Composites: Part A 168 (2023) 107456

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Composites Part A
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compositesa

High velocity impact response of carbon/epoxy composite laminates at

cryogenic temperatures
J. Pernas-Sánchez a ,∗, S.M. García-Rodríguez b , J.A. Artero-Guerrero a , J. López-Puente a , J. Costa b
a
Department of Continuum Mechanics and Structural Analysis, University Carlos III of Madrid, 28911 Leganés, Madrid, Spain
b
AMADE, Polytechnic School, University of Girona, Av. Universitat de Girona, 4. 17003 Girona, Spain

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Composite laminates are subjected to cryogenic temperatures in exposed aircraft structures during flight or
Composite in cryogenic tanks. The combination of cryogenic temperatures and high velocity impacts represents a threat
Impact to their integrity. This work investigates the behavior of carbon–epoxy laminates under high velocity impacts
X-ray micro-computed tomography
(from 70 to 500 m/s) at room and cryogenic (-150 ◦ C) temperatures and under two different plate orientations
Cryogenic
with respect to the projectile direction. The damage pattern of impacted specimens at low temperature,
revealed by C-scan and X-ray tomography, exhibits a higher density of fiber breaks and shear matrix cracks
which do not translate to a larger projected damaged area. The experimental analysis through interlaminar
shear strength tests and the calculation of ply thermal stresses exclude the association of this particular pattern
to damage mechanisms induced during the temperature decrease.

1. Introduction
Since the 1970s, the aerospace industry has made use of composite
materials in secondary and primary structures [1]. The integrity of
these structures under different loading cases is critical. Low and high
velocity impacts are one of the most dangerous threats, in particular
when they occur in the direction perpendicular to the laminate plane.
Induced damage can reduce the load bearing capacity of the structure,
leading to catastrophic failure in some cases. Drop tool impacts are
the major concern for low velocity impacts, while bird strikes, ice
and metallic debris impacts are for high velocity ones. Drop tool im-
pacts are always produced under controlled ambient conditions (during
maintenance operations or similar), while high velocity impacts occur
mainly during service time, and therefore, under low temperatures.
Consequently the damage caused is a result of a combination of impact
and cryogenic temperature.
Not only are airplane structures (fuselage, wings, empennages, etc.)
exposed to this combined threat, but lightweight fuel tanks containing
liquids at cryogenic temperatures (cryotanks) can also suffer impacts
and lead to a safety and environmental issue [2]. Cryotanks are crucial
for space transportation, and are expected to be a key driver in the
use of liquid hydrogen in clean aviation and terrestrial vehicles [3] to
reduce the carbon footprint of these industries.
Several authors have investigated the mechanical response of com-
posites under cryogenic temperatures [4]. Gómez-del Río et al. [5]
impacted at low-velocity carbon/epoxy quasi-isotropic specimens at
temperatures ranging from 20 to −150 ◦ C. For all the tested energies,
the coupons impacted at −150 ◦ C displayed a higher damage extension
than those impacted at ambient temperature (damage area increased
by up to approximately 100%), which is in agreement with the trends
reported by Kara et al. [6]. The effect of cryogenic temperature on
the impact response of composites is attributed to: (i) thermal stresses,
(ii) an alteration of the mechanical properties of the matrix, and/or
(iii) of the fiber–matrix interface. However there is no agreement on
the most important mechanism [5–14]. For example, Jia et al. [15]
subjected unidirectional carbon/epoxy coupons to static and dynamic
three-point bending tests from −100 ◦ C up to 100 ◦ C. Their post-
mortem photographs evidenced that the specimens tested at lower
temperatures developed several cracks following the 0◦ fiber orienta-
tion, which the authors explained in terms of the embrittlement of the
matrix (arguing that the effect of thermal stresses was secondary). Li
et al. [12] also reported a higher number of cracks on quasi-isotropic
tensile and bending specimens tested at cryogenic temperatures. Fol-
lowing a different reasoning Jia et al. [15], French et al. [2] and
Kara et al. [6] observed that cooling carbon/epoxy laminates from
room temperature to approximately −200 ◦ C resulted in matrix cracks
prior to mechanical loading (i.e., triggered by thermal stresses). Finally,
regarding the impact properties of the neat epoxy matrix, He et al. [11]
reported that decreasing the temperature of ‘‘Izod’’ epoxy coupons
from 20 to approximately −200 ◦ C diminished the impact strength by
approximately 50%.

∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: jpernas@ing.uc3m.es (J. Pernas-Sánchez).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2023.107456
Received 27 September 2022; Received in revised form 23 November 2022; Accepted 20 January 2023
Available online 2 February 2023
1359-835X/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
J. Pernas-Sánchez et al.
To the authors’ knowledge, only a few studies have been focused
on the effect cryogenic temperatures have on the high-velocity impact
response of carbon/epoxy laminates [8,9,16]. López-Puente et al. [9]
subjected quasi-isotropic specimens (AS4/3501-6) to impacts at differ-
ent velocities (from 60 to 525 m/s) and under three different tempera-
tures: 25, −60 and −150 ◦ C. Measuring the damage area they conclude
that, below the impact velocity required for promoting penetration
(ballistic limit), the laminates impacted at −150 ◦ C displayed a 70%
higher damage extension than those impacted at ambient temperature
(which is in agreement with the tendencies reported by Im et al. [8]).
In contrast, for impact velocities above the ballistic limit, the specimens
impacted at ambient and cryogenic temperatures displayed a relatively
similar damage area.
The objective of the present study is to extend the investigation of
López-Puente et al. [9] by using a more widely-spread material system
(AS4/8552), including the effect of impact obliquity (45◦ ). In addition,
in order to analyze deeply the damage morphology, C-scan and X-
ray micro-computed tomography (𝜇CT) have been used. Finally the
role of pre-existing thermal stresses has been investigated by means of
inter-laminar shear strength tests, numerical simulations and analytical
studies. The results show relevant differences between perpendicular
and oblique impacts in terms of ballistic limit and damage morphol-
ogy. By the other hand, cryogenic temperature affects the damage
pattern with the appearance of distinctive shear micro-cracks, without
modifying ballistic limit or damage extension.
2. Material and methods
2.1. Materials
The material used in this study is a carbon/epoxy laminate fab-
ricated using AS4/8552 prepreg from Hexcel, and was selected due
to its wide-spread use in the aeronautic industry. The stacking se-
quence is quasi-isotropic: (+45∕−45∕0∕90∕90∕0)𝑠 . The laminates were
manufactured by the Instituto Nacional de Técnica Aeroespacial us-
ing a hand lay-up and curing in an autoclave in accordance with
the manufacturer’s indications. The nominal laminate thickness was
2.2 mm, corresponding to 0.183 mm per ply. This thickness could be
representative of the one used in unpressurized fuselage zones such as
the rear end [17–20].
2.2. Methodology
2.2.1. High-velocity impacts
Impact experiments were carried out with a one stage pneumatic
launcher, consisting of a 2 m long 7.62 mm caliber barrel. Compressed
helium at pressures up to 300 bar impel the projectile. The impact
velocity was measured with two laser barriers located at the cannon
muzzle. Impact velocities ranged from 70 to 500 m/s in order to be able
to reach from barely visual impact damages, to complete perforation of
the laminates. This range has been selected because the aim of the study
is to analyze the damage caused in the laminate by a wide range of
velocities rather than determining the ballistic performance. A spherical
projectile it has been selected in order to diminish variations of the
damage pattern associated to different projectile–laminate contacts
in the normal and oblique cases. The projectile material used was
tempered steel to preclude its plastic deformation during impact.
Impact specimens were extracted from the manufactured composite
panels using a diamond saw. Specimens were square, 110 mm side,
which assures that the damage will not approach the specimen edges;
in previous works of the same authors smaller specimens were used
(80 mm side) without any problem regarding boundary effects. Speci-
mens were simply supported in front of the canon muzzle using a frame
that allowed the impact angle to be varied from 0◦ to 45◦ with respect
to the projectile trajectory. The specimens were not clamped to avoid
pre-stresses appearing during the cooling process, which could produce
2
Composites Part A 168 (2023) 107456
Table 1
Summary of 𝜇CT specimens and pixel size selected.
Impact velocity (m/s) Temperature Impact orientation Pixel size (μm)
25 ◦ C −150 ◦ C Normal Oblique
72 X X 14
78 X X 14
80 X X 14
84 X X 14
200 X X 17
202 X X 17
492 X X 17
493 X X 17
damage prior to the impact, as observed in the work of French et al. [2].
The laminate’s support frame allowed for expansion but prevented any
movement along the impact direction. Frame and specimen were placed
inside a climatic chamber, in which the flow of liquid nitrogen was
controlled by a thermostat. To ensure that the temperature was dis-
tributed homogeneously within the chamber, cooling was maintained
for 30 min prior to the impact test; further details of the setup can be
found in previous works by the authors [9,21,22].
2.3. Non-destructive inspection
Each impacted specimen was inspected by using ultrasounds (C-
scan technique) to assess the resulting damage area. Inspections were
performed using a SOCOMAT system automatized with a robotic arm
with a 5 MHz piezoelectric transducer (6.35 mm diameter). Specimens
were immersed in distilled water through which incident and reflected
waves are propagated (the so-called ‘‘Time-of-flight TOF’’ technique
[23]). The data obtained was imported into a python code and com-
puted automatically the area in which the ultrasonic reflection does not
correspond to the thickness of the plate, and therefore no delamination
is observed. Also the debonding of fibers from the last ply has not been
taken into account.
To investigate the damage morphology, representative specimens
were inspected using X-ray micro-computed tomography, 𝜇CT (for
details about the 𝜇CT inspection equipment the reader is referred to
[24]). During the inspections, the use of contrast agents was avoided
to observe matrix cracks and delaminations regardless of their inter-
connection [24–26]. Table 1 summarizes the 𝜇CT scans performed.
The field of view of the 𝜇CT inspections was decided in light
of the C-scan results. For the samples impacted at velocities ranging
from 72 to 84 m/s, the entire damaged volume was analyzed. Prior
to inspection, the samples were cut into approximately 30 mm wide
coupons to obtain a better image quality [27]. The scanning parameters
were 55 kV, 85 μA, 1.5 s exposure time, 1400 projections (3 integra-
tions/projection) and 14 μm pixel size, resulting in a field of view of
approximately 31 mm. For the specimens impacted at higher velocities,
only a representative volume centered at the impact site was captured.
The same inspection parameters were used except for the pixel size
(17 μm) and the corresponding field of view (approximately 38 mm).
Finally, to provide a comprehensive 3D analysis of the damage scenario
developed in the impacted specimens, some of the 𝜇CT slices were post-
processed following the methodology developed by García-Rodríguez
et al. [26].
2.3.1. Interlaminar shear strength tests
The ILSS coupons were machined from non-impacted 110 × 110 mm
square specimens. In one case, there were taken from pristine speci-
mens, and in the other case from specimens previously pre-cooled at
−150 ◦ C for 30 min and then stabilized to room temperature.
Testing was performed using an electromechanical MTS INSI
GHT® 100 machine with a 10 kN load cell. The 10 × 20 mm coupons
were subjected to three-point bending in accordance with the EN
2563:1997 standard [28]. The loading roll and side supports were
J. Pernas-Sánchez et al.
Fig. 1. Variation of the laminate elastic and thermal properties with temperature [29,30].
3 mm diameter steel cylinders. The span length between supports
was 8 mm, which corresponds to a span length-to-thickness ratio of
4 (a nominal thickness of 2 mm was taken for the calculation) [28].
To minimize the defects induced during cutting, edges were carefully
polished prior to the experiments. Samples were loaded at 1 mm/min
until a load drop appeared in the force–displacement curve [28]. The
ILSS strength was calculated following Classical Laminate Theory, CLT
(Eq. (1)):
3 𝐹max
𝜎 ILSS =
4 𝑤𝑡
where 𝑤 and 𝑡 are the width and thickness of the specimen, respec-
tively, and 𝐹max is the maximum force recorded during the test. Five
samples were tested from both the pristine and pre-cooled batches.
2.3.2. Numerical model
In order to analyze the stress state of the laminate when subjected
to cryogenic temperatures, both a numerical model and an analytical
approximation were developed. The thermal loads were simulated with
the commercial Finite Element Method (FEM) code Abaqus/Standard.
These loads result from the different thermal expansion coefficients in
each different oriented plies of the laminate.
Laminate properties were obtained from the literature [29,30]
where the different elastic properties and thermal expansion coeffi-
cients can be found as a function of the temperature (Fig. 1). Numerical
simulations were carried out from an initial stress-free state, related to
the matrix glass transition temperature (170 ◦ C), up to room (25 ◦ C)
and cryogenic (−150 ◦ C) temperatures. The laminate were meshed
using 3D solid elements (C3D8R in Abaqus notation) for a total of
36 300 elements (3025 elements/ply), mesh convergence analysis was
done similar to previous works from the authors according to the
stresses reached in the laminate as other authors shows [31–33].
Numerical results were compared with the solution given by an
analytical approximation using CLT. For this case, constant elastic and
thermal properties were used for all temperatures (ambient tempera-
ture values have been selected). In the absence of exterior forces, the
strain in the center of the laminate (𝜀0 ) was able to be obtained as a
function of the in-plane forces derived from the thermal gradient (𝑁 𝑇 ).
For symmetrical laminates:
𝑁 = 𝐴𝜀0 − 𝑁 𝑇 ⟶ 𝜀0 = 𝐴−1 𝑁 𝑇
Composites Part A 168 (2023) 107456
Table 2
Minimum impact velocity that causes perforation for all conditions.
Ambient temp. Cryogenic temp
Normal impact 131 m/s 136 m/s
Oblique impact 155 m/s 150 m/s
∑ ∑
Being 𝐴 = 𝑄̄ 𝑖 ℎ𝑖 being the plane stiffness matrix and 𝑁 𝑇 = 𝛥𝑇 𝑄̄ 𝑖
̄
𝛼̄𝑖 ℎ𝑖 . 𝛥𝑇 is the temperature gradient, 𝑄𝑖 is the ply stiffness matrix, 𝛼̄𝑖 the
(1) dilatation coefficient matrix and ℎ𝑖 the ply thickness. Thus the stress in
each lamina was able to be obtained as follows:
( )
𝜎 = 𝑄𝑖 𝜀 0 − 𝜀 𝑇 (3)
where the strain derived from the thermal gradient is 𝜀𝑇 = 𝑅−1 ⋅ 𝑇 𝑇 ⋅
𝑅 ⋅ 𝛥𝑇 ⋅ 𝛼 using the rotation (𝑅) to the local axis (𝑇 ) of the ply.
3. Results
3.1. High-velocity impact
Specimens were impacted at velocities ranging from 70–500 m/s,
following two impact orientations (normal 0◦ and oblique 45◦ ) and
at two temperatures (ambient 25 and cryogenic −150 ◦ C). The use
of a high speed camera to record the impact event and hence obtain
the residual velocity was precluded by the use of the climatic cham-
ber. Although not enough values were measured for an appropriate
determination of the ballistic limit, Table 2 shows the value of the
minimum velocity required to reach perforation for all conditions. The
ballistic limit is higher for the oblique impact at both temperature
conditions. This is in accordance with the authors’ previous work [22],
where it was demonstrated that oblique impacts delayed the perfo-
ration threshold when compared to the coupons subjected to normal
impacts. This can be explained thanks to the concept of effective
thickness, in other words, the path length that the projectile should
perforate [34] increases with the impact angle. Results do no show
a clear trend for the dependence with temperature of the minimum
velocity for perforation.
3.2. Non-destructive inspection: Ultrasonic and 𝜇CT inspections
After the experiments, the coupons were inspected by ultrasonic C-
(2) scan (Figs. 2 and 3). The inspections were analyzed in terms of the
3
J. Pernas-Sánchez et al.
Fig. 2. Depth of damaged area obtained by ultrasonic inspection at ambient temperature for both normal and oblique (45◦ ) impacts. *Specimen at 132 m/s does not have a
squared shape because it was machined before C-scan inspection.
Fig. 3. Depth of delamination obtained by ultrasonic inspection at cryogenic temperatures for both normal and oblique (45◦ ) impacts. *Specimen at 493 m/s does not have squared
shape because it was machined before C-scan inspection.
previously reported three damage regimes depending on the impact
velocity [9,22]:
• Impact velocity below the ballistic limit (plate not perforated).
In this regime the damaged area increased linearly with impact
velocity.
• Velocity slightly above the ballistic limit (plate perforated near
the ballistic limit). The maximum of the damage area is reached
in this regime.
• Velocity above the ballistic limit. The damage area decreased
mildly with higher impact velocities
Fig. 2 shows the C-scan damage of representative specimens for both
normal and oblique impacts at ambient temperature for all regimes,
while Fig. 3 reproduces the equivalent images but for cryogenic condi-
tions. Each image specifies the measured projected delaminated area.
The trend of the delamination area versus the impact velocity agrees
with the three regimes described above. The maximum is always ob-
tained for an impact velocity slightly above the ballistic limit. Re-
garding the shape of the damage, all specimens qualitatively featured
a similar damage distribution: delamination distributed through the
thickness of the coupons and a 45◦ fiber split in the non-impacted
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Composites Part A 168 (2023) 107456
surface (the split was visible to the naked eye). The delamination shape
follows the typical peanut-shape for these materials [35]. With respect
to the impact angle, only minor differences can be observed regarding
the damaged area, showing smaller values for the oblique impact
conditions. Regarding the influence of temperature on the damaged
area, the results do not present a significant difference between the
impacts at ambient temperatures and those performed at cryogenic
temperature.
Figs. 4 to 7 summarize damage morphology under the impact
location as observed by 𝜇CT. The 𝜇CT slices of the specimens subjected
to normal impact demonstrate that, as impact velocity overcomes the
ballistic limit, the failure modes switched from predominantly delami-
nation to shear damage and plugging removal [9,22]. As can be seen in
Fig. 4, this applies to both ambient and cryogenic temperatures. At the
higher velocities, the specimens presented a cleaner perforation with
smaller associated delaminations.
Fig. 5 shows a detailed view of the specimens impacted at the lowest
velocities. Three types of failure mechanism can be discerned: (i) 45◦
crack induced by shear stresses (‘‘shear cracks’’ [24,26,36]), (ii) delam-
ination and (iii) fiber failure. Regardless the testing temperature, both
specimens developed shear cracks in every ply as well as delaminations
in all the interfaces between plies with dissimilar orientation (the
J. Pernas-Sánchez et al. Composites Part A 168 (2023) 107456

Fig. 4. X-ray micro-computed tomography (𝜇CT) cross-sections of specimens impacted at ambient and cryogenic temperatures (a) Not perforated, (b) Perforated, close to the
ballistic limit and (c) Perforated, far from the ballistic limit. All impacts performed perpendicular to the laminated plane.

Fig. 5. Zoom of the X-ray micro-computed tomography (𝜇CT) cross-section for not-perforated cases (normal impact).

Fig. 6. Projected damage area of specimen impacted at 72 m/s normal impact and 80 m/s oblique impact under ambient temperature.

delaminations are probably triggered by the intersection of shear cracks
in the surrounding layers [25,26]). Despite the qualitative similarities
in terms of failure mechanisms, the differences between specimens
impacted at ambient (Fig. 5(a)) and cryogenic temperatures (Fig. 5(b))
are two-fold: (a) the coupon impacted at the lower temperature fea-
tured a significantly higher amount of fiber failure (labeled as iii in
Fig. 5); and (b) it also developed a high density of 45◦ ‘‘micro-cracks’’
accompanying the main shear cracks (labeled as iv in Fig. 5(b)).
A relevant observation is that these ‘‘micro-cracks’’ only developed
within the region affected by the impact and not outside the boundaries
of the damaged area (as observed during careful inspection of the 𝜇CT
stacks).

5
J. Pernas-Sánchez et al.
Fig. 7. Zoom of the X-ray micro-computed tomography (𝜇CT) cross-section for not-perforated cases at (oblique 45◦
Fig. 6 shows the projected delamination area obtained by 𝜇CT. The
most extended delaminations propagated in the central 90◦ /0◦ and
0◦ /90◦ interfaces, where the transverse shear stress distribution is
close to maximum [37]. It is worth noting that, along with the shear
cracks and delaminations, the specimens presented fiber failure con-
fined to underneath the center of impact (Fig. 5); careful observation
of the entire 𝜇CT volume revealed that such fiber failure events are
distributed across the thickness of the coupons.
Regarding the effect of the impact orientation before the ballis-
tic limit, the specimens impacted at 45◦ qualitatively displayed the
same damage mechanisms as those subjected to normal impacts: shear
cracks, delamination and fiber failure. These findings hold for both
ambient and cryogenic temperatures. The difference was that in the
oblique impacts, the stress distribution induced a non-symmetrical
damage profile with respect to the impact center (Fig. 6). Additionally,
the oblique impacts developed similar low temperature failure mech-
anisms than the normal impacts: a higher amount of fiber failure and
multiple shear ‘‘micro-cracks’’ (Fig. 7(b)).
3.3. Interlaminar shear strength tests
The purpose of the interlaminar shear strength experiments was
to evaluate whether the pre-cooling cycle to −150 ◦ C induces some
forms of damage that reduces the pristine material properties. Besides
being widely used for material screening purposes [38,39], the ILSS
experiment was selected because the failure of quasi-isotropic coupons
depends on the development of shear cracks and delaminations [40].
In other words, the ILSS experiments will provide quantitative insight
into the effect that the pre-cooling cycle has on the matrix and interface
properties.
ILSS coupons were subjected to the same cooling cycle as the
impact specimens. According to the work of French et al. [2] boundary
conditions have an important effect on the thermal stresses. Conse-
quently, we used the same boundary conditions for the plate used to
extract the ILSS coupons as in the impact tests. Fig. 8(a) presents the
load–displacement curves of representative ILSS specimens (pristine
and cooled) tested until failure. Both types of specimens qualitatively
displayed the same load response: linear growth followed by a non-
linear region and a catastrophic load drop (the non-linear part of the
load response is typically attributed to the non-linear plastic response of
the epoxy as well as to fiber rotation phenomena [41]). A similar failure
morphology was visually observed after the experiments: shear cracks
in the ±45◦ /0◦ plies and delamination spanning the interfaces between
off-axis plies. The similarities in terms of force response and damage
scenario resulted in similar strength values (Fig. 8(b)): 53.5 ± 4.6 and
54.6 ± 3.8 MPa for the cooled and pristine specimens, respectively.
Then it can be concluded that the cooling cycle does not cause shear
cracking or other forms of damage in the laminate that could lead to
differences in the force displacement history or the strength.
3.4. Numerical model
To evaluate the stress state due to the cooling cycle we used a nu-
merical simulation and an analytical approximation based on CLT. Due
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Composites Part A 168 (2023) 107456
impacts).
to the quasi-isotropic nature of the laminate, the stress state created by
the cooling is homogeneous in the plate. For the four ply orientations,
the stress state is very similar with the in-plane normal stresses (𝜎11 and
𝜎22 ) being the only significant stresses, while the rest could be neglected
(𝜎33 , 𝜏12 , 𝜏13 , 𝜏23 ∼ 0 MPa). The in-plane normal stresses as a function of
the temperature are represented in Fig. 9. The figure illustrates how
stresses change as the temperature decreases from the proposed free-
stress state (170 ◦ C) to the cryogenic temperature according to both
models. Stress along the fiber direction (𝜎11 ) are compressive while
the perpendicular direction (𝜎22 ) shows a tensile state. This is caused
by the coefficient of thermal expansion along the fiber direction being
smaller than in the perpendicular direction (𝛼1 < 𝛼2 ). However, the
stress magnitude is similar in both directions due to the equilibrium
achieved in the quasi-isotropic plate. The difference in the maximum
stress proposed by both formulations is due to the fact that the CLT
does not take into account the variation of properties with tempera-
ture. Nevertheless, both numerical and analytical methodologies reach
similar maximum values (≃ 60 MPa). Finally, it has to be remarked
that the stresses could be slightly overestimated since the stress-free
condition may be below glass temperature (170 ◦ C) as is proposed by
F. Lauri [42], which should lead to a even lower stress states (≤ 60
MPa).
4. Discussion
This research aims to shed light on the behavior of composites
subjected to high velocity impact under cryogenic temperatures. To
this end, an extensive impact campaign varying the impact velocity,
the impact orientation and the temperature were performed.
Figs. 2 and 3 demonstrated that, regardless the testing temperature
or the impact orientation, the projected damage area of all the batches
qualitatively displays the same tendency. First, the damaged area in-
creases linearly with the impact velocity until a maximum value, which
is reached for velocities slightly above the ballistic limit. Then, the dam-
aged area decreases gently with enhanced impact velocity. 𝜇CT analysis
(Fig. 4) shows that this behavior is related to a shift in the failure
mechanism: from mainly delaminations to predominant shear damage,
fiber failure and plugging removal. Below the ballistic limit, plate
behavior is associated mainly with bending deformation, producing a
similar failure pattern as in a low velocity impact test (drop-weight
tower test) [26,43]. As the velocity increases, fiber failures develops,
promoting perforation. Beyond the ballistic limit, higher velocities
induce shear damage and plugging removal during the first instants of
the impact, generating a more localized plate bending deformation and
therefore smaller delaminations [9,22].
The C-scan results demonstrated that, for impact velocities lying
under the ballistic regime, the specimens subjected to oblique impacts
display a lower damage area than those impacted at 0◦ (Fig. 2). The
reason behind this behavior is that the projectile normal force is the
main load component inducing damage and, for the same impact veloc-
ity, this normal component is larger in the case of normal impacts [22].
Besides this, the coupons subjected to oblique impacts delayed the
perforation threshold when compared to the coupons subjected to
normal impacts.
J. Pernas-Sánchez et al.
Fig. 8. Interlaminar shear results from specimens subjected to cryogenic cycle and pristine situation.
Fig. 9. Numerical and analytical results of the pre-stress derived from the cryogenic
cycle.
The 𝜇CT slices illustrated that the main difference between spec-
imens impacted at ambient and cryogenic temperatures is that the
latter presents higher density of micro-cracks accompanying the main
shear cracks (Fig. 5, where the micro-cracks are labeled as iv). This
can be observed for the normal and oblique impacts under the ballistic
threshold. Those micro-cracks may have developed for two reasons: via
the thermal jump or the impact. During a thermal cycle, the thermal
expansion mismatch due to the different ply orientations results in
thermal stresses that may lead to damage (Fig. 9) [6,8,10–12,15,44].
Both numerical and analytic results showed that the stresses are not
high enough to induce damage on the laminate. The maximum stresses
are the in-plane normal stresses (𝜎11 ≃ 𝜎22 ∼ 60 MPa) which are tensile
in the transversal direction and compressive in the longitudinal one.
Although the stress level is important, it does not reach the matrix
tensile strength (𝑌𝑡 ∼ 75 MPa), so it is not expected to promote the micro
cracking observed elsewhere [30,45,46]. As an additional verification
of this conclusion, pristine and cooled laminates were subjected to
ILSS tests. Both specimens displayed a similar behavior and strength
(Fig. 8(b)), which means that the thermal cycle does not induce any
type of damage, nor does it deteriorates the pristine properties of
the matrix. Another observation supporting this conclusion is that,
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Composites Part A 168 (2023) 107456
the micro-cracks could only be detected in the region affected by the
impact (Fig. 5), in spite of the thermal stresses being homogeneous.
Altogether, based on the previous observations, we infer that micro-
cracks developed during the impact event and not as a consequence
of the thermal cycle (in agreement with the arguments provided by
Jia et al. [15] for unidirectional carbon/epoxy specimens subjected to
three-point bending).
If the thermal jump is not the cause of matrix cracking, the question
arises as to why micro-cracks develop only during impact at cryogenic
temperatures. The most plausible reason is the degradation of the
mechanical properties of the resin at low temperatures, thus promoting
the apparition of multiple microcracks. Indeed, it has been reported
that at cryogenic temperatures, mode-I fracture toughness, 𝐺𝐼𝐶 , of
CFRP laminates decreases up to 15% [47] and the impact strength of
epoxy Izod coupons up to 50% [11].
The noticeable increase in fiber failure and multiple shear ‘‘micro-
cracks’’at impact velocities below ballistic limit and cryogenic temper-
atures is expected to lead to an impairment of the damage tolerance,
either under compression [26] or tension [48]. This increased matrix
cracking on the specimens impacted at low temperatures may also
affect the ‘‘permeability after impact’’, a relevant feature of future
cryogenic tanks containing pressurized gases. Above the ballistic limit
the main failure mechanism shifts those related to perforation (shear
damage and plugging removal). The influence of the temperature on
the damage morphology tends to vanish and, probably, its influence
on the residual properties.
5. Conclusions
The damage pattern caused by high velocity impacts on composite
laminates at cryogenic temperatures has been investigated. The exper-
imental campaign embraced projectile velocities ranging from 70 to
500 m/s, two plate orientations with respect to the projectile trajectory
(normal and 45◦ oblique) and both room and cryogenic (−150 ◦ C)
temperatures.
The maximum projected damaged area (measured by ultrasonic
C/scan) is obtained for impact velocities slightly above the ballistic
limit. At higher velocities the damaged area decreases. The damage
mechanisms, revealed by X-ray 𝜇CT inspection, showed delamination
dominance at lower velocities while at higher velocities shear in-
duced damage and fiber breakage predominate; due to the localized
deformation at higher velocities.
Oblique impacts produced smaller damaged areas for velocities
below the ballistic threshold, which was delayed with respect to the
J. Pernas-Sánchez et al.
normal impacts because the normal velocity component of oblique
impacts is smaller than its normal counterpart. The damage pattern was
very similar but with some asymmetry.
The results have not shown any influence of temperature on the
projected damaged area for any of the specimen orientations through
the velocity range explored. However, 𝜇CT inspections did reveal a
high number of fiber failures and ‘‘micro-cracks’’ in impacted specimens
at cryogenic temperature. ILSS tests proved that any form of damage
that have an effect on the resin properties occurred during cooling.
Moreover, FEM simulations and CLT also confirmed that the stress state
is not large enough to activate any failure mechanism in the laminate.
The higher density of matrix shear cracks under the impacted zone
in the specimens subjected to cryogenic conditions could be explained
by the deterioration of the mechanical properties of the matrix at low
temperatures.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
J. Pernas-Sánchez: Conceptualization of this study, Methodol-
ogy, Data curation, Writing – original draft preparation. S.M. García-
Rodríguez: Non-destructive testing, Experimental testing, Data cura-
tion. J.A. Artero-Guerrero: Methodology, Data curation, Writing –
draft preparation. J. López-Puente: Conceptualization of this study,
Writing – original draft preparation, Experimental testing. J. Costa:
Writing – draft preparation, Data curation.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgments
This paper is dedicated to the memory of our dear colleague
and friend C.S. Lopes. The research leading to the developments de-
scribed was funded within the framework of the projects: Young
researcher interdisciplinary projects from the University Carlos III of
Madrid, Spain (call UC3M 2019–2020, project: UNION-CM-UC3M),
the Vicerrectorado de Política Científica project 2013/00413/004,
2013/00413/003 and 2020/00123/001. The University of Girona also
acknowledges the financial support of the Spanish Ministerio de In-
novación, Spain through the grant PID2021-126989OB-I00. This work
is framed in the collaboration between the Lightweight Structure Dy-
namic Group (University Carlos III of Madrid) and the AMADE team
of the University of Girona. Funding for APC: Universidad Carlos III de
Madrid (Read & Publish Agreement CRUE-CSIC 2023).
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