: Part Two
NAME: _________________________________________________________________
DATE: __________________________________________________________________
1. Explain how the terms intensity, decibel, and amplitude are related.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. Describe one way in which sound intensity can be controlled.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. How do loud sounds cause damage to hearing?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4. A wind chime produces both soft and loud sounds. If you could see the waves, how
would they differ?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
5. Which of these acoustical designs would be best for a concert hall? Why?
a. bare room with hard walls, floor, and ceiling.
b. room padded with sound-absorbing materials such as acoustical tile
c. room with some hard surfaces and some sound padding
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
6. Describe one medical use for ultrasound.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
7. How does a telephone record and reproduce sound?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
8. Draw a simple diagram to show how telephone communication works. Begin your
diagram with the mouthpiece and end with the earpiece. See diagram in Lesson.
Today’s Lesson is a test on Lessons 17-19 which were a review of
Waves and Sounds from 7th Grade Science. Complete each of the following test items
without the use of notes. Good Luck!
How do you think you did?
Complete the following questions.
For each word below, write a definition, a sentence in which you use the term correctly,
and draw a small picture to show what the term looks like.
1. Amplitude
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. Diffraction
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. Frequency
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4. Medium
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
5. Crest
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
6. Interference
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
7. Reflection
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
8. Trough
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
9. Refraction
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
10. Wavelength
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Complete the chart below by using vocabulary terms from the Lessons reviewed.
Frequency 11. 12.
13. 14. Loudness
For each of the following words, write a definition, description, and example for each word.
15. Resonance
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
16. Doppler effect
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
17. Amplification
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
18. Acoustics
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
19. Echolocation
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
20. Sonar
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Choose the letter of the best answer.

21. The direction in which a transverse wave travels is
a. in the same direction as the disturbance
b. toward the disturbance
c. from the disturbance downward
d. at right angles to the disturbance
22. An example of a longitudinal wave is a

a. water wave
b. stadium wave
c. sound wave
d. rope wave
23. Which statement best defines a wave medium?

a. the material through which a wave travels
b. the point half-way between the crest and trough of a wave
c. the distance from one wave crest to the next
d. the speed at which waves travel in water
24. As you increase the amplitude of a wave, you also increase the
a. frequency
b. wavelength
c. speed
d. energy
25. To identify the amplitude in a longitudinal wave, you would look for areas of
a. reflection
b. compression
c. crests
d. refraction
26. Which statement describes the relationship between frequency and wavelength?
a. When frequency increases, wavelength increases.
b. When frequency increases, wavelength decreases.
c. When frequency increases, wavelength remains constant.
d. When frequency increases, wavelength varies unpredictability.
27. For wave refraction to take place, a wave must

a. increase in velocity
b. enter a new medium
c. increase in frequency
d. merge with another wave
28. Which setup in a wave tank would enable you to demonstrate diffraction?
a. water only
b. water and sand
c. water and food coloring
d. water and a barrier with a small gap
29. Two waves come together and interact to form a new, smaller wave. This process is
called
a. destructive interference
b. constructive interference
c. reflective interference
d. positive interference
30. Sound is a mechanical wave, so it always

a. travels through a vacuum
b. has the same amplitude
c. is made by a machine
d. travels through matter
31. Which unit is a measure of sound frequency

a. hertz
b. decibel
c. amp
d. meters
32. In which of the following materials would sound waves move fastest?
a. water
b. cool air
c. hot air
d. steel
33. Which of the following effects is caused by amplification?
a. wavelength increases
b. amplitude increases
c. frequency decreases
d. decibel measure decreases
34. The frequency of a sound wave determines its

a. pitch
b. loudness
c. amplitude
d. intensity
35. A sound waves travel away from their source, their

a. intensity increases
b. energy increases
c. intensity decreases
d. frequency decreases
36. A telephone mouthpiece changes sound waves into

a. electric signals
b. vibrations
c. CD pits
d. groves on a cylinder
Look at the graph below showing freeway noise levels at a toll collector’s booth. Use the
data in the graph to answer the next four questions.
37. Which is the nosiest quarter-hour?
_______________________________
38. Estimate the loudest level of sound that the toll collector is exposed to.
_______________________________
39. If ear protection should be worn for a sound level above 90 dB, should the toll
collector wear hearing protection? If so, during which times?
_______________________________
40. Describe how you could turn the line graph into a bar graph. Would the bar graph be
as informative? Explain your answer.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Look at the diagrams of waves below. For the next two items, choose the wave diagram
that best fits the description, and explain your choice.
41. The sound of a basketball coach blowing a whistle during practice
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
42. The sound of a cow mooing in a pasture
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
43. Two people are singing at the same pitch, yet they sound different. Explain why.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
44. Write the letters of each of the events in the correct sequence.
a. sound waves race out of a wind chime
b. air friction gradually weakens the chime sound
c. a breeze makes a wind chime vibrate
d. a person nearby hears the wind chime
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Use the diagram below to answer the next two questions.
45. What two letters in the diagram measure the same thing? What do they both
measure?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
46. In the diagram above, what does the letter C measure?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
47. Do you think the following is an accurate definition of medium? Explain.
A medium is any solid through which waves travel.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
48. Picture a pendulum. The pendulum is swinging back and forth at a steady rate. How
could you make it swing higher? How is swinging a pendulum like making a wave?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
49. What might happen to an ocean wave that encounters a gap or hole in a cliff along
the shore?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
50. Do you think interference is an appropriate name for the types of waves that you
read about in the last reading? Explain your answer.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

8th Grade Science Lessons 1-20

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

8th Grade Science Lessons 1-20

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 1

© All In One Curriculum Inc

Review: Earth Science

© All In One Curriculum Inc

The Earth’s Formation

© All In One Curriculum Inc

The Earth’s Spheres

© All In One Curriculum Inc

core Inner Core

1-Oceanic crust; 2-Lithosphere; 3-Astenosphere; 4-Continental crust; 5-Volcanic arc; 6-Trench

© All In One Curriculum Inc

© All In One Curriculum Inc

Mississippi Delta/ NASA

© All In One Curriculum Inc

© All In One Curriculum Inc

People and the Environment

© All In One Curriculum Inc

Lesson Wrap-Up: Reminder

© All In One Curriculum Inc

© All In One Curriculum Inc

© All In One Curriculum Inc

© All In One Curriculum Inc

© All In One Curriculum Inc

Environment Meteorology Mantle Lithosphere Crust

Geology Core Geosphere Hydrosphere

Astronomy Biosphere Earth Science System

© All In One Curriculum Inc

© All In One Curriculum Inc

© All In One Curriculum Inc

Introduction to Earth Science: Scientific Inquiry

Hypothesis is a tentative explanation for an observation or phenomenon. New scientific

© All In One Curriculum Inc

© All In One Curriculum Inc

© All In One Curriculum Inc

© All In One Curriculum Inc

How Do I Use Globes and Maps?

Maps and Distortions

© All In One Curriculum Inc

Another type of projection is a conic projection. This map is

Conic projections are most useful when mapping areas in the

© All In One Curriculum Inc

© All In One Curriculum Inc

© All In One Curriculum Inc

© All In One Curriculum Inc

Using Technology to map the Earth

© All In One Curriculum Inc

True-Color Image of Chesapeake Bay False-Color Image of Chesapeake Bay

Geographic Information Systems

© All In One Curriculum Inc

Directions: Complete the following questions.

© All In One Curriculum Inc

5. How do contour lines show elevation, slope, and relief?

6. Why do contour lines never cross on a topographic map?

© All In One Curriculum Inc

12. Explain in your own words what a GIS map is.

© All In One Curriculum Inc

like in 50 or even 100 years.

Part 2: Mix and Match

15. False-color image ________

A. a method of using scientific equipment to gather information about something from a

© All In One Curriculum Inc

22. _______________________ is a tentative explanation for an observation or

23. A line on a topographic map that joins points of equal elevation is a

29. ___________ is a chart that explains the meaning of each