PROJECT MANAGEMENT

INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT MANAGEMENT

MEANING OF TERMS PROJECT AND PROJECT MANAGEMENT
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD PROJECT
TYPES OF PROJECTS
IMPORTANCE OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT
PRINCIPLES OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT
ROLE OF COMMUNITY IN PROJECT MANAGEMENT
ROLE OF PROJECT MANAGER

PROJECT MANAGEMENT CYCLE

PROJECT MANAGEMENT CYCLE
THEORIES OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT CYCLE

PROJECT IDENTIFICATION
MEANING OF PROJECT IDENTIFICATION
SOURCES OF PROJECT IDEAS
FACTORS INFLUENCING SELECTION OF COMMUNITY PROJECTS
METHODS USED IN PROJECT IDENTIFICATION
CHALLENGES IN PROJECT IDENTIFICATION

PROJECT PLANNING AND DESIGNING

MEANING OF TERMS PROJECT PLANNING AND PROJECT DESIGN

STEPS IN PROJECT PLANNING
FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN PROJECT PLANNING AND DESIGN
PROJECT PLANNING TECHNIQUES
PROJECT LOGICAL FRAMEWORK / PLANNING MATRIX

PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT

CONCEPT OF RISK MANAGEMENT

RISK ANALYSIS
PERFORMING RISK ANALYSIS
MANAGING RISKS
PERFORMING RISK MANAGEMENT
IMPLEMENTING RISK MANAGEMENT

PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION

MEANING OF PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION

FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
ROLE OF PROJECT MANAGER IN PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
PROCUREMENT AND CONTRACTING PROCEDURES
CHALLENGES IN PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION

PROJECT MONITORING
MEANING OF PROJECT MONITORING
CHARACTERISTICS OF APPROPRIATE MONITORING SYSTEM
IMPORTANCE OF MONITORING SYSTEM
STAKEHOLDERS PERSPECTIVES OF MONITORING
CHALLENGES IN MONITORING PROJECTS

PROJECT EVALUATION

MEANING OF PROJECT EVALUATION

PROJECT PERFORMANCE INDICATORS
STEPS IN PROJECT EVALUATION
TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES IN PROJECT EVALUATION
CHALLENGES IN PROJECT EVALUATION

PROJECT APPRAISAL

MEANING OF PROJECT APPRAISAL

COMPONENTS OF PROJECT APPRAISAL
TECHNIQUES USED IN PROJECT APPRAISAL
CHALLENGES IN PROJECT APPRAISAL

PROJECT TERMINATION
MEANING OF PROJECT TERMINATION
WAYS OF TERMINATING A PROJECT
IMPACT OF PROJECT TERMINATION
CHALLENGES OF PROJECT TERMINATION

PROJECT SUSTAINABILITY
MEANING OF PROJECT SUSTAINABILITY
REASONS FOR SUSTAINING PROJECTS
FACTORS THAT LEAD TO PROJECT FAILURE
FACTORS THAT LEAD TO PROJECT SUSTAINABILITY
PROJECT SUSTAINABILITY OPTIONS
CHALLENGES IN PROJECT SUSTAINABILITY

REPORT WRITING
MEANING OF PROJECT REPORT
FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN PROJECT REPORT WRITING
FORMAT OF PROJECT REPORT
IMPORTANCE OF PROJECT REPORT PRESENTATION
CHALLENGES FACED IN PROJECT REPORT WRITING

COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN PROJECT MANAGEMENT

COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN NEEDS ASSESSMENT
COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN DECISION MAKING
COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN RESOURCE MOBILIZATION
COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN MANAGING PROJECTS

EMERGING TRENDS IN PROJECT MANAGEMENT

EMERGING TRENDS IN PROJECT MANAGEMENT

TOPIC I: INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT MANAGEMENT

A project is the work performed by an organization one time to produce a unique outcome.
Examples are building a new house, developing new social work application, creating a new
radio advert/commercial
In contrast to the operation of an organization this is ongoing, repetitive set of activities that
sustain the organization. Examples of ongoing operations include processing customer orders,
executing the daily manufacturing order and performing routine accounting activity.
Comparing projects and operations
Features Projects Operations
Key Planned, executed and controlled Planned, executed and
similarities Planned by people controlled
Resource constrained Performed by people
Resource constrained
Purpose Attain objectives and terminate Sustaining the organization
Time Temporary i.e. definite beginning and end Ongoing
points
Outcome Unique product, service or result Non unique product, service or
results
People Dynamic temporary teams perform to meet Functional teams generally
project needs. Generally not aligned with aligned with organizational
organizational structure. structure
Authority of Varies by organizational structure. Generally Generally formal, direct line
manager minimal, if any , direct line authority authority.

Project management
Project management means the following:-
(a).Applying both the science and art to planning, organizing, implementing, leading and
controlling the work of the project to meet the goals and objectives of the organization.
(b). Means the process of defining a project, developing a plan, executing the plan, monitoring
progress against the plan, overcoming obstacles, managing risks and taking corrective actions.
(c). The process of managing the competing demands and trade offs between the desired results
of the project (right scope, performance, quality) and the natural constraints of the project (time
and cost).
(d). The process of leading a team that had never worked together before to accomplish
something that has never been done before in a given amount of time with a limited amount of
money.
Project management process involves the following
Initiating; authorizing the project of phase
Planning; defining and refining objectives of the project and selecting the best course of action
to attain those objectives.
Executing; coordinating the people and resources to implement the plan.
Controlling; ensuring project objectives are met by monitoring and measuring progress
regularly to identify variances from the plan so that corrective actions can be taken.
Closing; formalizing acceptance of project and phase and bringing to an orderly end.

The importance of project management

1. Maximizes the innovative and creative capabilities of the organization by creating
environments of focus and open communication.
2. Provides a controlled way to rapidly respond to changing market conditions under new
strategic opportunity.
3. Allows organization to accomplish more with less cost
4. Enables better balance of both internal and external expertise.
5. Increases the pace and level of stakeholders acceptance for any strategic change.
6. Reduces financial losses by killing off poor project investments early in their life cycles.
7. Provides key information and visibility on project matrix to enable better management and
decision making.
Project challenges
The key reasons why projects are challenging to manage are as follows:-
(a). Unchartered territory; project is unique and the work to be done has never been done
before by these group of people in this particular environment.
(b). Multiple expectations; project has multiple stakeholders that have their needs and
expectations from the project.
(c). Communication obstacles; due to natural organizational boundaries, communication
channels and team development stages. Communication of project information must be
proactively managed to ensure proper flow.
(d). Balancing the competing demands; every project is defined to produce one or more
deliberables (scope) within a defined period (time) under an approved budget (cost) within a
specified set of resources. In addition, the deliberables must achieve a certain performance level
(quality) and meet the approval of key stakeholders (expectations). Each of the factors can affect
the others.
(e). Cutting edge; often, projects have a strategic, innovative focus. As a result, they will often
deal with new, leading edge technologies. In these cases, the project has more risks, more
unknowns and is much more difficult to estimate accurately.
(f). Organizational impact; project manager must also manage overlaps in organizational
approvals and accurately domains, contend with competing priorities for shared resources etc.
(g). Collaboration; the project team will consist of stakeholders across the organization from
different functional areas that are likely not accustomed for working together for project success,
these different stakeholders must learn to work together and understand others perspective in
order to make the best decisions for the project. Often the project manager plays a key
facilitating role in this collaboration process.
(h). Estimating the work; estimating project work is difficult, yet the time and cost dimensions
of the project are built upon these; work effort estimates and given the fact that the project is
often unique, it is difficult to estimate the work.
Types of projects
Projects can be classified under 4 main headings:
1. Civil engineering, construction, petro – chemical, mining and quarrying.
These are industrial projects which inc
ur special risks. They often require massive capital investment. The organization and
communications are therefore likely to be complicated by the participation of many different
specialists and constructors with the main players acting together as a consortium or joint venture
company.
2. Manufacturing projects aim to produce a piece of equipment or machinery, aircraft,
land vehicle or some other item of specially designed hardware.
The finished product might be purpose built for a single customer or the project could be
generated and funded from within a company fro the design and development of a new project
intended for subsequent manufacture and safe quality.
Manufacturing projects are usually conducted in a factory or other home based environment but
sometimes can also involve work away from home based e.g. restallation of a factory machine.
A consortium of companies may also be involved in case of a complex project, with all the
consequent problems of risk, contractual difficulties, communication, co ordination and control.
3. Management projects
Arises when companies relocate their headquarters, develop and introduce a new computer
system, launch a marketing campaign, prepare for a trade exhibition, produce a feasibility or
other study report, restructure the organization and so on, that produce an end result that is not
identifiable, principally as an item of hardware or construction.
4. Research projects
Pure research projects can on the other hand consume vast amounts of money and last for many
years, but yield no practical results. Although in many cases they sometimes involve in
grammatically resulting discovery. Research projects carry the highest risks because they are
attempting to constrain boundaries of current knowledge. The project objectives are usually very
difficult or impossible to define and therefore the project management methods as applied to
industrial, manufacturing or management projects may not be applicable.
Some form of control over research projects must however be attempted. Budgets have to be
setting line with available funding and expenditure control to some extent by conducting regular
management reviews and re-assessments and by authorizing and releasing funds in periodic,
controlled and carefully considered steps.
The primary project objectives
The primary objectives of any project can be grouped under:
1. Specification, performance and quality
The end result of any project must be fit for the purpose for which it was intended. The project
owner and all the other principle stakeholders must be satisfied with the result of the finished
project.
2. Budget
The project must be completed without exceeding the authorized expenditure. Failure to
complete within the authorized project will reduce profits and return on capital invested, with
risk of a more serious financial outcome in extreme cases. There are many projects of course
where there are no direct profit motives. For example, pure scientific research programs,
charitable works etc. However, even for these kinds of projects, proper attention to cost budgets
and financial management is vital.
3. The time to completion
Actual progress must match or beat plan progress. All significant stages of the project must take
lace not later than their specified dates, to result in total completion on or before the planned
finish date.

Characteristics of a good project

Projects are characterized by the following properties:
1. Projects are ad - hoc; endeavors with a clear life cycle; they are temporary operations.
2. Projects are building blocks in the design and execution of organizational strategies.
Projects are the vehicles for realizing company goals e.g. a pharmaceutical can
commission a project to undertake research on the effectiveness of its product.
3. Projects are responsible for the newest and most improved products, services and
organization processes. Projects are tools for innovations.
4. Projects provide philosophy and strategy for management of change.
5. Project management contains crossing functional and organizational boundaries. Projects
bring together people from various functions across the company e.g. engineering,
marketing, designs etc. It also brings together many companies in collaboration to
undertake a certain activity.
The traditional management functions are planning; organizing, motivation, directing and control
apply to project management. The principal’s outcomes of a project are the satisfaction of
customer requirement within the constraints of technical costs and schedule objectives.
Projects are terminated upon the completion of performance objectives. They are initiated,
completed and dissolved.

Differences between process management and project management

Process Project
Repeat process or product New process product
Several objectives One objective
Ongoing One short limited life
People are homogenous People are heterogeneous
Well established place system to System must be created to integrate efforts
integrate efforts
Greater certainty of performance, cost and Greater certainty of performance, cost and
schedule schedule
Part of line organization Out of line organization
Supports established practice/support status Violates established practices/ upset status quo
quo

Roles of Manager in project management

A project manager is the person who takes overall responsibilities for coordinating a project
regardless of its size to ensure desired and results come in time and within the budget.
Responsibilities
1. Provides direction to the project team
2. Leads the project team through the project management process including creating and
executing project plan.
3. Seeks and obtains approval for the project plan form the appropriate authorities
4. Issues status reports on the progress of the project and the plans
5. Responds to requests and suggestions for alterations or changes to the plans
6. Remains effectively team developer, managing the team building process and resolving the
problems that ma arise between the team during project implementation.
7. Removes obstacles for the team to enable it complete project execution on time.
8. Acts as the co ordinate point for the project donors
9. Acts as the coordinate point for the project beneficiaries
10. Responsible for the project monitoring and evaluation
11. Prepares and dispatches the final project report
12. Accountable for the overall success of the project.
Roles of the Community in project management
1. Providing constant feedback to the project implementation on the basis of the project relies to
them.
2. Review and approves the project contracts
3. Where appropriate they are represented in a project team or form local project committees to
monitor and advice accordingly.
4. They inform project leaders on any changes in environment that could affect the project
implementation
5. They approve proposed changes to the project development as may become necessary.
6. They review project progress and financial reports
7. They provide feedback to the project leader on regular basis
8. They allocate the final output as well as the project implementation process
9. Provide the project team with a clear picture of their needs and requirements.
10. Review and approve the project charter (written statements of organization, beliefs, rights
and purpose).

TOPIC II: THE PROJECT MANAGEMENT CYCLE

Refers to the series of activities involved in completing project activities. They have a beginning,
middle and their ending period.
Basically there are 3 broad phases in which the various stages can be grouped. They include:-
1. Pre – authorization phase; it is the time when the project is identified
2. Post – authorization phase; all the materials are availed and the work begins
3. Output generation phase; sis when the project is completed and the benefits are achieved.

The project cycle

Refers to the beginning, middle and lower phase. They include the following:-
Need identification; is when the people’s needs or what they opt to is identified.
Objectives; questions such as why the particular project and what it is for is answered.
Planning; budgeting is done, it involves identification of resources (both human and financial
materials) and how much they will cost.
Scheduling also takes place and this involves planning when each activity is expected to take
place.
Feasibility study is also carried out during the plan; involves finding out how workable the
project can be.
Execution (management) or implementation
Involve the following
i. Allocation of these resources
ii. Directing the resources
iii. Coordinating the resources
Monitoring and control; performance is compared with goals i.e. the set of standards, budget
and schedules. This involves solving problems and reporting on the progress.
Evaluation; involves observing progress and suggesting alternatives and making follow ups.
Project planning
Many projects fail due to lack of proper plans and co ordinations; project executed without clear
plans end up wasting more time and resources than otherwise.
A clear project plan will seek to answer the following fundamental questions
i. What is the goal?
ii. What exactly do we aim to produce?
iii. Who needs it/for whom do you produce it to?
iv. Who is going to perform what role in project implementation?
v. How long will it take?
vi. How much will it cost?
vii. What might go wrong i.e. what ere the possible risks?
viii. How can these potential problems and risks be avoided?
What are some of the problems a project manager can face in working with the community?

Theories of Project management (theory X and Y)

According to Hope and Timmel, Mc Gregor theory of management which (involve theory X and
Y) can be a helpful framework to highlight differences of theories of management.
Mc Gregor says that there are 2 theories of management both dealing with how to organize
people. Each is based on a certain way of looking at people and understands human nature and
assumption about motivating and mobilizing people.
Theory X (conventional/traditional theory)
It has the following beliefs/assumptions of human nature
a. The average person is by nature lazy and given chance will work at little as possible
b. The average person likes ambition, dislikes responsibility and prefers to be led. Therefore
the average person is inherently self centered and indifferent to organizational goal.
c. The average person is by nature resistant to change
d. The average person is not very bright and can easily be led by a dictator.
The theory states that:-
 Management organizes the elements of production (money, materials, equipment and
people)
 Management organizes production of the end product (particular). People need to be
motivated and controlled.
 People need to change their behaviour to meet the need of the organization
 People must therefore be controlled, punished, supervised and rewarded.
According to theory X, the organization is build like a pyramid with few people on top
controlling the organization. This is known as bureaucratic hierarchy.
The workers at the lower level of the hierarchy are expected to receive instructions from the top
management precisely and silently do their work upon demand as required of them. The top
management is the sole decision makers with the sole responsibility to decide about critical
matters.
N/B: There is need here for control and supervision.
Theory Y (modern new perspective model)
It has the following beliefs/assumptions about the human nature which are the opposite of theory
X.
1) Organization is built on relationships which have similar goals and interests.
2) Authority and decision making on different issues rests with different groups of people
because of their interests and skills.
3) The groups of people more often communicate on a horizontal basis rather than top
down.
4) Decisions are taken by people who are most affected by that decision.
5) Managers coordinate the work of different groups and help those groups to solve their
problems by bringing them together.
6) People like work just like children like playing
7) People like taking initiatives as they seek self responsibility.
8) People assume responsibility gladly if conditions are favourable
9) People do not require close and strict supervision for performing their work.
The theory therefore states the following:-
 Management can be organized in such a way that decisions can be shared involving al
those who have the knowledge, skills and responsibility.
 People aren’t by nature passive or resistant to organizational needs and goals. They have
become so as a result of previous experience in their educational institutions and other
organizations.
 The motivation ability and the readiness capacity to direct one’s energy to meet aims of
the organization are all present with the people.
 Managers are actually coordinators to arrange the best materials and conditions within the
organization to achieve the goals.
N/B: The workers’ goals are similar and linked to organizational goals.
Douglas Mc Gregor’s theory X and theory Y represents 2 extremes within which the
organizational man is seen to behave.
No man would belong completely to either theory X or Y
Neither of the two is fully applicable in all situations and to types of human beings.

TOPIC III: PROJECT IDENTIFICATION

Projects are borne out of problems i.e. they are borne when some one reacts to some level of
problems. The project generation process should always start with identification of need,
problems as constraints as the basis for initiating development agenda.
Project initiation should be seen as establishment of:-
  Unsatisfied needs and the most effective means to get them.
 Problems or constraints in the development process due to shortages of essential facilities
– services or materials or human resources and other obstacles to development.
 Unused or underutilized resource and opportunities for their conversion towards more
productive uses.
 The need to complement other existing investments.

Sources of project ideas

Project ideas generally originate from multiple sources
 From within the country or from the international development community.
 From the family or private sectors
 From the national or regional plans of strategies
 From beneficiary agencies
Project ideas from internal sources
 Response from the government initiative e.g. taking an advantage of an opportunity
created or prepared.
 Government desire to respond to a local social pressure e.g. to correct inequalities in the
distribution of income and development as a whole.
 External threat e.g. an attempt to be self reliant in food, power generation. Wealth supply
etc.
 Desire to create local permanent development capability e.g. institution for development.
Project ideas from external sources
 Investments or decisions from international forum
 Influence or strategies and investment patterns from other developed countries
 Pressure and opinion from international community
 Influence from multi lateral and professional advice

Prioritization of problems and needs

 Problems/needs may not be solved or be met all at the same time. Project implementation
resources are always in limited supply and therefore it will always be necessary to
privatize and address them in time.
 The initiation phase ends with the management decision whether to go ahead with the
project identification or not.The overall purpose of the initiation phase is to provide
direction to the project team about what should be accomplished and what constraints
underlying it.
 The output of these stages (charter) which is an official document telling the age and
principle of an organization also known as project agreement.
 The initiation phase is the responsibility of the project sponsor but in most organizations,
the project teacher writes the charter document and then has the sponsor approve it.
 Charter may be seen as project agreement or project implementation contract usually
drawn from the donor and the project implementer. This is usually based on the project
proposed document submitted to the donor for the fundraising purposes.
 The project proposal is basically the statement of purpose; justification, implementation,
methodology, score, schedule and budgets of proposed project on which basis the
contract is drawn once approved by prospective donors.
  Once approved, this becomes a kind of memorandum of understanding between the
parties involved particularly implementing organization, the donor and the organization
and community.
 This is a document used as a basis of fundraising or resource procurement.

TOPIC IV: PROJECT PLANNING AND DESIGNING

Project planning means an endeavor in which human, material and financial resources are
organized in a better way to undertake a unique scope of work over a given specification within a
given time at a given cost and quality to achieve some intended goals or objectives.
Outline any 5 challenges a project manager may come across in process of project identification

It is an activity comprising a series of predetermined and coordinated actions and processes for
carrying out operations for the identification and implementation of project.
It is a process involving the listing in detail what is required to successfully complete a given
project along the free critical dimension i.e. cost, time and quality within a prevailing
environment.
Project planning phase in the project cycle is the stage at which project teams interacts with
prioritized data from the baseline survey to develop concrete building blocks that would
actualize the proposed project by putting it on its implementation cost. It is at this stage that the
following will be developed.
 Project goals and aims
 Project objectives which are SMART
 Project indicators for the monitoring and evaluation indicators
Is also at this stage that the project emerges with clear activity schedules and clear budget

Steps in project planning

1. Establishing the project objectives
2. Choosing the strategy for achieving the objectives
3. Breaking the project into sub-units
4. Determining the performance standards for each unit
5. Determining the cost of the project
6. Establishing the required resources
7. Signing duties and responsibilities
8. Developing the necessary policies and procedures
9. Determining the yard stick for evaluating the outcome
A good project plan should therefore include the following:-
 A definition of the project scope; it is how much it would do and how much it would not
do.
 Concrete – SMART; project objective activities
 Clearly defined technical specifications and standards
 Activity schedule and sequences defining what should be done and when
 Risk identification and risk management plan
 A project leadership structure within the content of the widest organizational structure.
Role of project planning
 Provides a basis for organizing the work of the project and allocating responsibility
  Is a means of communication and coordination between all those involved in a project.
 It induces people to look ahead
 Instills a sense of urgency and time consciousness
 Establishes the basis for monitoring and control
Areas of project planning/Factors to consider for project planning
1. The costing of the project should be done
2. Planning the manpower and organization i.e. plan the number of people required for that
project and the organization structure.
3. Plan for the information system i.e. the flow of information and the information required
for monitoring the project
4. Planning the project work i.e. planning the activities that should be carried out
Project design
Is the process in which what emerges in project identification phase is developed into specific
form that makes sense.
It involves specification of the project objectives, outputs and inputs (resources)
Project design establishes the intent, plan, means of measuring progress and the external
conditions that are likely to affect the project.
Differentiate between project planning and project design
Project planning techniques/Guidelines
Quality plan – should be competitive when compared to other plans in various project proposals.
Work schedule and deadline –
Personnel plans and resource utilization plans should be taken into account.
There should be detailed work breakdown structures
Areas of high risks should be identified and included in the plans
Logical framework analysis/Project matrix
Is a document usually desired from a descriptive project proposal that summarized in a logical
sequence of 4 matrices both vertical and horizontal lines.
The key components of a logical framework analysis include the following:-
(a). Horizontal line or column
 Narrative summary
 Variable indicators
 Means of verification
 Assumptions/risks/external factors
(b). Vertical line or column
 Goals or overall development activities
 Project purpose/immediate objectives
 Output/intermediary results
 Activities
Narrative summary Variable Means of Assumption/risks/external
indicators verification factors
Goals/overall development
objectives
Purpose/immediate
objectives
Output
Activities
 1.
2.
3.
The recent emphasis on the application of LFA arises in the fact that most projects do not have
clear objectives but general aims.
Many factors for the success of a project including critical/external factors are often overlooked
during the preparation of a project and its implementation.
Indicators of change for monitoring and evaluation are usually missing in the project design.
Advantages of LFA(logical framework analysis)
1. Clear and specific objectives are formed
2. Factors for the success of a project are determined
3. Indicators for changes in monitoring and evaluation are formed
4. Is a planning tool that attempts to represent statement highlighting key components of the
project plan.
5. Is usually extracted form descriptive project proposal and is a summary of a logical
sequence.
Terms used in Logical Framework Analysis
1. Project goal; is the overall developmental objectives the project seeks to attain
2. Project purpose; is the specific target to be achieved by implementing a project and is always
focused on a target group.
3. Output/results; is what is realized as an indicator/immediate time after the effect of the
project and the intervention mission is accomplished.
4. Input; these are the resources used to undertake the activities with the aim of obtaining
intended output. These could include materials, money, human resources, time etc.
5. Variable indicators; are the measurable or observable pointers that something or
achievement as per the project target is realized e.g. 1000(mosquito nets distributed, 500 babies
immunized, 1000 children attending school0.
6. Activities; the task (work program) that need to be carried out to deliver the planned results.
7. Means of verification; indicates where and in what form, information or the achievement of
the project, project objectives and results can be found as described under variable indicators.
8. Assumptions/Risks; this indicates the external environment which provides conditions that
should exist for the project to achieve its objectives. These factors can neither be positive or
negative; these include economic, political, socio – cultural factors.

TOPIC V: PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT

Risk is an overall as likely to adversely/negatively affect the happening of an activity in the
conduct of project management.
Project operate on environment/areas composed of uncertainty; these are uncertainty regarding
project funding, availability of resources, potential technical problems etc.
These uncertainties form the basis of project risks and thus a requirement to engage in risk
management.
Risk management recognizes the capacity of the project to run into trouble thus:-
1. Risk management is the art and science of identifying, analyzing and responding to the risks,
factors throughout the project life cycle.
2. Hence project risk is any possible events that negatively affect the viability of the project.
From the management point of view, the processes of risk management include asking the
following questions:-
 What is likely to happen?
 What can be done to minimize the probability or impact of these events?
 What are the indicators signaling such problems?
 What are likely outcome of such problems?
Benefits of risk management
By identifying the high risk area to a project it is possible to make a decision early in that if it is
too risky to continue with the project, the situation of starting the project is avoided because the
project is doomed to fail.
Sources of risks
Can be classified as external and internal risks
External risks
Are risks affecting the availability of projects from outside world and the business environment
Internal risks
Are risks that come from within the project e.g. tools used by the project team, staff stability, and
technical issues. Examples
Stages of risk management
1. Risk identification; is the process of determining the specific risk factor that can be expected
to affect the project.
2. Risk analysis; determining the potential/impact of these risks in case they occur.
3. Risk mitigation strategies; are the steps taken to minimize the potential impact of those
factors deemed sufficiently threatening to the project.
4. Control and documentation; creating a knowledge base for future projects based on lesson
learnt.
Risk identification
Methods of conducting risk identification include the following
 Brainstorming meetings
 Expertise opinion
 Past history
 Multiple (team based assessment) using different peoples appointments
The project managers should therefore create a risk register.
Items found in risk register includes
Financing risks – probability that the project revenue will not be sufficient to repay the debts
Technical risks – probability that the project will have adverse environmental problem beyond
its limits and increase liability
Political risks – regulatory changes, tax codes, political unrest, strikes etc.
Promotional risks - probability of the sponsor withdrawing
Scheduled risks – probability that it will overrun its initial allocation
Organizational risk – probability that the managerial structure may not perform well
Acts of God – events beyond the control of the project team occurring e.g. hailstones, floods,
drought, earthquakes etc.
Discuss the sources and stages of risk management
Performing risk analysis
It is done by attaching a reasonable estimate of the likelihood each of those events occurring. It is
a way of analyzing the potential problem or the impact or damage that would be caused by the
risk event. It is done by risk probability i.e. the chance by which something might occur;
therefore the probability occurrence is written zero, low, medium or high.
Zero – there is no chance that the risk might occur
Low - the probability that the risk will occur in between 1% - 40%
Medium – the probability is between 41% - 71%
High – the probability of risk occurring is 71% - 99%
Risk analysis can also be done by constructing risk analysis matrix.
Risk impact; is the damage that will occur can also be rated zero, low, medium or high the risk
impact matrix is drawn where the sides of the matrix show consequences as likelihood of risk to
happen.

The risk matrix is obtained from the project risk scores, the scores are obtained from each
dimensions (probability and consequences/impact) which is equal to the sum.
Therefore risk analysis = sum (probability +imparts)
No of factors used to assess them
Classifying project risks
Risk factor consequences Likelihood Impact
potential
Loss of a leader high low moderate
Competition high low minor
Technical failure high medium serious
Accident high low moderate
(worker)

Managing risks
Risk mitigation strategies
Are strategies used as measures to manage risks. The following approaches can help us in
mitigate/reduce risks.
 Accepting risks
 Avoiding risks
 Risk transfer
 Share risks
 Take precautions to avoid or mitigate risk impact
 Limit the risk by authorizing work step by step
Risk acceptance
Risks can be accepted in a situation where there is no alternative or we consider the risk too
small to be accepted thus their consequences arte too small/minor, we factor them into project
plan.
Risk transfer
Is the shifting of risk to another party where it cannot be eliminated e.g. insuring the project
building against free fire, insuring property against theft.
Risk sharing
Is where risk is located proportionately among the multiple members of the project e.g. sharing
the risk between customer and their goods in transit.
Risk avoidance
Is where the project will rely on the past history to avoid risk completely.

Performing risk management

It can be performed by using risk analysis and management approach.
Steps of management process
1. Define – make sure the project is well defined including all the deliverable statement of work
and project scope.
2. Focus – begin to plan the risk management process as a project in its own right given the
unique nature of the project being undertaken.
3. Identity – assesses the specific size of risk at the onset of the project, by searching for their
sources, their responses and classifies them.
4. Structure – review and refine the manner in which we have classified risks for the project,
determine if there is any common access of these risks across the board.
5. Classify ownership risk – distinguish risk that the project is willing to handle and those that
the client is expected to accept as well as allocating responsibility for managing risk and
responses.
6. Estimate – develop a reasonable estimate of the impact of the project of both the identified
risk and proposed solution i.e. what are the likely scenarios and their potential costs.
7. Evaluate – critically evaluate the results of the estimate phase to determine the most likely
plan for realizing potential risk.
8. Plan – project risk management plan is produced that proactively offer risk mitigation
strategies for the project as needed.
9. Manage the risk – monitor actual progress with the project and associated risk management
plans responding to any variance in risk plan with an eye towards developing this plan for future.
Benefits of risk management
 Identifying potential risk to a project, the project team is forewarned and therefore lay
strategies for finding solutions.
 Being aware of what risks are, the project team will be able to identify warning signs and
act quickly to eliminate or minimize their impact.
 By identifying high risk areas to a project, it is possible to make decisions early so that
the project is too risky to continue and therefore discontinue project.

TOPIC VI: PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION

Implementation is the putting into action a pre – determined plan.
Is also carrying out plan activities
This phase/stage covers the following:
 Start up/action planning
 Monitoring
 Measurement
 Reporting
 Change of management activities
During project implementation, the manager intends to:
a. Ensure that each task without a predecessor starts immediately
 b. Each subsequent task starts on schedule by keeping in touch with the successors’ task
leaders.
c. Practice walk-about management and keep task leaders communicating with each other
d. Keep the operation team set to chart up –to -date with point out posted and replaced at
regular intervals.
e. Support task leaders in securing necessary resources e.g. money, personnel, materials etc.
f. Maintain discipline and order within the project
g. Gather information for and prepares the project report
h. Schedule milestone meetings
i. Convene and lead a post project review
j. Plans and implements a project closure celebrations
Project manager’s role in project implementation
After the plan has received customer approval, it is time to launch the project activities. The
project manager’s role changes from a facilitator to management work i.e. walk – about
management.
Other roles include the following
i. Coordinator i.e. calls and runs team meetings
ii. Communicator i.e. issues final project report
iii. Conflict resolver i.e. responds to request for changes of project plan and instills discipline
to the project team.
iv. Motivator i.e. individual attention, reward, recognition etc.
v. A leader; provides direction to the project team
vi. An interpreter i.e. monitoring performance
vii. Trainer and teacher i.e. establish performance, levels and performance indicators and
takes corrective actions.
viii. Negotiator with the project customer and functional manager

Factors to consider in project implementation

Cost of technology – is the amount of money that would be involved in scientific and economic
technological knowhow that would be used in the project.
Availability of Human resources – it is important to ensure that personnel required at various
stages of the project implementation are available.
Content of the project plan – check if the scope of the plan is up to date, if it achievable.
Availability of technology – how readily is that technology to be accessed.
Cultural changes

Contracting and procurement stages of project implementation

Procurement is the acquisition of goods and services from sources outside the performing
organization such as the consultants, contractors and suppliers.
Procurement management for projects consist of the following
6 procedures
 Procurement planning
 Solicitization planning
 Source selection
 Contract administration
 Contract close out
Procurement planning
Is done to consider which part of the project scope and product scope is out source. This should
take place into accounting costs, quality, speed and risks.
Other factor to consider is how work is going to be done and what work is going to be done.

Solicitization planning
The step requires the following
 Exact definition of the goods and services to be purchased
 Due dates and cost estimates
 Sources of potential suppliers/list of potential
Solicitization
Can take many forms
 Request for proposal, advertised and open to all potential sources
 Direct approach to a single preferred or single source
 Request for letters of inquiry. Qualification statement and pre – proposal
Source selection
Is required where more than one acceptable vendor is available. Selection will be done on the
basis of evaluation criteria and organizational policies.
Proposals are evaluated and ranked to identify the top candidate.
Negotiations with a handful of the vendors follow to get their best and final offer.
Contract administration
A contract is a legally enforceable agreement between 2 or more parties as far as certain
conditions are going to be met.
What is bought in a contract is the ability to do the job i.e. capacity, expertise and time.
Things to consider during contract includes
 Precise and detailed definition of the work which the contract is to carry out and
responsible for
 Evaluate the cost of the job
 Contract terms; once a contract is made, it is expected that parties will adhere to the
agreement. Breach of contract can lead to a legal tussle. A good tack record of those
involved in contract in terms of the performance, sound business base and attitude, sound
financial base, totally quality orientation, good morale of the work force and technical
capacity to carry out the work are critically examined at before a contract is awarded.
Contract close – out
Project management activities do not end abruptly when all the tasks on the plan have been
performed successfully.
There are no rules to be followed, so the end or significant interruption of a project must be
marked by a formal announcement that the project is coming to an end and that stops further
expenditure and sets the formal close – down procedure in motion.

Challenges in implementation
 Meeting the project budget i.e. changes in prices can result to problems especially when
the prices go up and this may be seen as under estimate in budgets.
 Dealing with stakeholders and community i.e. different ideologies may arise among all
the stakeholders in the project and harmonizing these ideas is a big challenge.
  Mobilizing resources i.e. bringing together all the resources required in the project can at
times prove to be difficult.
 Time/schedule of project – there is usually disparities in schedule and time management
especially in areas where the project was not fine tuned.
 It is usually very challenging in ensuring that project specifications are achieved to the
letter.

TOPIC VI: PROJECT MONITORING

As the project progresses, it is necessary to assess how the project is going in reality as opposed
to what the plan provided.
Monitoring is the collection, analysis, communication and use of information about the project
progress.
Its main objective is to provide relevant information to right people at the right time for informed
decision making.

Characteristics of appropriate monitoring system

It should be designed in 3 purposes in mind
a. To detect the current deviation and to foresee future deviations between actual progress
and project plans
b. To trace sources of these deviations
c. To support the management decisions aimed at putting the project back on the desired
course

The characteristics include:

 Easily detection of deviations
 Accurate and timely respecting
 Self monitoring
 Monitoring system should be reliable
 Monitoring system should be simple
 There should be a continuous monitoring system

Importance of monitoring projects

i) For early identification of deviations
ii) Corrective measures in order to put the project or tasks on course
iii) Ensures success of a project
iv) Limit wastage of resources i.e. materials, finance, human etc.
v) Evaluation of project success
vi) Knowing the actual progress of the project in terms of cost and duration
vii) Motivating project teams
viii) Necessary for ongoing decision making from the data collected
ix) Helps in replanning
Factors leading to deviation
 Poor planning
  Change in government policies/government regulations
 Inefficient use of resources
 Lack of enough resources (finance, materials)
 Poor skills
 Environmental impacts/changes
 Reliance in project commencement
Stakeholders’ perspective/role of monitoring
Donors/financers
They need to know the progress of the project i.e. how much work has been done and how much
of the work is left.
Contractors/suppliers
Contractors need to be paid on time; they also need to schedule the performance of tasks and
supply of goods and services.
Community
They need to know how far the project has reached as far as realizing the purpose/goals for
which it was initiated. They also need to know what kind of support they are supposed to give in
terms of finance, manpower, land etc.
Environmental agencies
They need to know that the project is running according to the stipulated environmental
regulations, government policies in terms of legal, contractual and national interests.
The Government
Government need to know whether the project is running according to government policies in
terms of legal, contractual and national interests.
Project team
Helps them to know progress of the project; tasks involved to discover any deviation that require
corrective measures.
The project manager
Helps him to plan and make decisions from the information that he gets from reports.

Challenges in monitoring process

 Lack of finance to steer up monitoring process
 Lack of communication
 Multiple functions of a project
 Time
 Complexity of tasks
 Lack of adequate technology e.g. internet, instruments and other equipments
 Reporting by exceptional parameters of reporting

TOPIC VIII: PROJECT EVALUATION

It means valuation of a project in order to measure its impacts and assess its viability in
achieving the desired goals.
Reasons for project evaluation
There are 3 main reasons for evaluating a project
Effectiveness – is to determine whether the project is fulfilling or likely to fulfill its purpose i.e.
its scope, course, time and quality.
Efficiency – is done in order to detect whether resources are being utilized in the right way to
avoid resource wastage.
Impact – projects are also evaluated to know the impacts it is creating accordance with the
objectives e.g. how many people has the project changed their perception, creating awareness to
what extent etc.
Project performance indicators

Forms of evaluation
Project appraisal – means assessing the project viability and it includes using tools or
techniques such as payback period of a project or rate of return of a project.
Baseline study – is the lowest limit agreed that the project should achieve i.e. the break even
point
Monitoring – as the project progresses, it is necessary to assess how the project is going in
reality as opposed to what the plan predicted i.e. measuring actual versus planned. This can be
measured on a grant chart.
Periodic review – evaluation should be carried out periodically in order to carry out whether the
project is still viable and in case of any deviations, corrective measures are taken, this should be
done against agreed parameters e.g. time, quality, cost etc.

Steps in project evaluation

1. Identifying indicators on which project successes are to be based e.g. cost or budget,
time, profitability, scope etc.
2. Revising data– is done based on the performance of indicators
3. Analyzing findings and making conclusions.
4. Taking action based on your evaluation either to increase efficiency, effectiveness and
impact.

Tools and techniques in project evaluation

Actual versus planned
It is the historical comparisons of planned resources to complete an activity versus amount of
resources used e.g. planned time to complete an activity versus actual time taken.
Human understanding/involvement
E.g. is the project accomplishing its objectives of creating awareness
Financial ratio methods
E.g. cost benefit analysis, cash flow analysis, score index method
Learning techniques
Takes into account past experiences in order to improve the future decisions.
Milestone
Is to indicate that a particular stage on the project had been successful or resources in a particular
stage on the project have been used.

Importance of evaluation
 It tells us how a project is moving on
 Helps to show the effect the project is having e.g. increasing the community income or
project productivity
 It checks the negative effects e.g. loss of moral values
 What changes you need to make to improve project
Need for evaluation
 When management wants to make decisions; when there is a need to get a feedback from
stakeholders
 When you want to justify on the influence, the course or the direction of the project
 For cost benefit analysis
 For educational purposes
 To see the effort is worth/to justified doing the project.
N/B: evaluation is on behalf of all the stakeholders i.e. evaluation of a project will benefit all the
stakeholders.

The community as a stakeholder

Are supposed to make people informed and involved, check that the project processes and
activities are appropriate, to ensure the project is responding to the agreed community needs and
to make sure that the project provides a good chance for change.
Donors/financiers
They are supposed to know whether the resources are being used efficiently, the progress of the
project, to get justification for more finding and to know the viability of the project.
The project team
They are to know how much work has been done and what is remaining, to compare experiences,
to know whether there are problems, risks and how to correct them.
Government
Are supposed to know whether the project is being run according to the stipulated regulations,
whether all the stakeholders are protected especially the community and to, justify the funding.

Main elements of project evaluation

Inputs e.g. internal management, planning, control, and implementation
Outputs – is the project satisfying the need for which it was started e.g. raising the level of
awareness among the community leaders or raising the living standards of the community.
Market e.g. the viability of the market demand within the market.
Financial performance
Business e.g. profitability
Challenges of project evaluation
1. Lack of adequate information
2. Conflict within the project management
3. Coming up with evaluation criteria may be a problem
4. Stakeholders’ participation
5. Project evaluation is an ongoing process that covers pre – implementation, implementation
and post – implementation

TOPIC IX: PROJECT APPRAISAL AND ASSESSMENT

An appraisal is an analysis of a proposed prospect of a project to determine its merits and
acceptability of the stakeholders.
The reason of appraisal is to revise the plans if there is any need for it and even terminate the
project should there be any need.

Components of project appraisal

1. Relevance
A project is relevant if it meets demonstrated and high priority needs of a community. Thus
while doing a project appraisal, it is important to find out if the project is consistent with and
supportive of governmental or donor policies or developmental priorities.
2. Feasibility
A project is feasible if it is well designated, likely to deliver, tangible and sustainable benefits to
target group. It has clear logical objectives which addresses clearly the identified needs. Costs in
terms of resource/inputs are clearly stipulated and that the project benefits outweigh costs.
Has clear management arrangement in terms of project personnel as well as support institutional
strengths and local ownership.
3. Compliance
It is important to find out if the project is likely to be well managed i.e. will the project be based
on good practice or project cycle management e.g. has the project preparation respected project
management cycle.
4. Management
A project is well managed when the output seen out ways the cost insured. The human resource
involved in a well managed project is able to deliver to the best of their ability.

Tools and techniques used in project appraisal

1. Payback
Can be defined as the period usually expressed in years which it takes for the project net – cash
inflows to return to the original investment
The usual decision rule is to accept the project with the shortest payback period.
Advantages
 Is easy to calculate and understand
 Uses cash flows rather than accounting profits and hence is more objectively bases
  Favours quick return project which may produce faster growth for the company and
enhance liquidity
 Choosing project which payback quickest tend to minimize those risks facing the
company which are related to time.
Disadvantages/Limitations
 Fails to consider time value of money i.e. cash inflows are added without suitable
discounting
 It ignores cash flows beyond the payback period. This leads to discrimination against the
projects which generate substantial cash inflows within the years to come.
 Is a measure of project capital recovery, not the profitability
 Though it measures the project liquidity, it does not indicate the liquidity position of a
firm as a whole.
Year Cash Cash inflow
outflow
0 200,000 200,000
1 100,000 80,000
3 80,000 80,000
3 50,000 80,000
4 10,000 100,000
5 10,000 150,000
The above is a 3 year payback period.
2. Accounting rate of return
Refers to the average rate of return on investments
Is a measure of profitability which relates income to investments both measured in accounting
terms
The measurers that are exploited commonly in practice are:
a. Average income after tax divide by initial investment
b. Average income after tax divide by initial investment
c. Average income after tax but before interest divided by initial interest
d. Average income after tax but before interest is divided by average investment

Example
Year Investment Depreciation Income Interest Income Tax Income
book value before before after
investment tax tax
and taxes
0 1.00 0.20 0.30 0.10 0.20 0.100 0.100
1 0.80 0.20 0.35 0.10 0.25 0.125 0.125
2 0.60 0.20 0.40 0.10 0.30 0.150 0.150
3 0.40 0.20 0.40 0.10 0.30 0.150 0.180
4 0.20 0.20 0.35 0.10 0.25 0.125 0.125
Sum 3.00 1.00 1.00 0.50 1.30 0.650 0.650
Average 0.60 0.20 0.20 0.10 0.20 0.130 0.130
 a. Average income after tax = 0.130 * 100
Initial investment 1.0
=13%
b. Average income after tax = 0.130 * 100
Average initial investment 0.60
=21.7%
c. Average income after tax = 0.20 * 100
Initial interest 0.10
= 200%
d. Average income after tax = 0.20 * 100
Average investment 0.60
=33.33%
Advantages
 Is simple to calculate
 Is based on accounting information which is readily available and familiar to the
businessman
 It considers the benefit over the entire life of a project
 It facilitates post auditing of capital expenditures
Disadvantages
 Is based upon accounting profit not cash flow
 It does not take into account the time value of the money
3. Desk review
Is the reading through reports of identification phase (stakeholders’ analysis, problem analysis,
objective analysis and strategy analysis) will help give a clear picture on issues of relevance of
the project.
4. Cost benefit analysis
Is aimed at establishing whether or not the project benefits are more than the impacts
5. Participatory rural appraisal
Is a technique used to enable the community members realize their potential so as to sustain
themselves through these
6. Survey
Is a design which can be used to collect data on the issues of appraisal of a project; relies on
feasibility and government management
Challenges of project appraisal
TOPIC X: PROJECT TERMINATION
Is the ending of a project before the end of its term due to certain reasons that may not allow the
project to finish or close at its predetermined closing time.

Reasons for terminating a project

1. Depletion of resources
2. Stopping of donor support
3. Rejection by community members
4. Misappropriation of resources
5. Political interference
6. Conflicts among the stakeholders and with the project management
7. Poor planning and project design
8. Withdrawal of community participation
9. Competition from similar projects
10. Pressure from environmental lobby groups

Ways of terminating a project

a. Termination by starvation i.e. no more funding is given to the project and the already
available resources/funds are depleted.
b. Termination by natural death i.e. people just withdraw their focus in the project.
c. Termination by starting another project – a project can die through changing to
another project e.g. moving from the old framing practice to the modern farming
practices.
Process of project termination
a. Formal announcement of closure/termination that stops further expenditure and sets the
formal close down procedures in motion.
b. Cut off costs to forbid further expenditure against the main project cost.
c. Project closure/termination document containing the project title number, effective
closure date, reasons for closure/termination and signature authorizing termination or
closure.
d. Authorizing the post project expenditure
e. Disposal of surplus materials i.e. materials that were brought into the project and are not
being used; by selling them or returning to the supplier or alternatively they can be
transferred to another project.
f. Disbanding the project team – some of them can be transferred to other projects or other
functional departments or pay off.
g. The project team could also be absorbed into the base organization

Impacts of project termination

1. Finance i.e. the previous money that had been put to the project get wasted.
2. Environmental problems e.g. waste and destruction of the environment when not closed
properly.
3. Loss of job especially to the people who were working in the project
4. Emotional impact - it can cause emotional distress to the initiators or the donors
5. Loss of revenue
6. Lack of future donor support
7. Wastage of materials that cannot be disposed off
8. Demoralizing the community and this may lead them not to participate in the future
9. Can lead to conflicts/misunderstanding i.e. especially on who to blame

Challenges for termination

 Termination procedure i.e. agreeing on termination procedure
 Dealing with emotional attachments
 The project team i.e. what to do to the project team
 Disbanding and relocating the project team to another project is quite challenging
 Dealing with various stakeholders i.e. who may not have achieved their objectives in the
project
 Challenges regarding the post termination activities and expenditure

TOPIC XI: PROJECT SUSTAINABILITY

Is the process of keeping the project course up to the end.

Reasons for project sustainability

a. When the continuation of the project is still justified i.e. it still serves the business
objectives
b. When it is likely that the project will run according to the original time, costs and targets
(resource)
c. When its successful completion should precede other projects/tasks
d. When its core (important) or beneficial to the community
Factors that lead to project failures
1. Losing focus on the original scope of the project
2. Poor project planning and design
3. Conflict e.g. between workers and management, among stakeholders
4. Lack of adequate resources/sponsorship
5. Poor management of resources
6. Mismanagement of risks
7. Community will/attitude towards the project
8. Lack of project management skills
9. Political interference/change of government policy
10. Environmental hazards posted by the project
11. Migration patterns
12. Act of God i.e. natural calamities e.g. floods, earthquake

Factors that lead to project sustainability

1. Continued focus on the project scope, objectives and benefits
2. Effective management and team confidence that the project will be completed
3. Agreeing on action plan and seeing it through
4. Continuous review of the project as an opportunity to correct any shortcomings or improve
those things that are going well to make them even better.
5. Being forward looking - not dwelling on past problems and failures
6. Ensure that the project is meeting the original time, cost and resource targets
7. Timely recognition of risks to the project success and addressing them without undue delay.

Project sustainability options

1. Choosing a unique position e.g. unique business project
2. Trade offs i.e. more of one thing necessities less of another, shutting or reducing activities in
one project and putting the resources in another.
3. Project/activities fit in order to reinforce one another e.g. dairy farming and milk processing,
wheat farming and bakery factory etc. to sustain one another.

Challenges in project sustainability

1. Poor management
2. Lack of enough resources e.g. Human resource, finances, material, technology
3. Environmental impacts e.g. political, social, cultural issues that crop up
4. Change in management
5. Conflict of interest from within and also external

Ways of adjusting the challenges in project sustainability

Project missions and goals – understanding the project mission and goals are the basis of
planning and executing the project and also coordinating of efforts and organization
Top management/community support – is important due to competition for resources and high
level of uncertainty in project environment.
Project planning – detailed plan that covers all aspects of the projects e.g. technical,
organizational and scheduling
Client/community consultation – a part from their input during the setting of mission and
establishment of goals, continuous consultation is also important.
Personal issues – creating a well motivated team, inter personal relationships and commitments
Technical issues – understanding the technical aspects of the project and ensuring that members
of the project team possess the necessary skills
Project control – continuous flow of information regarding the actual progress is a feedback
mechanism that allows the project manager to cope with uncertainty
Client/community acceptance – ongoing client consultation increases the probability of success
regarding user acceptance.
Trouble shooting – the control system is designed to identify problem areas and if possible to
trace their source through the organization.

TOPIC XII: REPORT WRITING

A report is a document/communication presenting information on a specified subject.
Project managers are going to write a report for the customers, suppliers their own management
and for the project team themselves.
Factors to consider in project report writing
There are 4 questions one should ask before writing a report
 Who is going to read the report/document (audience)
 What are the objectives of the report (purpose)
 What are the key points
 What is the best structure of the report (format)
1. Know your audience
You must write your report in a way that is both easy to understand and relevant to their needs
You must find out as much as possible about the audience and the following checklist will help
you;
 What are their interests
 Is English their language
 Are they technical/business/non special people
 Are they decision makers
 Can they gain anything from it
 What do they really want/need to know
2. Objectives of the report
A strict objective may be given e.g. monthly financial reports showing project expenses versus
budget fro the project, progress of the work. Such a report would consist of straight forward facts
with no conclusions or predictions.
However in practice, project reports have wider objectives but in a brief way and will be broad
based because it will also include both those of the project and those of project team and their
predictions.
3. Key points
Requires the exercise of judgement to decide what to include and what to leave out i.e. what is
relevant to the audience.

4. Structure
Report contents are
i).Title
ii).Introduction
iii).Executive summary
iv).Body of the report
vi).Conclusion and recommendation
v).Appendices
Title – should be clearly written, precise and concise i.e. direct and to the point.
Introduction – describes what the report is for, who the target is and the outcome expected.
Summary – is a list of the main points of the report preferably in the order they were presented
in the main body of the document.
Where appropriate it should include a summary of the conclusion as well.
Body of the report – a series of sections, chapters or whatever is appropriate for the scale of the
report which includes the information in sufficient detail to meet the requirements of the reader
Conclusions and recommendations – are the key facts that have been narrowed down
at/laws/theories which should be put down together in a logical order, fashion to underline the
importance of the report.
Appendices – background and specialists’ information in detail to support the main body of the
report or to cover special of the reader
Typically these include technical terms, statistical data, legal materials that would either be too
long and detailed.

Types of reports
Inception reports
Produced within the 1 month of launching the projects e.g. 3 months; are used to reduce closing
st

of project, communicating with stakeholders and agencies.

Progress reports
Are reports produced periodically during implementation phase of the project
Completion reports
Are prepared at the end of financial period; it comments on overall achievements against the
original plan of the project.

Importance of project report presentation

1. Gives a list of lessons learnt and any recommendations for improvement
2. Report written at close regular intervals show the actual state of the project as compared to the
project plan.
3. Reports help in crucial decision making i.e. to sustain or terminate a project
4. Are tools for communication with stakeholders and agencies
5. They can be kept and used for future reference/future work i.e. they act as sources of
information for literature review

Challenges faced in report writing

1. Lack of technical skills
2. Lack of information or disjointed information which could be very difficult to harmonize to
give a comprehensive report
3. Choosing the structure to use may at times be difficult i.e. that which suits the project sponsor
4. Project report writing is tedious and time consuming therefore the project team members may
at times take longer times waiting report at the expense of the actual project work.
5. It is expensive in terms of stationery, typesetting, photocopying, printing etc.

TOPIC XIII: COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN PROJECT MANAGEMENT

Refers to the active involvement of community in the initiation and management of the project in
order to achieve the desired goal
Areas of involvement by community members/participation
a. Problem identification/needs assessment
b. Selecting projects
c. Planning projects
d. Implementing projects
e. Evaluating projects and monitoring them
f. Mobilization of local resources
g. Involvement of local resources
h. Involvement in labour thus reducing cost of implementation
i. Decision making
Community participation in needs assessment
 Promotes community ownership
 Facilitates project sustainability
 Enhances creativity and innovation
 Promotes self reliance
 Helps community in decision making
 Establishes responsibilities and duties to community members
 Leads to balance in development
 Promotes social cohesion among the people
Community participation in managing and developing project/decision making
 Promotes resource mobilization and use
 They approve proposed changes in project management
 The feedback they give as a result of the decisions they make is of utmost importance to
the project sponsors and other stakeholders
 Advice members of community through opinion leaders on way forward
 They clearly specify the priorities of their needs

Community participation in resource mobilization

Refers to how resources can be made ready for service or activity in the society development
process (identify, organize and assemble resources for particular development project)
 Building partnership between community members
 Fundraising e.g. from donors, CBOs, individual contributions
 Provision of human resource
 Provision of local materials/equipment
 Participation in motivating the project team

Community participation in managing projects

 Review project financial reports
 Promotes resource mobilization and use
 Inform project leaders of any changes in the environment that would affect the project
implementation
 Review project implementation
 Lay down guidelines that are to be embraced through out the life cycle of the project in
collaboration with other stakeholders
 Take keen participation in monitoring and evaluation of projects through making
decisions as far as the impact of the project is concerned to them.

TOPIC XIV: EMERGING TRENDS IN PROJECT MANAGEMENT

1. Prioritization of problems/needs
2. Involvement of community in initiation of project and its management
3. Risk identification and management strategies should be clear
4. The intent of the project, means of measuring progress and external conditions that are likely
to affect the project’s paramount
5. Involvement of skilled staff
6. Management process should be transparent especially in contracting and procurement
7. Continuous flow of information is paramount
8. Reporting must be consistent to the field work
9. Routine monitoring and evaluation
10. Rewards to the project team for effectively/motivation
11. Storage of data
12. Close monitoring of use of funds is paramount
13. Keen appraisal and use of conventional tools e.g. payback, account rate of return
Functions of management
 Controlling
 Planning
 Staffing
 Coordinating
 Organizing