(PDF) GenBio2 - Module - Week05

General
Biology 2
12
Quarter 3
Module 4
Earth Geologic Time Scale
40
Introductory Message
For the facilitator:
Welcome to the General Biology 2 of Grade 12 Module 4 on Earth Geologic Time

Scale!
This module was collaboratively designed, developed and reviewed by educators from
Schools Division Office of Pasig City headed by its Officer-In-Charge Schools Division
Superintendent, Ma. Evalou Concepcion A. Agustin in partnership with the Local
Government of Pasig through its mayor, Honorable Vico Sotto.
The writers utilized the standards set by the K to 12 Curriculum using the Most
Essential Learning Competencies (MELC) while overcoming their personal, social,
and economic constraints in schooling.
This learning material hopes to engage the learners into guided and independent
learning activities at their own pace and time. Further, this also aims to help learners
acquire the needed 21st century skills especially the 5 Cs namely: Communication,
Collaboration, Creativity, Critical Thinking and Character while taking into
consideration their needs and circumstances.
In addition to the material in the main text, you will also see this box in the body of
the module:
Notes to the Teacher

This contains helpful tips or strategies that
will help you in guiding the learners.
As a facilitator you are expected to orient the learners on how to use this module.
You also need to keep track of the learners' progress while allowing them to manage
their own learning. Moreover, you are expected to encourage and assist the learners
as they do the tasks included in the module.
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For the learner:
Welcome to the General Biology 2 Module 3 on Earth Geologic Time Scale!
The hand is one of the most symbolized part of the human body. It is often
used to depict skill, action and purpose. Through our hands we may learn, create
and accomplish. Hence, the hand in this learning resource signifies that you as a
learner is capable and empowered to successfully achieve the relevant competencies
and skills at your own pace and time. Your academic success lies in your own hands!
This module was designed to provide you with fun and meaningful opportunities for
guided and independent learning at your own pace and time. You will be enabled to
process the contents of the learning material while being an active learner.
This module has the following parts and corresponding icons:
Expectation - These are what you will be able to know after

completing the lessons in the module
Pre-test - This will measure your prior knowledge and the

concepts to be mastered throughout the lesson.
Recap - This section will measure what learnings and skills

that you understand from the previous lesson.
Lesson- This section will discuss the topic for this module.
Activities - This is a set of activities you will perform.
Wrap Up- This section summarizes the concepts and

applications of the lessons.
Valuing-this part will check the integration of values in the
learning competency.
Post-test - This will measure how much you have learned from
the entire module. Ito po ang parts ng module.
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EXPECTATION
After going through this module, you are expected to:
1. Identify the different geologic time scale.

2. Describe general features of the history of life on Earth, including generally
accepted dates and sequence of the geologic time scale
3. Describe the characteristics of major groups of organisms present during each
time periods.
PRETEST
Directions: Write TRUE if the statement is correct and FALSE if the statement is
incorrect.
________1. What is the significant events that occurred during the Permian
period?
A. Existence of the first photosynthetic organism

B. Mass extinction of species
C. Appearance of the land dwelling organism
D. Appearance of the first dinosaurs
________2. It is establish using the evidences from the sequence of fossils

embedded from each layers of sedimentary rocks.
A. Microevolution B. Geologic Time Scale C. Fossil records D. Strata
________3. he longest portions of geologic time.

A. Eon B. Eras C. Period D. Epoch
________4. It is a unit of geological time during which a rock series is deposited.

A. Epoch B. Period C. Eon D. Eras
_______5. It refers to the basic unit of the geologic time scale.

A. Period B. Eras C. Epoch D. Eons
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RECAP
Activity 4.1. Compare and Contrast: Using a Venn diagram compare and contrast
natural crops (non-GMO) and transgenic organism.
LESSON
By studying the fossil records in rock strata, scientist gain a glimpse of long
evolutionary history. This evolutionary history depicts major changes of life on Earth
called macroevolution. Macroevolution includes the creation of biological diversity
through speciation but also encompasses different evidences of life from the different
geologic time scales. Geologic time scales were establish using the evidences from
the sequence of fossils embedded from each layers of sedimentary rocks. Let’s
uncover the different time and events in the geologic time scales and discuss
important events that occur in each time.
The largest time span of the geologic time scale is the eon. It is an indefinitely
long period of time that contains at least two eras. Geologic time is divided into two
eons. The more ancient eon is called the Precambrian, and the more recent is the
Phanerozoic. Each eon is subdivided into smaller spans called eras.
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Precambrian Eons
The Precambrian eon is divided from most ancient into the Hadean era,
Archean era, and Proterozoic era.
Hadean Era 4.6 billion years ago to roughly 3.8 billion years ago
3.8 – 2.5 billion years ago
Started off very hot
Lots of volcanic activity and eruptions/; existence of
protocontinents
Archean Era The planet begun to cool and water vapor condenses to form
rain.
The atmosphere is made up of methane gas, carbon dioxide,
sulfur dioxide but no free oxygen gas.
Stromatolites existed and other bacterial cells
2.5 billion years ago to 542 million years ago
An eon that spans for three eras; namely Paleoproterozoic,
Proterozoic Era Mesoproterozoic and Neoproterozoic.
Massive and rapid continental accretion
Increase in atmospheric oxygen
Herbivorous eukaryotes (algae)
First glaciation
In the latter part of the Precambrian eons, single-celled and simple

multicellular organisms first developed. There are many fossils from this time
because the sea-dwelling creatures were trapped in sediments and preserved.
Phanerozoic Eons
The Phanerozoic eon is subdivided into three eras – the Paleozoic era, Mesozoic era,
and Cenozoic era. An era is often divided into several smaller time spans called
periods. Among the three eras of the Phanerozoic eon, the Paleozoic era is the longest
and diverse, it takes almost half of the Phanerozoic eons. It started 300 million years
ago. The Paleozoic era is divided into the Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian,
Carboniferous, and Permian periods.
1. The Paleozoic Era
Permian Period 300 – 250 million years ago

All the major land masses collided to form the
supercontinent “Pangea”
Temperatures were extreme and the climate was dry
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Plants and animals evolved adaptations to dryness, such
as waxy leaves or leathery skins to prevent water loss
This period ends with a mass extinction of organisms
350 – 300million years ago
Widespread forest of large plants left massive deposits of
Carboniferous Period carbon that eventually turned into coal and crude oil
First amphibian evolve and lived in water and land
First reptile evolved. They were the first animals that can
reproduce on dry land
400 – 350 million years ago
The first seed plant evolved. Seed plants have a protective
Devonian Period seed coat and stored food in their cotyledon to survive.
Eventually, plants that bears seeds become the most
common type of plants in land
Fish with lobe fins evolved. They could breath-in air out
from water.
In the ocean corals appear and fish continuous to evolved
Silurian Period On land vascular plants evolve and they grow bigger than
the existing non-vascular plants. They developed
specialized tissues use by the plants to distribute water
and other materials
500- 450 million years ago
The oceans are filled with invertebrate animals.
Ordavician Period Plants dominate the land while most of the animals
remained in the water.
The first fish evolved
Following the Precambrian mass extinction there was an
Cambrian Period explosion of new organisms in the Cambrian period.
Sponges evolved
Small invertebrates like the Trilobites were very
abundant.
2. The Mesozoic Era
The Mesozoic Era contains the Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous periods. It
known as the Age of the Dinosaurs because of its famous inhabitants.
150 -65 million years ago

Dinosaurs reach their peak and distributions
Cretaceous Period The continent was close to the current position as they are
right now. Earth’s climate is warm and poles lacked ice caps
Extinction of dinosaurs
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This is the golden age of the dinosaurs, whereas the
Jurassic Period dinosaurs’ species flourish.
The earliest bird evolved from reptile ancestors
Major group of mammals evolved while individual mammals
remains small in size
Flowering plants appear and new insects evolved to pollinate
the flowers.
The first dinosaurs branched off from the reptiles and they
Triassic Period colonized the land, water and air.
Huge seed ferns and conifers dominated the forest.
Modern corals, fish and insects evolved
Pangea started to separate into Laurasia
3. Cenozoic Era
The two periods of the Cenozoic Era are the Tertiary and Quaternary. A period
is divided into an even smaller unit called an epoch. The Tertiary period of the
Cenozoic era is comprised of the Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene, and
Pliocene. The Quaternary period of the Cenozoic era includes the Pleistocene and
Holocene (Recent) epochs.
Quaternary 2 million years ago -

Period present
Halocene (present) 0.01million years ago – present
Pleistocene 2 – 0.01 million years ago
Tertiary 65- 0,01 million
Period years ago
Pliocene 5 – 2 million years ago
Miocene 25 – 5 million years ago
Oligocene 35 – 25 million years ago
Eocene 55 – 35 million years ago
Paleocene 65 – 55 million years ago
Quaternary Period
During this time the Earth’s climate cooled, leading to a series of ice ages. Sea
levels fell because so much water was frozen in glaciers. This created land bridges
between continents, allowing land animals to move to new areas. Some mammals,
like the woolly mammoths adapted to the cold by evolving very large size and thick
fur. Other animals moved closer to the equator or went extinct, along with many
plants.
The last ice age ended about 12,000 years ago. By that time, our own species,
Homo sapiens, had evolved. After that, we were witnesses to the unfolding of life’s
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story. Although we don’t know all the details of the recent past, it is far less of a
mystery than the billions of years that preceded it.
Tertiary Period
During the Tertiary period, Earth’s climate was generally warm and humid.
Mammals evolved to fill virtually all niches vacated by dinosaurs. Many mammals
increased in size. Mammals called primates evolved, including human ancestors.
Modern rain forests and grasslands appeared, and flowering plants and insects were
numerous and widespread.
ACTIVITIES
ACTIVITY 4.2. Match the description with the appropriate subdivision of the
geologic time scale. Use each term once.
Description Term
_____ Hadean, Archaean, and Proterozoic A. Paleozoic
_____ Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous B. Cenozoic
_____ Tertiary and Quaternary C. Precambrian
_____ Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Mesozoic
evonian, Carboniferous, and Permian E. Phanerozoic
______ Paleozoic era, Mesozoic era, and Cenozoic era
Activity 4.3:
Directions: Answer the following.
My chosen word is: ______________________________________________________________
I know that I know

__________________________________________________________________________________
First, I know
__________________________________________________________________________________
In addition, I know
__________________________________________________________________________________
Now you know something that I know
__________________________________________________________________________________
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WRAP–UP
Activity 4.4. Answer the following questions.
1. What is the relationships among eons, eras, epochs, and periods of the
geologic time scale? Explain your answer.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. Explain how did the geologist developed the geologic time scale?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
VALUING
Activity 4.5. What do you think!

Directions: In a minimum of 5 sentences, explain the quotes below.
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
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POST TEST
Direction: Read each question carefully and choose the letter of the best answer.
_________1. The geologic-time unit representing the longest interval of time is the___.
_________2. The geologic-time unit corresponding to the time that a system was
deposited is the _________________.
________3. The geologic-time unit corresponding to the time that a series was
deposited is the __________.
________4. The Geologic Time Scale is a record of what?

A. the geologist
B. the known history of rocks and fossils

C. a list of all living thing
D. sample minerals
_______5. The Great Dying occurred about 248 million years ago at the close of the
A. Cambrian B. Cretaceous C. Triassic D, Permian
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KEY TO CORRECTION
may vary
1. ANSWERS
RECAP
5. D
4. B
3. D
2. C Activity may vary
1. A Activity 4.5
POSTTEST
Answer may vary
Activity 4.4
A 5.
A 4. Answers may vary
A 3. Activity 4.3
B 2.
B 1. Answers may vary
PRETEST Activity 4.2
R E F E R E N CE S
Campbell N.A., Reece J.B., Mitchel L.G.,& Taylor M.R. (2003) Biology: Concepts &
Connections, Fourth Edition. Pearson Education Education Inc., San Francisco,
California 9411
www.sheffield.k12.oh.us/Downloads/Geologic%20Time%20WS.pdf
https://libquotes.com/john-mcphee/quote/lbh7v6k
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General
Biology 2 12
Quarter 3
Self-Learning Module 5
The Early Earth and the Emergence of Life
52
For the Facilitator:
Welcome to the General Biology 2 Self-Learning Module on The Early Earth

and the Emergence of Life.
This Self-Learning Module was collaboratively designed, developed and

reviewed by educators from the Schools Division Office of Pasig City headed by its
Officer-in-Charge Schools Division Superintendent, Ma. Evalou Concepcion A.
Agustin, in partnership with the City Government of Pasig through its mayor,
Honorable Victor Ma. Regis N. Sotto. The writers utilized the standards set by the K
to 12 Curriculum using the Most Essential Learning Competencies (MELC) in
developing this instructional resource.
This learning material hopes to engage the learners in guided and independent
acquire the needed 21st century skills especially the 5 Cs, namely: Communication,
Collaboration, Creativity, Critical Thinking, and Character while taking into
In addition to the material in the main text, you will also see this box in the
body of the module:

As a facilitator you are expected to orient the learners on how to use this
module. You also need to keep track of the learners' progress while allowing them to
manage their own learning. Moreover, you are expected to encourage and assist the
learners as they do the tasks included in the module.
53
For the Learner:
Welcome to the General Biology 2 Self-Learning Module on The Early Earth

and the Emergence of Life!
This module was designed to provide you with fun and meaningful
opportunities for guided and independent learning at your own pace and time. You
will be enabled to process the contents of the learning material while being an active
learner.
Expectations - This points to the set of knowledge and skills

that you will learn after completing the module.
Pretest - This measures your prior knowledge about the lesson

at hand.
Recap - This part of the module provides a review of concepts

and skills that you already know about a previous lesson.
Lesson - This section discusses the topic in the module.
Activities - This is a set of activities that you need to perform.
Wrap-Up - This section summarizes the concepts and

application of the lesson.
Valuing - This part integrates a desirable moral value in the

lesson.
Posttest - This measures how much you have learned from the
entire module.
54
EXPECTATIONS
The module is about the early earth and the emergence of life.
1. Understand and describe the features of early Earth; and
2. Understand the theories on the how life could have emerged
PRETEST
Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the answer on a separate sheet of paper.
1. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of the early earth right after its
formation?
a. Bombarded with huge chunk of rock and ice
b. The water available was vaporized
c. Eukaryotes inhabit the planet
d. There is an extreme heat throughout the planet
2. When did the massive bombardment on earth ended?
a. 4 million years ago
b. 40 million years ago
c. 4 billion years ago
d. 40 billion years ago
3. Who are the two people who hypothesized that that life arose gradually from
inorganic molecules?
a. Miller and Urey c. Spallanzani and Needham
b. Oparin and Haldane d Marie and Pierre Curie
4. When organic molecules coming from inorganic molecules were hypothesized,
what were the source of energy scientists thought of?
a. ATP c. lightning and UV radiation
b. Nuclear Energy d. Chemical Energy
5. What is the correct order of the eons in Earth’s history?
a. Archaean, Phanerozoic, and Proterozoic
b. Phanerozoic, Archaean, and Proterozoic
c. Proterozoic, Archaean, Phanerozoic
d. Archaean, Proterozoic, Phanerozoic
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RECAP
In the previous lesson, we learned that scientists were able to learn about
Earth’s history through the study of fossils. The fossil record documents the history
if life here on Earth, one of the most effective ways to determine the age of a fossil is
through radiometric dating. We learned that about 4.5 billion years ago, the Earth
was formed and up until the emergence of atmospheric oxygen on Earth is under the
Archaean eon. In this eon, only prokaryotes exist in this planet. The emergence of
the early eukaryotic cells marked the Proterozoic eon, which lasted until 540 million
years ago where there exists diverse algae and soft-bodied invertebrates. Phanerozoic
eon lasts until today, its beginning was marked by the sudden increase in diversity
of many animal phyla (Cambrian explosion). Phanerozoic is divided into three era:
Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic.
In the Paleozoic, Cambrian explosion happened and there were reptiles, emergence
of present-day insects, and the doom of many marine and terrestrial organisms by
the end of this era. In the Mesozoic era, gymnosperms dominate and dinosaurs roam
the planet, by its end, the angiosperms appeared and diversified. Cenozoic is the era
where mammals, birds, and pollinating insects exist and the emergence of human
ancestors, and the present time as well.
________________________________________________________________________
LESSON
The Early Earth’s Atmosphere and How Life on Earth Started
The planet Earth formed about 4.6

billion years ago (BYA), this estimate is based
on evidence from radiometric dating of
meteorite material together with other
substrate material from Earth. It was
condensed from a vast cloud of dust and rocks
that surrounded the young sun. Earth was
bombarded by huge chunks of rock and ice
that were left from the creation of the solar
system. And for the first few hundred million
years from its formation, collisions generated so
much heat so the available water was
vaporized. Thus, there’s the lack of formation of
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc.
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bodies of water, because of this, life probably could not have originated or survived
in these times.
This extreme bombardment on Earth came to an end about 4 BYA, this

orchestrated the origin of life on Earth. The earliest direct evidence of the
emergence of life on Earth dates back 3.5 BYA was fossils of prokaryotic cells.
These early prokaryotes were Earth’s first organisms, and their descendants had
this planet to themselves for 1.5 billion years, until the eukaryotes’ first appearance
on Earth about 1.8 BYA.
Observations and experiments in chemistry, geology, and physics have led

scientists to propose one scenario, they hypothesized that chemical and physical
processes on early Earth, helped by the emerging force of natural selection, could
have produced very simple cells through a sequence of four main stages:
1. The abiotic (nonliving) synthesis of small organic molecules, such as
amino acids and nitrogenous bases
2. The joining of these small molecules into macromolecules, such as
proteins and nucleic acids
3. The packaging of these molecules into protocells, droplets with
membranes that maintained an internal chemistry different from that of
their surroundings
4. The origin of self-replicating molecules that eventually made inheritance
possible
This scenario leads to predictions that can be tested though experimentation even
though it’s speculative.
The Synthesis of Organic Compounds on Early Earth

When the bombardment of the young Earth ended, the atmosphere very
likely had little oxygen and was probably thick with water vapor from the heat due
to its previous state of bombardment, along with compounds released by volcanic
eruptions, including nitrogen and its oxides, carbon dioxide, methane, ammonia,
and hydrogen. When the Earth cooled, the water vapor condensed into bodies of
waters, and the hydrogen escaped into space.
In the 1920s, the Russian chemist Alexander I. Oparin and British scientist
J.B.S. Haldane independently hypothesized that Earth’s early atmosphere was a
reducing environment, this means an oxygen-poor atmosphere in which molecules
tend to donate electrons. In this atmosphere, organic compounds could have
formed from inorganic molecules. The energy needed for this organic synthesis
could have come from lightning and intense UV radiation. Haldane suggested that
the oceans are where life arose, he called oceans as primordial soup.
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The Oparin-Haldane hypothesis was tested in 1953 by Stanley
Miller and Harold Urey by creating laboratory conditions
similar to those that scientists at the time thought existed on
early Earth. The Miller-Urey experiment provided the first
evidence that organic molecules needed for life could be
formed from inorganic components.
There is also some evidence that suggest that the early
atmosphere was made up primarily of nitrogen and carbon
dioxide and was neither reducing nor oxidizing (electron
removing). In experiments with this neutral atmosphere,
organic molecules were also produced. I addition to that, Miller also conducted an
experiment simulating a volcanic eruption. In a 2008 reanalysis of those results,
researchers found that far more amino acids were produced under simulated
volcanic conditions than were produced in the conditions.
A second source of organic molecules may have been meteorites. For example,
fragments of the Murchison meteorite, a 4.5-billionyear-old rock that fell to
Australia in 1969, contain more than 80 amino acids, some in large amounts. The
amino acid it contained cannot be from earth because they are of an equal mix of
two different structural forms—only one form is used by Earth’s organism. Also,
this meteorite was also found to have include simple sugars, and nitrogenous bases
like uracil.
Abiotic Synthesis of Macromolecules
The presence of some small organic molecules like amino acids and
nitrogenous bases would not suffice for the emergence of life. Each cell has a vast
assortment of macromolecules, including enzymes and other proteins and the
nucleic acids that are essential for self-replication. Question is, how could those
macromolecules form on early Earth? A study in 2009 revealed that abiotic
synthesis of RNA monomers, can occur spontaneously from simple precursor
molecules. Also, by dripping solutions of amino acids or RNA nucleotides onto hot
sand, clay, or rock, researchers have found that it produced polymers of these
molecules. The polymers occurred spontaneously, without any help from enzymes
or ribosomes. Unlike proteins, amino acid polymers are complex mix of linked and
cross-linked amino acids. Nevertheless, it is possible that such polymers may have
acted as weak catalysts for a variety of chemical reactions on early Earth.
Protocells
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All organisms should all have the ability to carry out
reproduction and energy processing or metabolism, because life
cannot perpetuate without these functions. Living organisms’
goal is to perpetuate their own. DNA molecules carry genetic
information, they also carry the instruction needed on how to
replicate themselves accurately during reproduction. But the
replication of DNA needs complex enzymatic machinery, along
with an abundant supply of nucleotide building blocks that are
provided by the cell’s metabolism. Meaning, self-replicating
molecules and a metabolism-like source of the building blocks
may have appeared together in early protocells. How is it Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc.
possible?
Vesicles may have been the key to this. Vesicles are the fluid-filled
compartments enclosed by a membrane-like structure. They might have been the
area where the necessary conditions are met. Experiments showed abiotically
produced vesicles can exhibit certain properties of life, these properties include
simple reproduction and metabolism, as well as the maintenance of internal
chemical environment that is very different from their surroundings.
For example, vesicles can form spontaneously when lipids

or other organic molecules are added to water. When this
happens, the hydrophobic molecules in the mixture arrange
themselves into a bilayer that is alike to the plasma membrane’s
lipid bilayer. Adding substances like the montmorillonite, a soft
mineral clay produced by the weathering of the volcanic ash,
greatly increases self-assembly of the vesicles. This clay is
believed to be common in young Earth. This clay is also have
been thought to have provided surfaces on which the organic
molecules become concentrated, this increases the likelihood
that the molecules will react with each other and form vesicles.
Abiotically produced vesicles can reproduce on their own, and they can increase in
size without dilution of their contents. Vesicles also have the ability to absorb
montmorillonite particles, including those on which RNA and other organic
molecules have become attached. Lastly, experiments have shown that some
vesicles have a selectively permeable bilayer and can perform metabolic reactions
using an external source of reagents which is another vital requirement for life.
Self-Replicating RNA
It is believed that the first genetic material is RNA, not DNA. RNA’s main role
is in protein synthesis; however, they can also perform many enzyme-like catalytic
functions. These RNA catalysts are called ribozymes. Some ribozymes can make
complementary copies of short pieces of RNA, if they are supplied with nucleotide
building blocks.
On the molecular level of natural selection, ribozymes capable of self-

replication in the laboratory was produced. How does this happen? Because unlike
the double-stranded DNA, single-stranded RNA molecules assume a variety of
specific three-dimensional shapes mandated by their nucleotide sequences. RNA
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molecules with certain nucleotide sequences replicate faster and with fewer errors
than other sequences in a particular environment.
The RNA molecule with sequence that is best suited to the surrounding
environment and has the greatest ability to replicate itself will leave the most
descendant molecules. On some occasions, a copying error will result in a molecule
that folds into a shape that is more proficient at self-replication than the ancestral
sequence. Similar selection events may have occurred on early Earth. So, life as we
know it may have been come first through an “RNA world” in which these small
RNA molecules could replicate and store genetic information about the vesicles that
carried them.
Vesicles with self-replicating, catalytic RNA would be unique from its many
neighbors on early Earth that lacked such molecules. If that vesicle could grow,
split, and pass its RNA molecules to its daughters, the daughters would be
protocells that had some of the properties of their parent. The first of these
protocells likely carried only limited amounts of genetic information that is specific
for only few properties, their inherited properties could have been acted on by
natural selection. The most successful of the early protocells on Earth would have
increased in number because they could exploit t their resources effectively and
pass their abilities on to subsequent generations.
Once RNA sequences that carried genetic information appeared in protocells,
many additional changes would have been possible. For example, RNA could have
provided the template on which DNA nucleotides were assembled. Double-stranded
DNA is technically more chemically stable source for genetic information than the
more fragile RNA. DNA also can be replicated more accurately. The accurate
replication is very advantageous as genomes grew larger through gene duplication
and other processes and as more properties of the protocells became coded in
genetic information. Once the DNA appeared, it set the stage for the emergence of
the new forms of life.
Fossil Evidence of Early Life and the Early Single-Celled Organisms
The study of fossils has helped the geologist to establish a geologic

record of Earth’s history. The geologic record of Earth’s history is divided into three
eons: Archaean, Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic. The first two eons lasted about 4
billion years, and the third one is roughly the last half billion years. The fossil
record provides an overview of the history of life over geologic time.
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Stromatolites are a major constituent of the fossil
record of the first forms of life on earth. They are layered
rocks that were formed from certain activities of certain
prokaryotes. Their earliest ancestors thrive on Earth about
3.5 BYA. For hundred million years, fossils were similar in
their structure and were all from shallow marine bays.
During the present times, stromatolites are still present in
such bays. After 400 million years, stromatolites with two
distinctly different morphologies had appeared, and by 2.8
BYA, they appeared in salty lakes as well as marine
environments. Thus, early fossils stromatolites display signs
of ecological and evolutionary change over time. With this
information in mind, it is hypothesized that the emergence
of the single-celled organisms is much earlier, at about 3.9
BYA.
Fossils of prokaryotic cells were also discovered that are Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc.
believed to be as old as the early stromatolites. In a study in
2011, fossilized prokaryotic cells in 3.4 billion years old rocks from Australia was
found. Also, in South Africa, 3.4 billion years old fossilized prokaryotes that have
resemblance to cyanobacterium (a photosynthetic group of bacteria still present
today) were also found. Cyanobacteria, or blue-green algae, were the main
photosynthetic organism for a billion of years and remain one of the most
important organisms today.
The early prokaryotes were Earth’s sole inhabitants from approximately 3.5
billion years to about 2.1 BYA. They are believed to have transformed the life on
Earth. It is because most of the atmospheric oxygen are believed to have been of
biological origin when they are produced through photosynthesis. Because of
photosynthesis, the free O2 produced probably dissolved the in the bodies of water
until it reached a high enough concentration to react with iron. This might have
caused the iron to precipitate as iron oxide, which accumulated as sediments.
These sediments were compressed into banded iron formations, these red layers of
rock containing iron oxide are source of iron ore today. Once all of the dissolved
iron had precipitated, additional O2 dissolved in the water until the seas and lakes
became saturated with O2. After this, the oxygen began to be released out of the
water and entered the atmosphere. This change is evident in the rusting of iron-
rich terrestrial rocks, a process that began about 2.7 BYA. This chronology implies
that bacteria similar to today’s cyanobacteria (oxygen-releasing, photosynthetic
bacteria) originated well before 2.7 billion years ago.
Early cyanobacteria are the one of the major

contributors in the release of oxygen to Earth’s atmosphere.
In certain of its chemical forms, oxygen attacks chemical
bonds and can inhibit enzymes and damage cells, this
resulted to the rising concentration of atmospheric O2
probably brought many prokaryotic groups to their doom.
Some anaerobic species survived though and we can find
their descendants today. Among other survivors, diverse
61
adaptations to the changing atmosphere evolved, including cellular respiration,
which uses O2 in the process of harvesting the energy stored in organic molecules.
The rise of the atmospheric oxygen levels on Earth which is brought about by the
blue-green algae, atmospheric O2 increased gradually between 2.7 to 2.3 BYA, but
there was an evident rapid increase of O2 which is about 1% to 10% of its present
level. What could have caused this? Scientists hypothesized that this acceleration
of the oxygen amount in the atmosphere is caused by the emergence of the
eukaryotic cells that contain chloroplasts.
The Emergence of Eukaryotic Cells and the Endosymbiotic Theory
Eukaryotic cells emerged from prokaryotic cells, but how did they evolve from these
cells? Scientist believed it was because of the endosymbiotic theory. This
theorizes that mitochondria and chloroplasts were formerly individual prokaryotes
that began living within the larger cells. Endosymbiont refers to cells that lives
within another cell, the host cell.
In this theory, the host cell is a heterotroph that

sustain itself though phagocytosis. When the bacteria
capable of aerobic respiration was ingested,
mitochondria were formed; when the photosynthetic
endosymbiont were engulfed, chloroplasts were formed.
This relationship eventually became mutually beneficial,
and over time, the host and the endosymbionts became
a single organism with inseparable parts.
There is a great deal of evidence that supports

the endosymbiotic origin of mitochondria and plastids
((a general term for chloroplasts and related organelles).
The inner membrane of both organelles has enzymes
and transport systems that are homologous to those
found in the plasma membranes of living prokaryotes.
These organelles replicate by a splitting process that is
similar to that of certain prokaryotes. Also, each
organelle contains certain a single, circular DNA
molecule which is like the chromosomes of bacteria, not
associated histones or large amounts of other proteins.
These organelles also have the cellular machinery
(including ribosomes) needed to transcribe and
translate their DNA into proteins, just like their free-
living ancestors. In terms of size, RNA sequences, and
sensitivity to certain antibiotics, the ribosomes of
mitochondria and plastids are more similar to
prokaryotic ribosomes than they are to the cytoplasmic
ribosomes of eukaryotic cells.
62
ACTIVITIES
Activity 5.1
Choose the best possible answer.
1. In the Miller-Urey experiment, which best describes the result that they have
found?
a. at the end of the experiment, a variety of amino acids were found in the apparatus
b. at the end of the experiment, they discovered polypeptides with various sequences
c. at the end of the experiment, they found that RNA and DNA nucleotides were
present in their apparatus
2. Which of these pieces of evidence greatly support the self-replicating RNA
hypothesis? Take note, there are two answers.
a. RNA can provide physical support with cell walls
b. RNA is able to encode genetic information
c. RNA can carry out catalytic activities
d. RNA can form a lipid bilayer
3. Early _____________ are the ones who contributed in the release of oxygen to
Earth’s atmosphere.
a. Prokaryotes
b. Stromatolites
c. Cyanobacteria
d. Endosymbionts
4. This term refers to cells that lives within another cell.
a. Prokaryotes
b. Stromatolites
c. Cyanobacteria
d. Endosymbionts
5. This hypothesis states that: life on Earth could have arisen step-by-step from non-
living matter through a process of “gradual chemical evolution.”
a. Miller and Urey hypothesis
b. Oparin and Haldane hypothesis
Activity 5.2.
Matching type: Choose the best answer from the box

A. Cyanobacteria B. Miller and Urey C. endosymbiotic
theory
D. 4.6 BYA E. Stromatolites F. radiometric dating
63
_______________1. This theory proposes that organelles like mitochondria and
chloroplasts were once free-living prokaryotic cells that began to live within a larger
host cell.
_______________2. They tested the Oparin-Haldane hypothesis in 1953.
_______________3. This tool helped scientists to estimate the age of the Earth.
_______________4. They are layered rocks that were formed from certain activities of
certain prokaryotes.
_______________5. They were the main photosynthetic organism for a billion of years
and remain one of the most important organisms today.
_______________6. How old is the planet Earth?
Activity 5.3
True or False. Write whether the statement is true or false.

____1. Scientists hypothesized that the presence of cyanobacteria initiated the
evident rapid increase of O2 which is about 1% to 10% of its present level
____2. In endosymbiotic theory, host cells were believed to have ingested smaller
individual photosynthetic organisms through pinocytosis
____3. The Oparin-Haldane hypothesis suggests that life arose gradually from
inorganic molecules, with “building blocks” like amino acids forming first and then
combining to make complex polymers
____4. The study of fossils helped scientists to establish a geologic record of Earth’s
history.
____5. Reproduction and movement are the most vital features of the earliest
organisms on Earth.
WRAP-UP
Activity 5.4
Discuss the Endosymbiotic Theory. Do you think it is a strong explanation on how

the eukaryotes emerged on Earth?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
64
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
VALUING
Activity 5.5
Which theory of the origin of life do you think is most possible? Why?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
POSTTEST
Choose the letter of the best answer. Write answer on a separate sheet of paper.
1. It is a 4.5 billion years old rock that fell to Australia in 1969.
a. Murchison meteorite c. montmorillonite
b. Stromatolites d. iron ore
2. In the theory that life arise from self-replicating RNA, what do you call the RNA
catalysts.
a. ribonucleic acids c. ribozymes
b. amylase d. protocells
3. ___________are a soft mineral clay produced by the weathering of the volcanic
ash that might’ve increased self-assembly of the vesicles.
a. Murchison meteorite c. montmorillonite
b. Stromatolites d. iron ore
4. The early ___________ were Earth’s sole inhabitants from approximately 3.5
billion years to about 2.1 BYA.
a. eukaryotes
b. endosymbionts
c. prokaryotes
d. stromatolites
65
5. Earth is thought to have had a reducing atmosphere, what does it mean?
a. an atmosphere with a presence of large amounts of ammonia
b. an H2O deprived environment
c. an oxygen-poor atmosphere in which molecules tend to donate electrons
d. a methane-rich atmosphere
KEY TO CORRECTION
C
C
C
C
A
POSTEST
5. F 5. D 5. B
D
4. T 4. A 4. D
C
B 3. T 3. E 3. C
C 2. F 2. F 2. B.C
C 1. F 1. B 1. A
PRETEST ACTIVITY 5.3 ACTIVITY 5.2 ACTIVITY 5.1
References
Reece, Jane B., Urry, Lisa A., Michael L. Cain, Steven A., Minorsky, Peter V. Wasserman, and Jackson
Robert B. 2011. Biology, Ninth Edition. San Francisco: Pearson.
66
General
Biology 2 12
Quarter 3
Self-Learning Module 6
Mechanisms of Evolution
67
For the Facilitator:
Welcome to the General Biology 2 Self-Learning Module on Mechanisms of

Evolution.
This Self-Learning Module was collaboratively designed, developed and

reviewed by educators from the Schools Division Office of Pasig City headed by its
Officer-in-Charge Schools Division Superintendent, Ma. Evalou Concepcion A.
Agustin, in partnership with the City Government of Pasig through its mayor,
Honorable Victor Ma. Regis N. Sotto. The writers utilized the standards set by the K
to 12 Curriculum using the Most Essential Learning Competencies (MELC) in
developing this instructional resource.
This learning material hopes to engage the learners in guided and independent
acquire the needed 21st century skills especially the 5 Cs, namely: Communication,
Collaboration, Creativity, Critical Thinking, and Character while taking into
In addition to the material in the main text, you will also see this box in the
body of the module:

As a facilitator you are expected to orient the learners on how to use this
module. You also need to keep track of the learners' progress while allowing them to
manage their own learning. Moreover, you are expected to encourage and assist the
learners as they do the tasks included in the module.
68
For the Learner:
Welcome to the General Biology 2 Self-Learning Module on Mechanisms of

Evolution!
This module was designed to provide you with fun and meaningful
opportunities for guided and independent learning at your own pace and time. You
will be enabled to process the contents of the learning material while being an active
learner.
Expectations - This points to the set of knowledge and skills

that you will learn after completing the module.
Pretest - This measures your prior knowledge about the lesson

at hand.
Recap - This part of the module provides a review of concepts

and skills that you already know about a previous lesson.
Lesson - This section discusses the topic in the module.
Activities - This is a set of activities that you need to perform.
Wrap-Up - This section summarizes the concepts and

application of the lesson.
Valuing - This part integrates a desirable moral value in the

lesson.
Posttest - This measures how much you have learned from the
entire module.
69
EXPECTATIONS
The module is about the early earth and the emergence of life.
1. Understand and describe the features of early Earth; and
2. Understand the theories on the how life could have emerged
PRETEST
Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the answer on a separate sheet of paper.
1. What is the difference between micro- and macroevolution?
a. Microevolution describes the evolution of small organisms, such as insects,
while macroevolution describes the evolution of large organisms, like
people and elephants
b. Microevolution describes the evolution of microscopic entities, such as
molecules and proteins, while macroevolution describes the evolution of
whole organisms.
c. Microevolution describes the evolution of organisms in populations, while
macroevolution describes the evolution of species over long periods of time.
d. Microevolution describes the evolution of organisms over their lifetimes,
while macroevolution describes the evolution of organisms over multiple
generations.
2. Population genetics deals with
a. how selective forces change the allele frequencies in a population over time
b. the genetic basis of population-wide traits
c. whether traits have genetic basis
d. degree of interbreeding in a population
3. One of the original Amish colonies rose from a ship of colonists that came from
Europe. The ship’s captain, who had polydactyly, a rare dominant trait, was
one of the original colonists. Today, we see a much higher frequency of
polydactyly in the Amish population. This is an example of:
a. natural selection c. founder effect
b. genetic drift d. b and c
4. Which of the following evolutionary forces can introduce new genetic variation
into a population?
a. natural selection and genetic drift
b. mutation and gene flow
c. natural selection and nonrandom mating
d. mutation and gene flow
70
5. This mechanism of evolution is affected by chance
a. Gene pool
b. Genetic Drift
c. genetic structure
d. Founder effect
RECAP
We learned that the planet Earth was formed about 4.5 billion years ago, and the
early condition of its atmosphere is unfavorable for life to emerge. Years later, we
found that life somehow emerged. Theories about the emergence of life on Earth were
the emergence of organic molecules from inorganic molecules, abiotic synthesis of
macromolecules, protocells, and self-replicating RNA.
The study of fossils has helped the geologist to establish a geologic record of Earth’s
history. The early prokaryotes were the Earth’s sole inhabitants for billions of years.
They also introduced Earth’s atmosphere with oxygen through the cyanobacteria.
Scientists believed that after oxygen was release into the atmosphere, there came a
rapid increase of oxygen’s presence in the atmosphere, which is believe to be
attributed by eukaryotic cells that contain chloroplasts.
________________________________________________________________________
LESSON
Mechanisms That Produce Change in Populations from Generation to

Generation
All living organism on Earth is related to one another. The theory of

evolution states that all living organisms have a common ancestor, but because of
millions of years of evolution, each of the organisms became what they are today.
Natural selection acts to encourage traits and behaviors that increase the likelihood
of an organism’s chance for survival and reproduction, while eradicating those
traits and behaviors that are disadvantageous to the organism. In natural selection,
it can only select, or choose, traits that are favorable, it cannot create new ones.
The force that we can attribute novel traits and behaviors is mutation. Mutation
and other sources of variation among individuals, as well as the evolutionary forces
that act upon them, modify populations and species. This combination of processes
has led life as we know it today. It is misconception about evolution that it acts
upon individual organisms, however, they act on the traits that will greatly affect
the survivability and reproduction of individual organisms, the impact of this force
71
in an organism’s population is observable over time. For
example, the medium ground finch (Geospiza fortis), a seed-
eating bird that lives in the Galapagos Islands. In 1977, the
population of this bird was devastated by a long period of
drought: of 1200 birds, only 180 lived. There’s an
observation by the researchers in the drought that there was
a small supply of small, soft seeds. The finches fed on large,
hard seeds that were more abundant, so the birds with
larger, deeper beaks were in dominance during that time,
because they were able to crack and eat these larger seeds,
and they survived at a higher rate than finches with smaller
beaks. Since this trait, beak depth, is an inheritable trait, the
average beak depth in the next generation of G. fortis was far
greater compared to the pre-drought population. Natural Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc.
selection acted upon this incident. Individual finches, did not
evolve, each bird’s particular beak size did not increase, --the proportion of large
beaks in the population increased from generation to generation. Population
evolved, but not its individual members. The small-scale evolution evident in this
event is microevolution, the overtime change in populations. Macroevolutions on
the other hand, is the processes that gave rise to new species and higher taxonomic
groups with widely divergent characters
POPULATION GENETICS
We know that a gene for a particular character has several different alleles
that code for the different traits that is linked with the character; e.g., in the ABO
blood group system in humans, three alleles determine the particular blood-type
protein on the surface of red blood cells. Each individual in a population of diploid
organisms can only carry two alleles for a particular gene, but more than two may
be present in the individuals that comprise the population. Mendel followed alleles
as they were inherited from parent to offspring. Biologists of the 20 th century in the
area of population genetics began to study how can the selective forces of nature
change a population through the changes in their alleles and genotypic frequencies.
Allele frequency is the rate at which a specific allele appears within a

population. We are aware that evolution is a change in the characteristics of a
population of organisms, but behind that phenotypic change is genetic change.
Using the ABO blood type system, the frequency of one of the alleles, Iᴬ, is the
number of copies of that allele divided by all the copies of the ABO gene in the
population. For a study in 2009 performed in the Philippine National Red Cross,
researchers found that a frequency of Iᴬ to be 25%, Iᴮ at 25.69%, Iᴬᴮ at 5.8%, and Iᴼ
at 43.51% of the alleles respectively, and all of the frequencies added up to 100 %.
A change in this frequency over time would establish evolution in the population.
The allele frequency within a specific population can change depending on

environmental factors; so, some alleles become more common than others during
the process of natural selection. Natural selection has the ability to alter the genetic
makeup of a population. An example is if a given allele confers a phenotype that
allows an individual to better survive or have more offspring. Because many of
those offspring will also carry the beneficial allele, and often the
72
corresponding phenotype, they will have more offspring of their own that also carry
the allele, thus, perpetuating the cycle. Over time, the allele will spread throughout
the population. Some alleles will quickly become fixed in this way, meaning that
every individual of the population will carry the allele, while detrimental mutations
may be swiftly eliminated if derived from a dominant allele from the gene pool, it is
the sum of all the alleles in a population.
Allele frequencies could also change randomly with no advantage to the population
compared to other existing allele frequencies, this phenomenon is called genetic
drift. Genetic drift along with natural selection usually occur simultaneously in
populations and they are not isolated events. It is hard to determine which process
rules because it is often nearly impossible to determine the cause of change in
allele frequencies at each occurrence. Founder effect is the term called for the
event that initiates a change in allele frequency in a population that is not typical of
the original population. Natural selection, genetic drift, and founder effects can lead
to noteworthy changes in a population's genome.
THE HARDY WEINBERG PRINCIPLE OF EQUILIBRIUM
The Hardy-Weinberg principle of equilibrium states that the allele and

genotypic frequency of a population will remain constant from generation to
generation, unless there’s a presence of disturbing factors. This was theorized by
English mathematician Godfrey Hardy and physician Wilhelm Weinberg; they
independently derived this principle in 1908. This principle assumes conditions
with no mutations, migration, emigration, or selective pressure for or against
genotype, plus an infinite population. Although there’s no such population that
could satisfy those conditions, the principle offers a useful guide against which to
compare real population changes.
With this theory as guide, population geneticists represent different alleles

as different variables in their mathematical models. The variable p, often represents
the frequency of a particular allele, for example, Y is the trait of yellow for the
Mendel’s peas, while the variable q represents the frequency of y alleles that confer
the color green. If these are the only two possible alleles for a given locus in the
population, p + q = 1. In other words, all the p alleles and all the q alleles comprise
all of the alleles for that locus in the population.
The frequencies of the resulting genotypes are known as the genetic structure of
the population, this can help biologists to make an assumption of the phenotypic
distribution. If only the phenotypes are observed, one can only know the
homozygous recessive allele’s genotype. The calculations provide an estimate of the
other genotypes. Since there are two alleles per gene, if we know the allele
frequencies (p and q), predicting the genotypes’ frequencies is a simple
mathematical calculation to determine the probability of obtaining these genotypes
if we draw two alleles at random from the gene pool. In the previous scenario, a pea
plant could be pp (YY), and thus produce yellow peas; pq (Yy) which is also yellow;
or qq (yy), and will produce green peas. In other words, the frequency of pp
individuals is simply p2; the frequency of pq individuals is 2pq; and the frequency
of qq individuals is q2. Again, if p and q are the only two possible alleles for a
73
given trait in the population, these genotypes frequencies will sum to one: p2 + 2pq
+ q2 = 1.
In accordance to the Hardy-Weinberg Principle, if a population is at equilibrium,

there are no evolutionary forces acting upon it—generation after generation would
have the same gene pool and genetic structure, and these equations would all hold
true all of the time. Though this is the condition for the Hardy-Weinberg principle,
the principle still recognize that there is no population that does not have
evolution. Populations in nature are constantly changing in genetic makeup due to
drift, mutation, possibly migration, and selection. To actually determine the exact
distribution of phenotypes in a population, the way is to go out and count them.
Because of the Hardy Weinberg principle, there is a mathematical baseline of a
non-evolving population to which scientist can compare evolving populations and
thereby infer baseline of a non-evolving population to which they can compare
evolving populations and thereby infer what evolutionary forces might be at play. If
the frequencies of alleles or genotypes deviate from the value expected from the
Hardy-Weinberg equation, then the population is evolving.
A population's individuals often display different phenotypes, or express different

alleles of a particular gene, which we refer as polymorphism, a population called
polymorphic has two or more variations of a particular characteristic. Population
variation, the distribution of phenotypes among individuals, is influenced by a
number of factors, such as population’s genetic structure and the environment.
The importance of understanding the phenotypic variation sources in a population
is determining how a population will evolve in response to different evolutionary
pressures.
GENETIC VARIANCE
Natural selection and some of the other evolutionary forces can only act on
heritable traits, an organism’s genetic code. Because alleles are passed from parent
to offspring, those that confer beneficial traits or behaviors may be selected, while
harmful alleles may not. Acquired traits, are not heritable, however, are not
heritable.
Heritability is the fraction of phenotype variation that we can attribute to genetic

differences, or genetic variance, among individuals in a population, with it being
greater in number in a population, there will be more chance for evolution.
Gene tic variance is the diversity of alleles in a population. It is importance to

maintain this genetic variance in a population. Inbreeding, the mating of closely
related individuals, can give undesirable effect of bringing together deadly recessive
mutations that can cause abnormalities and susceptibility to disease. This is why
in most countries, inbreeding is illegal. When there is greater genetic variance, the
likelihood of obtaining a rare, recessive allele that might exist in a population is
lower. When a family of carriers begins to interbreed with each other, this will
dramatically increase the likelihood of two carriers mating and eventually
producing diseased offspring, a phenomenon that scientists call inbreeding
depression. This is because recessive alleles might only manifest itself when there’s
two copies of that recessive allele.
74
THE MECHANISMS OF EVOLUTION:
GENETIC DRIFT
This theory came from the observation that some individuals in a population are
more likely to survive longer and have more offspring than others, thus, they will
pass on more of their genes to the next generation. For example, a male gorilla
who’s bigger and stronger will become a pack leader, the alpha. The alpha will get
to mate more than their underlings, who are smaller and weaker, so the alpha will
father more offspring. This will make the future generation of these gorillas to be
more powerful and bigger. This is because of the selection pressure, driving
selective force, were the only one acting on the population.
The gene pool is affected by genetic drift is

simply due to chance. A male organism could
father more offspring simply because they are
at the right place, at the right time (in the
presence of a receptive female).
Small populations are more affected by this

force; large populations are however not that
affected as there is a buffer against the effect of
chance. This force, unlike natural selection
does not choose which trait will benefit the
organisms more.
Natural disasters that kill at random a large

population, can magnify genetic drift, known as
the bottleneck effect. This result to suddenly
wiping out of a huge portion of the genome, an
organism’s complete set of genetic instructions.
The population’s entire genetic structure is
dependent of its survivors, which is very
different from the pre-disaster population.
Copyright © openstax image

75
Founder effect is when some portion of the population leaves to start a new
population in a new location or if a physical barrier divides a population. The
founder effect occurs when the genetic structure changes to match that of the new
population’s founding fathers and mothers.
GENE FLOW
Gene flow is another important

factor in evolution. Gene flow is the
flow of alleles in and out of a
population due to the migration of
individuals or gametes. For example,
many plants send their pollen far
and wide, through the wind or other
organisms (pollinators), to pollinate
other populations of the same
species from a distance. This
variable flow of individuals in and
Copyright © openstax image
out of the group not only changes the population's gene
structure, but it can also introduce new genetic variation to populations in different
geological locations and habitats.
MUTATION
Mutations are the changes that occur to an organism’s DNA and are very
important driver of diversity in populations. This enables organisms to change over
time. The appearance of new mutations is the most common way to introduce novel
genotypic and phenotypic variance. They could be either favorable or unfavorable,
though harmful ones are quickly eliminated by natural selection. Those beneficial
ones get to be spread through the population. Whether or not it is beneficial or
detrimental is determined by how it support an organism to survive to sexual
maturity and reproduce. Some mutations do not do anything and can linger,
unaffected by natural selection, in the genome. Some can have a dramatic effect on
a gene and the resulting phenotype.
NONRANDOM MATING
In this mechanism, an individual may either prefer to mate with others of the same
genotype or of different genotypes. One reason this occurs is because of mate
choice. For example, female peahens may prefer peacocks with bigger, brighter
tails. Natural selection picks traits that lead to more mating selections for an
individual. One common form of mate choice, called assortative mating, is an
individual’s preference to mate with partners who are phenotypically similar to
themselves.
76
ARTIFICIAL SELECTION
This mechanism is due to human intervention. Humans cause selection because

they select which phenotypes of organisms will be beneficial. This practice has been
used for so much in the human history, it was a factor that gave people to produce
crops and animals that are more efficient or have desirable traits, such as plants
that produce larger fruits and vegetables, or cows that produce more milk. It also
helps to eradicate some undesirable diseases.
RECOMBINATION
Genetic diversity can also arise from recombination of the DNA from two different
cells (via transformation, transduction, or conjugation). By transferring
advantageous alleles, such as ones for antibiotic resistance, genetic recombination
can promote adaptive evolution in prokaryotic populations.
NATURAL SELECTION
This is the most famous mechanism of evolution, and the most widely accepted
one. Natural selection is the reproduction of individuals with favorable genetic
traits that survive environmental change because of those traits, leading to
evolutionary change. This happens when an allele makes an organism have
beneficial or detrimental traits, and those traits that will be beneficial for an
organism’s survival and perpetuity will be chosen over the ones that are non-
beneficial or harmful. Allele that reduces an organism’s chance for survival and
reproduction gets eradicated over time.
ACTIVITIES
Activity 6.1
Choose the best possible answer.
1. When closely related individual mate with each other, or inbreed, the offspring are
often not as fit as the offspring of two unrelated individuals. Why?
a. Close relatives are genetically incompatible.
b. The DNA of close relatives reacts negatively in the offspring.
c. Inbreeding can bring together rare, deleterious mutations that lead to harmful
phenotypes.
d. Inbreeding causes normally silent alleles to be expressed.
2. The frequencies of the resulting genotypes are known as the ____________of the
population
a. genetic structure
b. gene pool
77
c. gene flow
d. genetic drift
3. The changes in a population’s genetic structure.
a. macroevolution
b. microevolution
c. bottleneck effect
d. allele frequency
4. When male lions reach sexual maturity, they leave their group in search of a new
pride. This can alter the allele frequencies of the population through which of the
following mechanisms?
a. natural selection
b. genetic drift
c. gene flow
d. random mating
5. _________________ is the effect of chance in a population
a. genetic drift
b. genetic structure
c. gene pool
d. nonrandom mating
Activity 6.2.
Matching type: Choose the best answer from the box

A. bottleneck effect B. allele frequency C. inbreeding depression
D. population genetics E. genetic drift F. gene pool
_______________1. rate at which a specific allele appears within a population
_______________2. The collection of all the alleles that the individuals in the
population carry
_______________3. study of how selective forces change the allele frequencies in a

population over time
_______________4. The effect of chance on a population’s gene pool
_______________5. increase in abnormalities and diseases due to inbreeding
_______________6. magnification of genetic drift as a result of natural events or

catastrophes
Activity 6.3
True or False. Write whether the statement is true or false.

____1. Microevolution is visible when the bigger beaks of finches are expressed more
over time because it can help their species survive better.
____2. It is common for populations to satisfy the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium.
78
____3. Natural selection can alter the traits of organisms in a population and create
new ones according to what will improve individuals’ survival and reproduction.
____4. Artificial selection is a new technology of the 21st century that produce change
in populations
____5. When an athlete acquires muscle strength, muscle density and agility, he can
pass it on his offspring.
WRAP-UP
Activity 6.4
1. Would genetic drift better be expressed and be quickly expressed on an island

compared to a mainland? Why?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
VALUING
Activity 6.5
Explain the phrase, “Survival of the fittest.”
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
79
POSTTEST
Choose which mechanism of evolution is displayed in these following scenarios.

A. Genetic Drift
B. Gene pool
C. Mutation
D. Nonrandom Mating
E. Artificial Selection
F. Recombination
G. Natural Selection
1. When a male rabbit happens to be in the presence of three female rabbits that
are in-heat, the male rabbit will father more children.
2. Philippine archipelago were inhabited by a group of people who travelled
through the land bridges 30,000 years ago during the glacial period.
3. Human intervention of a plant’s traits
4. Organisms with favorable traits for survival and reproduction tend to pass on
these alleles to their offspring.
5. A male lion who left the pride where his mother is to form a new pride.
KEY TO CORRECTION
B
G
E
A
A 6.A
POSTEST
5. F 5. C 5. A
B
4. F 4. E 4. C
B
D 3. F 3. D 3. B
A 2. F 2. F 2. A
C 1. T 1. B 1. D
PRETEST ACTIVITY 5.3 ACTIVITY 5.2 ACTIVITY 5.1
80
References
Reece, Jane B., Urry, Lisa A., Michael L. Cain, Steven A., Minorsky, Peter V. Wasserman, and Jackson
Robert B. 2011. Biology, Ninth Edition. San Francisco: Pearson.
Clark, Mary Ann, Choi, Jung, Douglas, Matthew 2018. Biology2e. Houston: openstax
Mechanisms of evolution. Retrieved February 11, 2021 from:

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/natural-selection/hardy-weinberg-
equilibrium/a/hardy-weinberg-mechanisms-of-evolution
81
General
Biology 2
12
Quarter 3
Module 7
Patterns of Descent with
Modification
82
Welcome to the General Biology 2 of Grade 12 Module 7 on Patterns of Descent with

Modification!
the module:

83
For the learner:
Welcome to the General Biology 2 Module 7 on Patterns of Descent with

Modifications!
The hand is one of the most symbolized part of the human body. It is often used to
depict skill, action and purpose. Through our hands we may learn, create and
accomplish. Hence, the hand in this learning resource signifies that you as a learner
is capable and empowered to successfully achieve the relevant competencies and
skills at your own pace and time. Your academic success lies in your own hands!
Expectation - These are what you will be able to know after

completing the lessons in the module
Pre-test - This will measure your prior knowledge and the

concepts to be mastered throughout the lesson.
Recap - This section will measure what learnings and skills

that you understand from the previous lesson.
Wrap Up- This section summarizes the concepts and

applications of the lessons.
Valuing-this part will check the integration of values in the

learning competency.
Post-test - This will measure how much you have learned from
the entire module. Ito po ang parts ng module
84
EXPECTATION
In the previous lesson, you have learned how different genetic mechanisms
change the gene and genotype frequencies and ultimately cause change in
populations. At the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. define species according to the biological species concept;

2. distinguish the various types of reproductive isolating mechanisms that can
lead to speciation;
3. discuss the different modes of speciation; and,
4. explain how evolution produce the tremendous amount of diversity among
organisms.
PRETEST
Directions: Read the statements/questions comprehensively and choose the letter of

the best answer. Write the answer on the separate sheet of paper.
1. Which of the following statements about biological species is(are) correct?
I. Biological species is a group of individuals whose members interbreed with
one another
II. Biological species are the model used for grouping extinct forms of life.
III. Members of biological species produce viable, fertile offsprings
A. I only
B. II only
C. I and III
D. II and III
2. The following isolating mechanisms prevent fertilization and formation of zygote
except
A. Temporal isolation
B. Hybrid breakdown
C. Gametic isolation
D. Ecological isolation
For numbers 3-5, use the following choices:

A. Allopatric speciation
B. Sympatric speciation
C. Parapatric speciation
3. Occurrence of abrupt genetic change cause reproductive isolation between
groups of individuals.
4. It occurs when populations are separated by a geographic barrier.
5. Abrupt change in the environment over a geographic border and strong
disruptive selection affects gene flow between neighboring populations.
85
RECAP
Activity 13.1. Word Problem
Direction: Solve using the Hardy-Weinberg equation.
Gaucher disease (GD) is a lysosomal storage disorder caused by the deficiency

of the β-glucocerebrosidase enzyme due to disease causing mutations in
the GBA1 (glucosidase beta acid) gene. This leads to the abnormal accumulation of
the lipid glucocerebroside in lysosomal macrophages. GD is a rare genetically
inherited trait that is only expressed in the phenotype of
homozygous recessive individuals (aa). The average human frequency of the disease
in the Philippines is only about 1 in 20,000.
LESSON
Attempts to define the concept of species date back to the Greek philosophers
Plato and Aristotle, who viewed the world as we know it as a flawed shadow of the
eternal and immutable world of ideas. Indeed, the word “species” originates from
the Latin “kinds” which is a translation of the Greek word eidos (idea). Ernst Mayr
played a central role in the establishment of the general concept of species as
metapopulation lineages, and he is the author of one of the most popular of the
numerous alternative definitions of the species category. According to him, “Species
are groups of interbreeding natural populations that are reproductively isolated from
other such groups.” Another definition based on George Gaylord Simpson, “species
is a lineage (an ancestral-descendant sequence of populations) evolving separately
86
from others and with its own unitary evolutionary role and tendencies.” Similarly,
according to Leigh Van Valen, “a species is a lineage (or a closely related set of
lineages) which occupies an adaptive zone minimally different from that of any other
lineage in its range and which evolves separately from all lineages outside its range.”
Let us take a look at Mayr’s definition, “populations that are reproductively
isolated from other such groups” and let us try to understand what it means and the
effect of isolation.
REPRODUCTIVE ISOLATING MECHANISMS
A. Pre-zygotic isolation mechanisms prevent fertilization and zygote formation.
1. Geographic or ecological or habitat isolation – potential mates occupy different

areas or habitats thus, they never come in contact. If two populations of flies exist
in the same geographical area, but one group lives in the soil and another lives
on the surface of the water, members of the two populations are very unlikely to
meet and reproduce.
2. Temporal or seasonal isolation – different groups may not be reproductively

mature at the same season, or month or year. Time is the barrier that prevents
species from interbreeding and producing sterile hybrids. Timing of the day when
they are sexually active, the best example will be that of the two fruit fly species.
Drosophila persimilis and Drosophila pseudoobscura. The D. persimilis species are
generally active in the early morning, D. pseduobscura is active in the afternoon.
3. Behavioral isolation – patterns of courtship are different. For example, male

fireflies of a variety of species signal to their female counterparts by flashing their
lights in specific patterns. Females will only respond to the signals flashed by
their own species, preventing them from mating with other closely related firefly
species.
4. Mechanical isolation – differences in reproductive organs prevent successful

interbreeding. It is caused by structures or that keep species isolated from one
another. For example, in flowering plants, the shape of the flower will tend to
match up with a natural pollinator. Plants that do not have the correct shape
for the pollinator will not receive a pollen transfer.
5. Gametic isolation – incompatibilities between egg and sperm prevent

fertilization. There is a couple of possible reasons why the egg and sperm cannot
unite in cases of gametic isolation. First, sperm and eggs have specific proteins
on their surfaces that allow the sperm to recognize the egg (and vice versa) and
these proteins differ from species to species. So, if two different species mate, the
sperm may be unable to recognize the egg. Another example of gametic isolation
happens when the sperm is unable to survive or will be less mobile in the
reproductive tract of a female from a different species.
87
B. Post-zygotic isolation mechanisms allow fertilization but nonviable or weak or
sterile hybrids are formed.
1. Hybrid inviability – fertilized egg fails to develop past the early embryonic
stages. When the zygote does form, but does not do so completely and usually
dies early in its life cycle.
2. Hybrid sterility – hybrids are sterile because gonads develop abnormally or

there is abnormal segregation of chromosomes during meiosis. When the zygote
does grow to become a hybrid or the offspring of two different species of
organisms, but the hybrid itself is unable to breed.
3. Hybrid breakdown - F1 hybrids are normal, vigorous and viable, but F2

contains many weak or sterile individuals. The hybrid is able to breed, but future
generations are not viable, sterile, or both.
Separate groups of organisms belonging to the same species may adapt in

different ways to better exploit diverse environments or resources. They also may
evolve varied characteristics for attracting mates. That is, different groups evolve in
different directions. Over time, these groups or populations may become so different
that they can no longer breed together--separate species are formed. One species
does not "turn into" another or several other species -- not in an instant, anyway.
The evolutionary process of speciation is how one population of a species changes
over time to the point where that population is distinct and can no longer interbreed
with the "parent" population. In order for one population to diverge enough from
another to become a new species, there needs to be something to keep the
populations from mixing. Often, a physical boundary divides the species into two (or
more) populations and keeps them from interbreeding. If separated for long enough
and presented with sufficiently varied environmental conditions, each population
takes its own distinct evolutionary path. Evolution does not stop once a species
becomes a species. Every population of living organisms is undergoing some sort of
evolution, though the degree and speed of the process varies greatly from one group
to another. Populations that experience a major change in environmental conditions,
whether that change comes in the form of a new predator or a new island to disperse
to, evolve much more quickly than do populations in a more stable set of conditions.
This is because evolution is driven by natural selection, and because when the
environment changes, selective pressures change, favoring one portion of the
population more heavily than it was favored before the change.
Speciation is how a new kind of plant or animal species is created. Speciation

occurs when a group within a species separates from other members of its species
and develops its own unique characteristics.
88
MODES OF SPECIATION
1. Allopatric speciation or geographic speciation (allo – other, patric – place; ‘other

place’) - occurs when some members of a population become geographically
separated from the other members thereby preventing gene flow. Examples of
geographic barriers are bodies of water and mountain ranges.
2. Peripatric speciation. As in allopatric speciation, physical barriers make it

impossible for members of the groups to interbreed with one another. The main
difference between allopatric speciation and peripatric speciation is that in peripatric
speciation, one group is much smaller than the other. Unique characteristics of the
smaller groups are passed on to future generations of the group, making those traits
more common among that group and distinguishing it from the others.
3. Parapatric speciation (para – beside, patric – place; ‘beside each other’) – occurs
when the groups that evolved to be separate species are geographic neighbors. Gene
flow occurs but with great distances is reduced. There is also abrupt change in the
environment over a geographic border and strong disruptive selection must also
happen.
4. Sympatric speciation (sym – same, patric – place; ‘same place’) - occurs when
members of a population that initially occupy the same habitat within the same range
diverge into two or more different species. It involves abrupt genetic changes that
quickly lead to the reproductive isolation of a group of individuals. Example is change
in chromosome number (polyploidization).
89
ACTIVITIES
ACTIVITY 13.2: Compare and contrast
Directions: Using the Venn Diagram, give similarities and difference of the types of
reproductive isolating mechanisms.
Pre-zygotic Post-zygotic
Activity 13.3: Complete the table.
Directions: Explain and give example for each type of reproductive isolating
mechanisms.
Pre-zygotic
Reproductive
Explanation Example
Isolating
Mechanisms
Habitat Isolation
Behavioral Isolation
Post-zygotic
Reproductive
Explanation Example
Isolating
Mechanisms
Hybrid inviability
Hybrid breakdown
90
Activity 13.4: Identification.
Directions: Give the type of isolating mechanism and tell whether it is pre-zygotic or
post-zygotic.
1. A group of bears were separated when the landmass they were living in split up.
One group eventually became black and brown bears, the other, polar bears.
Type- ____________________________ Pre/post -zygotic- ________________________

2. Horse and donkeys produce mules it is sterile.
3. In some bee populations, only large bees are big enough to unfold flower petals
and obtain nectar and pollen.
4. A cross between two fish species occurs but developmental only occurs up to the
16-cell stage.
5. Two parents produce a hybrid offspring that lives only a short time and dies.
WRAP–UP
Activity 13.5: Essay.
Direction: Explain your answer.
A common farming practice is to breed a female horse with a male donkey. The result
is a very robust animal – the mule. Most mules however are sterile, and therefore
cannot reproduce. Are horses and donkeys members of the same species? Justify
your answer.
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
91
VALUING
“It is not the strongest of the species that

survives, nor the most intelligent, but the
one most responsive to change”- Charles
Darwin
Activity 13.6. Essay
Directions: In a minimum of 5 sentences, expound the quote from the “Father of

Evolution.”
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
POST TEST
Direction: Read each question carefully and choose the correct answer from the
choices below.
A. Temporal isolation
B. Mechanical isolation
C. Gametic isolation
D. Allopatric speciation
E. Parapatric isolation
1. It occurs when the groups that evolved to be separate species are geographic
neighbors.
2. The differences in reproductive organs prevent successful interbreeding
3. The different groups may not be reproductively mature at the same season, or
month or year.
4. It occurs when some members of a population become geographically separated
from the other members thereby preventing gene flow.
5. It is the incompatibilities between egg and sperm prevent fertilization.
92
KEY TO CORRECTION
5. C
4. D
3. A
2. B
1. E
POSTTEST
post- zygotic Hybrid inviability- 5.

C 5. post-zygotic Hybrid inviability- 4.
A 4. pre-zygotic Mechanical isolation- 3.
B 3. post-zygotic Hybrid sterility- 2.
B 2. pre-zygotic Geographic isolation- 1.
C 1.
R E F E R E N CE S
n/a, OpenStax. Cell Cycle with Checkpoints. May 18, 2016. Photograph. Wikimedia
Commons. Wikimedia Commons.
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki.File:Cell_Cycle_With_Cyclins_and_Checkpoints
.jpg.
n/a, Zephyris. Schematic Presentation of the Cell Cycle. January 25, 2020.
Photograph. Wikimedia Commons. Wikimedia Commons.
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki.File:Cell_Cycle_2.svg.
CNX OpenStax. Biology. May 27, 2016. Photograph. Wikimedia Commons.

Wikimedia Commons.
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki.File:Figure_10_03_01.jpg.
Reece, Jane B., Lisa A. Urry, Michael L Cain, Steven A. Wasserman, Peter V.
Minorsky, and Robert B. Jackson. “The Cell.” Essay. In Campbell Biology, 9th
ed., 228–45. Boston, CA: Benjamin Cummings / Pearson, 2011.
Visconti, Roberta, Rosa Della Monica, and Domenico Grieco. “Cell Cycle Checkpoint
in Cancer: a Therapeutically Targetable Double-Edged Sword.” Journal of
Experimental & Clinical Cancer Research 35, no. 1 (September 27, 2016):
153–53. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13046-016-0433-9.
Zifan, Ali. A Diagram of Mitosis Stages. Photograph. Wikimedia Commons. Creative

Commons Attributions, June 26, 2016. Wikimedia Commons.
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki.File:Mitosis_Stages.svg.
93
General
Biology 2
12
Quarter 3
Module 8
Development of
Evolutionary Thought
94
Welcome to the General Biology 2 of Grade 12 Module 8 on Development of

Evolutionary Thought!
the module:

95
For the learner:
Welcome to the General Biology 2 Module 8 on Development of Evolutionary

Thought!
The hand is one of the most symbolized part of the human body. It is often used to
depict skill, action and purpose. Through our hands we may learn, create and
accomplish. Hence, the hand in this learning resource signifies that you as a learner
is capable and empowered to successfully achieve the relevant competencies and
skills at your own pace and time. Your academic success lies in your own hands!
Expectation - These are what you will be able to know after completing the
lessons in the module
Pre-test - This will measure your prior knowledge and the concepts to be
mastered throughout the lesson.
Recap - This section will measure what learnings and skills that you
understand from the previous lesson.
Wrap Up- This section summarizes the concepts and applications of the
lessons.
Valuing-this part will check the integration of values in the learning

competency.
Post-test - This will measure how much you have learned from the entire
module. Ito po ang parts ng module
96
EXPECTATION
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. enumerate the scientists and cite their respective contributions in the

development of evolutionary thought;
2. describe Jean Baptiste Lamarck’s hypothesis on evolutionary change; and
3. discuss Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection.
PRETEST
Directions: Read the statements/questions comprehensively and choose the letter of

the best answer. Write the answer on the separate sheet of paper.
1. Catastrophism, meaning the regular occurrence of geological or meteorological
disturbances (catastrophes), was Cuvier's attempt to explain the existence of __.
A. Evolution
B. The fossil record
C. Uniformitarianism
D. The origin of new species
2. Which of the following represents an idea that Darwin learned from the writings
of Thomas Malthus?
A. Technological innovation in agricultural practices will permit
exponential growth of the human population into the foreseeable
future.
B. Populations tend to increase at a faster rate than their food supply
normally allows.
C. Earth changed over the years through a series of catastrophic
upheavals.
D. The environment is responsible for natural selection.
3. Which of the following ideas is not included in Darwin’s theory?
A. All organisms that have ever existed arose through evolutionary
modifications of ancestral species.
B. The great variety of species live today resulted from the diversification
of ancestral species.
C. Natural selection drives some evolutionary change.
D. Natural selection eliminates adaptive traits.
4. Which of the following statements is not compatible with Darwin’s theory?
A. All organisms have arisen by descent with modification.
B. Evolution has altered and diversified ancestral species.
C. Evolution occurs in individuals rather than in groups
D. Natural selection eliminates unsuccessful variations.
97
5. Which of the following must exist in a population before natural selection can
act upon that population?
A. Genetic variation among individuals
B. Variation among individuals caused by environmental factors
C. Sexual reproduction
D. Three of the responses are correct
RECAP
Activity 8.1. Word hunt
98
LESSON
Douglas Futuyma defines evolution as “a change in the properties of groups

of organisms over the course of generations…it embraces everything from slight
changes in the proportions of different forms of a gene within a population to the
alterations that led from the earliest organism to dinosaurs, bees, oaks, and
humans.” “Evolution may be defined as any net directional change or any cumulative
change in the characteristics of organisms or populations over many generations—
in other words, descent with modification… It explicitly includes the origin as well as
the spread of alleles, variants, trait values, or character states” by John Endler and
in a very different vein, Leigh van Valen characterized evolution as “the control of
development by ecology;” this anticipates those who emphasize the importance of
development in evolution, including proponents of “evo-devo”.
Let us take a look at different evolutionary thoughts that lead to the definitions
of evolutions.
EVOLUTIONARY THOUGHTS CONTRIBUTORS
Carl Linnaeus was the famous 18th century Swedish

botanist and naturalist who created the basic
biological taxonomy — the so-called binomial classification
system — that is the foundation of our modern taxonomic
system. Linnaeus' classification, at its most basic, uses the
dual "genus, species," nomenclature to classify organisms —
everything from slime molds and bacteria to elephants and
humans. When Linnaeus finished his doctorate, he
published a brief pamphlet that would eventually
revolutionize the fields of biology and scientific taxonomy.
This "list" was written in Latin and was called Systema
Naturae ("The System of Nature"). It proposed a radical new
Figure 1. Cover page of
approach to the ordering and classification of plants and
Systema Naturae, published
animals. His system was hierarchically ranked, meaning that in 1756. Wikimedia.
organisms were grouped into successively larger groups
based on morphological traits (that is, physical attributes). At the broadest level, the
classification system was divided into three broad kingdoms: animals, plants and
minerals (the mineral designation was subsequently dropped). These categories were
further subdivided into increasingly specific designations, which included "classes,"
"orders," "genera," and "species." Linnaeus combined two terms, genus and species,
and used this combination to identify each particular organism. The species
designation, a term he borrowed from the English naturalist and parson John Ray,
indicates the most basic unit of classification, traditionally defined as organisms
capable of interbreeding. The genus designation (gens is Latin for "tribe") ranks above
99
species and designates the larger group of related organisms. For example,
a coyote (Canis latrans) is a different species from a wolf (Canis lupus), but both
belong to the same genus, Canis. This genus, in turn, could then be related to the
higher-order ranks, such as order (Carnivora), class (Mammalia) and so on, all the
way up to the highest rank, the kingdom ranking (Animalia).
Thomas Robert Malthus was born near Guildford, Surrey in February 1766.
Malthus' most well-known work, 'An Essay on the Principle of Population' was
published in 1798, although he was the author of many pamphlets and other longer
tracts including 'An Inquiry into the Nature and Progress of Rent' (1815) and
'Principles of Political Economy' (1820). Malthus first pointed out that human nature
being what it is, the passion between the sexes appears to be
fairly constant and, if unchecked population will double itself
every twenty-five years. "Population, when unchecked,
increases at a geometrical ratio. Subsistence increases only in
an arithmetical ratio. A slight acquaintance with numbers will
show the immensity of the first power in comparison with the
second." And this leads to Malthus’s principle of population.
Because of this unequal power between production and
reproduction, "population must always be kept down to the
level of the means of subsistence.” While Malthus was not the
first one to notice this, he was the first to inquire into the Figure 2. Georges Cuvier.
means by which this leveling of population is achieved. Wikimedia.
Georges Cuvier possessed one of the finest minds in history. Almost single-
handedly, he founded vertebrate paleontology as a scientific discipline and created
the comparative method of organismal biology, an incredibly powerful tool. It was
Cuvier who firmly established the fact of the extinction of past life forms. He
contributed an immense amount of research in vertebrate and invertebrate zoology
and paleontology, and also wrote and lectured on the history of science.
Catastrophism was a theory developed by Cuvier based on paleontological evidence
in the Paris Basin. He observed something peculiar about the fossil record, instead
of finding a continuous succession of fossils, he noticed several gaps where all
evidence of life would disappear and then abruptly reappear again after a notable
amount of time. Cuvier recognized these gaps in the fossil succession as mass
extinction events. This led to the formation of Theory of Catastrophism. It states that
natural history has been punctuated by catastrophic events that altered that way life
developed and rocks were deposited.
James Hutton (1726–1797), a Scottish farmer and naturalist, is known as

the founder of modern geology. He developed the theory of gradualism according to
which profound changes to the Earth, such as the Grand Canyon, are due to slow
continues process and not part of catastrophes as proposed by the Theory of
Catastrophism. Hutton described a universe, that one formed by a continuous cycle
in which rocks and soil are washed into the sea, compacted into bedrock, forced up
to the surface by volcanic processes, and eventually worn away into sediment once
again. Relying on the same methods as do modern field geologists, Hutton cited as
100
evidence a cliff at nearby Siccar Point, where the juxtaposition of vertical layers of
gray shale and overlying horizontal layers of red sandstone could only be explained
by the action of stupendous forces over vast periods of time. There Hutton realized
that the sediments now represented by the gray shale had, after deposition, been
uplifted, tilted, eroded away, and then covered by an ocean, from which the red
sandstone was then deposited. The boundary between the two rock types at Siccar
Point is now called the Hutton Unconformity. The fundamental force, theorized
Hutton, was subterranean heat, as evidenced by the existence of hot springs and
volcanoes.
Charles Lyell was a Scottish lawyer and the foremost geologist of his day. He
is best known as the author of Principles of Geology. It has popularized geologist
James Hutton’s concept of “uniformitarianism” — the idea that the Earth was shaped
by slow-moving forces still in operation today. Uniformitarian ideas opposed the
common belief among many geologists that unique catastrophes or supernatural
events, like the biblical flood in the story of Noah, shaped Earth’s surface. The motto
of uniformitarianism was “the present is the key to the past.” Lyell’s friend, Charles
Darwin, took that idea and extended it to biology. Lyell argued that the formation of
Earth's crust took place through countless small changes occurring over vast periods
of time, all according to known natural laws. His "uniformitarian" proposal was that
the forces molding the planet today have operated continuously throughout its
history. He also wrongly assumed that these causes must have acted only with the
same intensities now observed, which would rule out asteroid impacts and the like.
Jean Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829) is one of the best-known early

evolutionists. Unlike Darwin, Lamarck believed that living things evolved in a
continuously upward direction, from dead matter,
through simple to more complex forms, toward
human "perfection." Species didn't die out in
extinctions, Lamarck claimed. Instead, they
changed into other species. Since simple
organisms exist alongside complex "advanced"
animals today, Lamarck thought they must be
continually created by spontaneous generation.
According to Lamarck, organisms altered their
behavior in response to environmental change.
Their changed behavior, in turn, modified their
Figure 3. Giraffe stretching neck and legs to
organs, and their offspring inherited those
reach leaves. Wikimedia.
"improved" structures. For example, giraffes
developed their elongated necks and front legs by generations of browsing on high
tree leaves. The exercise of stretching up to the leaves altered the neck and legs, and
their offspring inherited these acquired characteristics. Conversely, in Lamarck's
view, a structure or organ would shrink or disappear if used less or not at all. Driven
by these heritable modifications, all organisms would become adapted to their
environments as those environments changed. “The frequent use of any organ, when
confirmed by habit, increases the functions of that organ, leads to its development
101
and endows it with a size and power which it does not possess in animals which
exercise it less.” Decreased use has the opposite effect: “The permanent disuse of an
organ, arising from a change of habits, causes a gradual shrinkage and ultimately the
disappearance and even extinction of that organ” Another contribution of Lamarck is
the Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics. If an organism changes
during life in order to adapt to its environment, those changes are passed on to
its offspring.
CHARLES DARWIN’S VOYAGE AND HIS OBSERVATIONS THAT LED HIM TO

WRITE “THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES”
In 1831, Charles Darwin received an astounding invitation: to

accompany Captain Robert FitzRoy of the
HMS Beagle as ship's naturalist for a trip around
the world. For most of the next five years,
the Beagle surveyed the coast of South America,
leaving Darwin free to explore the continent and
islands, including the Galápagos. He filled
dozens of notebooks with careful observations on
animals, plants and geology, and collected
thousands of specimens, which he crated and
sent home for further study. Darwin later called
Figure 4. HMS Beagle. Wikimedia.
the Beagle voyage "by far the most important
event in my life," saying it "determined my whole career." When he set out, 22-year-
old Darwin was a young university graduate, still planning a career as a clergyman.
By the time he returned, he was an established naturalist, well-known in London
for the astonishing collections he'd sent ahead. He had also grown from a promising
observer into a probing theorist. The Beagle voyage would provide Darwin with a
lifetime of experiences to ponder—and the seeds of a theory he would work on for
the rest of his life.
San Cristobal Island was the first island

Charles Darwin visited arriving to the Galapagos
on September 16th, 1835. The Beagle anchored
in a calm bay on the south of the island, near the
actual capital of the Galapagos. The Beagle spent
eight days surveying the coast. Darwin landed
five times pushed by his interest on the volcanic
and cratered island. He studied carefully the lava
flows and theorized about its formation. His first
impression of the dry coast he saw was of a
deserted and isolated place. He did not find the
tropical richness he expected, instead he
Figure 5. Galapagos Islands. Wikimedia. encountered desert plants, almost all-in flower,
and some reptiles that he pointed on his notes. In this island he had the chance to
collect the first specie that later on would be the base and foundation of his Theory
of Evolution, the San Cristobal Mockingbird. Floreana was the second island
102
explored by the Beagle expedition. Here Darwin had three days to collect species and
the second bird to lead him to important conclusions in the future, the Floreana
Mockingbird. He realized the difference in between the previous specimen found in
San Cristobal, and started to pay more attention to this specie. Later he would
discover the four species to be found in the archipelago and understand a pattern of
evolution due to the adaptation differences from each other according to the
environmental features of each island. Isabela was the third island to arrive in his
voyage on September 29th, 1835. The trip around the island and through the channel
in between Fernandina and Isabela was noted on his field book. Darwin described
the island as the most deserted and volcanically active. When sailing next to it, he
observed the lava flows and the smoke coming out from the craters. The Beagle
decided to anchor in a place named Tagus Cove because of the easy water bay this
place forms. Darwin disembarked on October 1st and explored the volcanic
terrain. Here he found the land of iguanas, both marine and terrestrial that to him
were ancient creatures that he describes more in Santiago visit. After Isabela, the
boat sailed around Pinta, Genovesa and Marchena, offering Darwin the chance to
admire the different formations. Santiago was the last island were Darwin
disembarked on October 8th. This is the island where Darwin stayed the longest, by
this time, he knew already that the islands were something bigger and more
important than they seemed when he first arrived. On his visit he expends 2 weeks
and walked the whole island with some crew members that helped him carrying the
specimens he was collecting. Here he first noticed the difference in between
the tortoises from different islands with his own eyes; he was impressed by the
amount of tortoises, which had different shapes and sizes. He wrote a big deal of
characteristics of their behavior and also had the chance to try their meat in soup.
In this island Darwin noticed that most species were similar but different from other
in the other islands, giving enough evidence to theorize that species change and this
is related to their feeding and surroundings. He collected finches that helped him to
understand this resolution. These animals are now considered the world’s fastest
evolving birds because of the adaptations they rapidly developed to cope with their
needs in such a changing environment.
Charles Darwin’s theory argued that organisms gradually evolve

through a process he called “natural selection.” In na tural selection,
organisms with genetic variations that suit their environment tend to
propagate more descendants than organisms of the same species that lack
the variation, thus influencing the overall genetic makeup of the species.
Darwin, who was influenced by the work of French naturalist Jean-Baptiste
de Lamarck and the English economist Thomas Malthus, acquired most of
the evidence for his theory during a five-year surveying expedition aboard
the HMS Beagle in the 1830s. Visiting such diverse places a s the Galapagos
Islands and New Zealand, Darwin acquired an intimate knowledge of the
flora, fauna, and geology of many lands. This information, along with his
studies in variation and interbreeding after returning to England, proved
invaluable in the development of his theory of organic evolution. Darwin had
formulated his theory of natural selection by 1844, but he was wary to reveal
103
his thesis to the public because it so obviously
contradicted the biblical account of creation. In 1858,
with Darwin still remaining silent about his findings,
the British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace
independently published a paper that essentially
summarized his theory. Darwin and Wallace gave a
joint lecture on evolution before the Linnean Society
of London in July 1858, and Darwin prepared On the
Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection for
publication. Published on November 24, 1859, Origin Figure 6. Cover of Origin of
of Species sold out immediately. Most scientists Specie by Natural
quickly embraced the theory that solved so many Selection. Wikimedia
puzzles of biological science, but orthodox Christians

condemned the work as heresy.
ACTIVITIES
ACTIVITY 8.2: Compare and contrast
Directions: Using the Venn Diagram, give similarities and difference of two theories.
Natural Artificial
Selection Selection
Directions: Read the following situations below and identify the 5 points of Darwin’s
natural selection.
There are 2 types of worms: worms that eat at night (nocturnal) and worms that eat
during the day (diurnal). The birds eat during the day and seem to be eating ONLY
the diurnal worms. The nocturnal worms are in their burrows during this time. Each
spring when the worms reproduce, they have about 500 babies but only 100 of these
500 ever become old enough to reproduce.
104
Darwin's 5 points: Identify the 5 points in the given scenario.
Population has variations. _______________________________________________________
Some variations are favorable. ___________________________________________________
More offspring are produced than survive. ________________________________________
Those that survive have favorable traits. __________________________________________
A population will change over time. _______________________________________________

Directions: Match the vocabulary word with the proper definition.
_____1. Change in species over time.
_____2. One of the first scientists to propose that species change over time
_____3. Ship on which Darwin served as naturalist
_____4. his theory of evolution unifies all of biology
_____5. the process by which evolution occurs
_____6. argued that human populations grow faster than the resources they depend
on
_____7. small volcanic islands where Darwin made many important observations
_____8. selecting for plants and animals with useful traits
_____9. argued that gradual geological processes have gradually shaped Earth’s
surface.
_____10. states that traits an organism develops during its own life time can be
passed on to offspring
_____11. developed a theory of evolution at the same time as Darwin
_____12. an organism’s relative ability to survive and produce fertile offspring
a. Artificial selection g. inheritance of acquired characteristics
b. Darwin h. Lamarck
c. Evolution i. Lyell
d. Fitness j. Malthus
e. Galapagos Islands k. natural selection
f. HMS Beagle l. Wallace
WRAP–UP
Activity 8.5: Essay.
Direction: Explain your answer.
Living things that are well adapted to their environment survive and
reproduce. Those that are not well adapted don’t survive and reproduce. An
adaptation is any characteristic that increases fitness, which is defined as the ability
to survive and reproduce. What characteristic of the mice is an adaptation that
increased their fitness?
105
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
VALUING
“Natural selection will not remove

ignorance from future generations.”-
Richard Dawkins
Activity 8.6. Essay
Directions: In a minimum of 5 sentences, expound the quote.

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
POSTTEST
Direction: Read each question carefully and choose the correct answer from the
choices below.
1. Who argued that human populations grow faster than the resources they
depend on?
A. Thomas Malthus C. Jean Baptiste Lamarck
B. Charles Lyell D. Alfred Russel Wallack
2. One of the first scientists to propose that species change over time was ___.
A. Charles Darwin C. Jean Baptiste Lamarck
B. Charles Lyell. D. Alfred Russel Wallace
106
3. Where did Darwin make some of his most important observations that helped
him develop his theory?
A. England C. South Africa
B. the Galápagos Islands D. South America
4. Natural selection states that ___.
A. a change in a species occurs over time
B. nature selects the variations within a species that are most useful for
survival
C. fitness is an organism’s ability to survive and produce fertile offspring.
D. all of the above
5. Marine iguanas (Amblyrhynchus cristatus) are found only on the Galápagos
Islands, which are located off the coast of Ecuador. These lizards are unique
in that they forage for food in the ocean. Compared to land iguanas, marine
iguanas have certain adaptations that allow them to survive in their coastal
habitat. These adaptations include a long, flattened tail used for swimming
and dense leg bones that give the iguanas stability underwater. Scientists
believe the land-dwelling ancestors of the marine iguana floated on vegetative
debris from Central America to the Galápagos Islands about 4.5 million years
ago. Based on the information given above, which of the following is most likely
true about the ancestry of the marine iguana?
A. Iguanas with acquired characteristics for swimming were better able to
escape from predators and were therefore more reproductively successful.
B. The ancestral iguana population had many more individuals with
adaptations for swimming than individuals without these adaptations.
C. Iguanas with phenotypes that were better suited for swimming were able
to exploit a novel food source, so they left more surviving offspring over
time.
D. The iguanas needed to survive in an ocean environment when they arrived
on the Galápagos Islands, so they developed adaptive phenotypes over
time.
107
KEY TO CORRECTION
5. B
4. D
3. B
2. D
1. A
POSTTEST
12. C J 6.
11. L D 5.
A 5. 10. G B 4.
C 4. 9. I F 3.
D 3. 8. A H 2.
B 2. 7. E K 1.
B 1.
R E F E R E N CE S
n/a, OpenStax. Cell Cycle with Checkpoints. May 18, 2016. Photograph. Wikimedia
Commons. Wikimedia Commons.
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki.File:Cell_Cycle_With_Cyclins_and_Checkpoints.jpg.
n/a, Zephyris. Schematic Presentation of the Cell Cycle. January 25, 2020.
Photograph. Wikimedia Commons. Wikimedia Commons.
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki.File:Cell_Cycle_2.svg.
CNX OpenStax. Biology. May 27, 2016. Photograph. Wikimedia Commons.
Wikimedia Commons. commons.wikimedia.org/wiki.File:Figure_10_03_01.jpg.
Reece, Jane B., Lisa A. Urry, Michael L Cain, Steven A. Wasserman, Peter V.
Minorsky, and Robert B. Jackson. “The Cell.” Essay. In Campbell Biology, 9th ed.,
228–45. Boston, CA: Benjamin Cummings / Pearson, 2011.
Visconti, Roberta, Rosa Della Monica, and Domenico Grieco. “Cell Cycle Checkpoint
in Cancer: a Therapeutically Targetable Double-Edged Sword.” Journal of
Experimental & Clinical Cancer Research 35, no. 1 (September 27, 2016):
153–53. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13046-016-0433-9.
Zifan, Ali. A Diagram of Mitosis Stages. Photograph. Wikimedia Commons. Creative

Commons Attributions, June 26, 2016. Wikimedia Commons.
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki.File:Mitosis_Stages.svg.
108

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General

For the facilitator:

Welcome to the General Biology 2 of Grade 12 Module 4 on Earth Geologic Time

Notes to the Teacher

Welcome to the General Biology 2 Module 3 on Earth Geologic Time Scale!

This module has the following parts and corresponding icons:

Expectation - These are what you will be able to know after

Pre-test - This will measure your prior knowledge and the

Recap - This section will measure what learnings and skills

Activities - This is a set of activities you will perform.

Wrap Up- This section summarizes the concepts and

1. Identify the different geologic time scale.

A. Existence of the first photosynthetic organism

________2. It is establish using the evidences from the sequence of fossils

A. Microevolution B. Geologic Time Scale C. Fossil records D. Strata

________3. he longest portions of geologic time.

________4. It is a unit of geological time during which a rock series is deposited.

_______5. It refers to the basic unit of the geologic time scale.

In the latter part of the Precambrian eons, single-celled and simple

1. The Paleozoic Era

Permian Period 300 – 250 million years ago

2. The Mesozoic Era

150 -65 million years ago

Quaternary 2 million years ago -

_____ Hadean, Archaean, and Proterozoic A. Paleozoic

_____ Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous B. Cenozoic

_____ Tertiary and Quaternary C. Precambrian

_____ Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Mesozoic

evonian, Carboniferous, and Permian E. Phanerozoic

______ Paleozoic era, Mesozoic era, and Cenozoic era

My chosen word is: ______________________________________________________________

I know that I know

Activity 4.4. Answer the following questions.

Activity 4.5. What do you think!

A. Eon B. Eras C. Period D. Epoch

________4. The Geologic Time Scale is a record of what?

B. the known history of rocks and fossils

A. Cambrian B. Cretaceous C. Triassic D, Permian

For the Facilitator:

Welcome to the General Biology 2 Self-Learning Module on The Early Earth

This Self-Learning Module was collaboratively designed, developed and

Notes to the Teacher

Welcome to the General Biology 2 Self-Learning Module on The Early Earth

This module has the following parts and corresponding icons:

Expectations - This points to the set of knowledge and skills

Pretest - This measures your prior knowledge about the lesson

Recap - This part of the module provides a review of concepts

Lesson - This section discusses the topic in the module.

Activities - This is a set of activities that you need to perform.

Wrap-Up - This section summarizes the concepts and

Valuing - This part integrates a desirable moral value in the

The Early Earth’s Atmosphere and How Life on Earth Started

The planet Earth formed about 4.6

This extreme bombardment on Earth came to an end about 4 BYA, this

Observations and experiments in chemistry, geology, and physics have led

The Synthesis of Organic Compounds on Early Earth

Abiotic Synthesis of Macromolecules

For example, vesicles can form spontaneously when lipids

On the molecular level of natural selection, ribozymes capable of self-

Fossil Evidence of Early Life and the Early Single-Celled Organisms

The study of fossils has helped the geologist to establish a geologic

Early cyanobacteria are the one of the major

The Emergence of Eukaryotic Cells and the Endosymbiotic Theory