Journal of Building Engineering 26 (2019) 100867

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Journal of Building Engineering

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Design challenges of reciprocal frame structures in architecture☆ T

*
Maziar Asefi , Mahnaz Bahremandi-Tolou
Tabriz Islamic Art University, Iran

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Despite the significant advantages of reciprocal frame (RF) structures, especially the integration of architectural
Construction process and structural components, they are barely used in architecture, particularly during early design stages. This
Design challenges paper proposes a design framework for reciprocal frames, and provides architects and designers with a sys-
Design process tematic procedure toward better understanding the design, fabrication, and maintenance of RFs. The study is to
Reciprocal frame structures
find out what challenges and complexities exist in the design and construction process of reciprocal frame
structures and what opportunity they can provide for architects and designers. The complexity aspects of these
structures are investigated by evaluating the design and fabrication of three models of similar form categories,
but in different elements’ shapes and materials (linear and planar). The examined examples show that the design
process of these structures encompasses an iterative procedure among design, construction, and maintenance
issues. This research also evaluates the design process of these structures in architecture and the challenges that
an architect faces during the design process. The structural issues of RFs are considered from an architectural
point of view regarding the general understanding of geometrical stability and behavior of the structure under its
weight. Useful parameters in the design and construction of these structures – namely, the geometry of elements,
type of material, and fabrication process to achieve an optimal RF structure – are presented. Results of this study
also show that RFs can take different shapes and configurations by using modular elements and integrating
structural and architectural elements.

1. Introduction these structures, the complexity is transferred from the fabrication

Reciprocal frames (RF) are three-dimensional structural systems
made of a network of short beams to cover long spans [1]. These
structures have been utilized throughout human history to build shel-
ters (like Hogan dwelling, Tepee frame, and Yurt). They do not require
any interior columns, and can cover regular/irregular geometric sur-
faces. RFs belong to the family of “space structures,” a group com-
prising structural forms that attempt to enclose a maximum unin-
terrupted interior volume within the limitations of a given material set
and context. Unlike membranes that transmit tensile forces or stone
arches which transmit compressive forces, these structures transfer
forces through bending and shear [2]. Reciprocal frame structures are
modular systems composed of units called “fan”. Each fan requires at
least three beams known as “nexor” [3]. Given the layout of fans, these
structures are divided into three categories: (1) a basic module in which
the entire structure consists of a fan; (2) multiple modules which in-
clude a combination of several basic modules; and (3) complex modules
created by extending a central basic module from its surroundings. In
process to the design procedure. Therefore, in this paper, complexities
of RF structures in design and fabrication processes are investigated,
and related solutions are proposed. This paper aims to evaluate design
complexities of these types of structures and to introduce their poten-
tials as lightweight, economic and symbolic structural systems.
2. Literature review
Scientific researches on reciprocal structures began in the late 20th
century. In 1989, the term “reciprocal frame” was first introduced by
Graham Brown, an English designer; and a reciprocal roof structure was
developed for circular houses [4]. Various studies were carried out, all
based on primary research presented by John Chilton in 1992, 1994
and 1995 [4]. In these studies, an accurate definition was suggested for
this type of structural system, and its principles were investigated. The
first Ph.D. thesis on these structures was written by Olga Popovic Larsen
in 1996 focusing on geometrical, structural and construction con-
siderations. This thesis investigated the typology and principles of

☆
This paper has been extracted from a research-based thesis by master student: Mahnaz Bahremandi Tolou at the Department of Architecture, Tabriz Islamic Art
University, Tabriz, Iran, under the supervision of Prof.Maziar Asefi.
*
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: masefi@tabriziau.ac.ir (M. Asefi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2019.100867
Received 2 November 2018; Received in revised form 8 July 2019; Accepted 9 July 2019
Available online 13 July 2019
2352-7102/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. Asefi and M. Bahremandi-Tolou Journal of Building Engineering 26 (2019) 100867

reciprocal frame structures in consultation with John Chilton [2]. The

Ph.D. thesis written by Olivier Baverel in 2000 was undoubtedly a
major step towards identification of reciprocal frame structures in the
modern age. In his thesis, he explained the geometry of three-dimen-
sional reciprocal grids and focused on form finding using genetic al-
gorithms [3]. Gelez (2011) analyzed the behavior of planar reciprocal
frames based on a 4-nexor fan [5]. Douthe and Baverel (2009) com-
pared the structural behavior of reciprocal domes with conventional
triangular grid structures and addressed the design process of these
structures using “dynamic relaxation” in 2014. Parigi (2013) compared
the behavior of two- and three-dimensional reciprocal frames to study
the impact of geometric parameters on the distribution of internal
forces [6]. Besides, Parigi and Sassone (2011) conducted research on
pinned connections to fabricate movable reciprocal frame structures
[7]. Puyol assessed the use of linear plate elements in “Mass customi-
zation of reciprocal frame structures” [8] and Nabaei and Weinand
studied the use of non-linear plate elements in “Geometric description
and structural analysis of a modular timber structure,” so that plywood
was applied to make models in both studies [9]. Regarding material
applications, Elsa Garavaglia and her partners evaluated the failure
behavior of reinforced concrete reciprocal frame structures [10].
However, these structures contained no comparison of materials and
properties required for the selection of optimum materials. Moreover,
the last research on these structures was a Master thesis, done by Calder
Danz in 2015, which concentrated on form finding of the structures
using interactive tools and discussed achievements in connections for
reciprocal frame structures [2].
Most research works on RFs have been conducted by engineers. Fig. 1. Process of structural design in architecture [11].
Thus far, research on reciprocal structures has focused on the structural
aspects of the design process, while the architectural aspects have
rarely been studied. Besides, the studies do not contain any comparison “space structures,” a group comprising structural forms that tend to
of simultaneous changes in effective parameters. Therefore, paying at- enclose a maximum uninterrupted interior volume within the limita-
tention to the design process of these structures according to their tions of a given material set and context. The design process of element
function and architecture and a study on the variation of effective structures, e.g., grid or space structures, has more subsets in comparison
parameters in the design of these systems are essential steps towards the to conventional structures like beam or shell structures. It follows the
promotion of their applications. procedure illustrated in Fig. 1, therefore, there are different attitudes
and subsets in accordance with the structural system, which seem
3. Research design process normal due to the behavior and nature of such systems (Fig. 2).
In general, parameters affecting the design of space grids include
Since a reciprocal frame is a type of space grid structure, the design the structural behavior of members, the ratio of span to height for
process of space grid structures was initially used and adapted for re- different supporting conditions, the accuracy of measurements, final
ciprocal frames in this study. When the effective parameters in the cover plate, and installation methods [12]. Hence, the design stage of
design of these structures were identified, three examples of the similar space structures has different and accurate subsets in comparison to
form categories but in different elements’ shapes and materials (linear conventional structures like concrete, steel or beam -column structures.
and planar) were evaluated. During the fabrication of the structures, Unlike other structures, the design of space structures requires an exact
efforts were made to evaluate the effect of each parameter on the other definition of form, grid, structural elements and supports' locations in
by varying the shapes and dimensions of elements, materials, the pre- earlier stages. According to Fig. 2, it can be said that the design process
paration method of elements, etc. The details of complexities and of space grid structures complies with a linear procedure. However, an
challenges in this process were then compared and analyzed, and fi- iterative procedure occurs in the design of reciprocal frames due to the
nally, solutions were proposed to address each of the challenges. It must dependent variables affecting the geometry of the structure. After the
be noted that the emphasis of this research was on the architectural design process, the iterative procedure even affects the selection of
design process of these structures, and discussion about structural materials in the fabrication process, and changes are probable to
analyses like the amount of moment and shear forces of the samples happen to the final stages of construction (Fig. 3).
were not investigated.

3.1. The design process of space grid structures 4. Materials and methods (practical and laboratory research)

Regarding the relationship between structure and architecture and
the design process, Eduard Allen (1900) believed that “similar to ar-
chitectural design, structural design is a two-way path in which the
reciprocation between form and space leads to an optimal combination”
[11]. The architectural design process can be divided into three stages;
concept, design, and construction – maintenance (Fig. 1). Fig. 1 shows a
general model usually used during the architectural design process
considering structures and materials.
As mentioned before, reciprocal frames belong to the family of
In this research, existing complexities were investigated by de-
signing and constructing three curved forms of this type of structure
with variable direction and rise (a high-rise dome, a low-rise dome, and
a saddle-shape surface). The function of structures was defined the
same in all three samples (as an urban sunshade); however, the type of
elements, the scale of structures, the pattern of grids and the prepara-
tion process of components were considered differently in order to
analyze changes in each parameter more precisely.

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M. Asefi and M. Bahremandi-Tolou Journal of Building Engineering 26 (2019) 100867

Fig. 2. Design process of space structures.

model. Even though this structure was not designed using parametric
modeling, all dimensions were accurately calculated. Since the struc-
ture had a regular geometric form, the exact design of the main fan
along with the precise production of elements led to the fewest errors
during fabrication. The design of this structure began with that of a fan.
General geometrical properties, such as rise and span, as well as weight,
amount of consumed material, cost and ease of erection were con-
sidered to determine the dimensions and geometric proportions. In this
structure, linear elements were used to produce the fans whose prop-
erties are presented in Figs. 4–6, and in Tables 1–3.
Investigating various materials based on factors such as weight,
resistance to weather conditions (rain, snow, and sunshine) and aes-
thetics, Siberian pine wood (known as Russian wood in Iran) was
chosen as the preferred option, particularly due to its reasonable cost. A
prototype of this structure was constructed according to all accurate
proportions and angles, and notch joints were employed in the struc-
ture. Given the limited number of elements, components and connec-
tions were cut manually using a miter saw. Eventually, some parts of
the structure were covered by polycarbonate plates to improve shading
and visual aesthetics (Fig. 7).
The structural analysis also confirms the structural stability of the
model. Since the RF structure is considered one of the spatial structures,
the amount of permissible structural deformation can be extracted ac-
cording to the same regulations used for single-layer space frame
structures. The vertical deformation on a surface affected by a dead
load should not exceed 1/200 and for the live load, it should not exceed
1/250 of the span's shorter length. The result of the structural analysis
shows that the maximum deformation equals 0.00178 m which is
within the limiting range considering the dome's span of 3.40 m (Figs. 8
and 9). Since in this form, all peripheral elements are in the lower
height compared to other elements and are located on a perimeter ring,
the amount of deformation is very slight. In other words, in the RF
structure, due to the discrete grid and elements' separate behavior, it is
important to introduce a perimeter ring for support points' location. The
maximum bending moment and shear force occur in the outermost
beam members, which was taken into consideration during the material

Fig. 3. Design process of reciprocal structures.

4.1. Structure 1: A sunshade dome with linear elements

This structure was a low-rise dome, 3.40 m in diameter, with a

regular geometry, constructed as a full-scale sunshade at Tabriz Islamic
Art University. The structure consisted of two principal components:
the dome roof and the supporting piers. The reciprocal dome was made
of patterns shaped by hexagonal modules and expanded as a complex Fig. 4. Element's geometry.

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M. Asefi and M. Bahremandi-Tolou Journal of Building Engineering 26 (2019) 100867

Fig. 5. Fan's properties.

whole weight of the full-scale structure. On the other hand, excessive

rigidity of materials led to the failure of tenons. Thus, in addition to its
light weight, the selected material must be flexible enough for the ar-
rangement of elements, therefore, Polycarbonate (PC) plates with a
thickness of 6 mm were finally chosen. Various materials, whose fea-
tures are compared in Figs. 14 and 15, were studied and analyzed for
this structure.
Considering the structure's span of 3.5 m, the maximum allowable
deformation must not exceed 0.0175 m. The structural analyses show
that all of the materials used for this structure have an admissible
Fig. 6. Final reciprocal dome. amount of deformation. Figs. 16–20 and Table 4 shows the result of
structural analysis for associating with each material used. In conclu-
Table 1 sion, Polycarbonate was selected as the final material because of its
Element dimensions. light weight, high flexibility, and some assembly considerations.
n Length (cm) Width (cm) Thickness (cm)
Although polycarbonate plates were lighter in weight than other
options, and the assembly of components was accomplished without
90 80 2.6 6 failure in tenons due to their high flexibility, the light weight of the
elements and their oblique arrangement relative to each other caused
buckling in the members. As a result, the overall rise of the structure
Table 2 was much less than the predicted amount. Therefore, stiffeners were
Fan's properties.
used to modify the rise of structure. They kept a constant spacing be-
n ri (cm) ro (cm) H (cm) X (cm) (°c)α tween the elements, and prevented them from dropping, which ulti-
mately resulted in an optimal rise. In other words, it can be stated that
6 13.2 68.73 19.84 77.5 14
in the selection of material, its specific weight and the ratio of thickness
to the length of elements determine the behavior of the member in the
Table 3
entire structure. Moreover, the buckling strength of members in ele-
Dome's properties. ment structures, such as reciprocal systems, is a key factor for the se-
lection of material (Fig. 21). In this structure, members were cut using a
Span (cm) Height (cm) Weight (kg) Area (m2)
laser cutting machine. The laser cutter used can cut in the direction
340 63 60.66 16.76 perpendicular to the member, and other required angles could not be
made by this tool. Therefore, an error coefficient was considered for the
cutting process due to the oblique arrangement of the members relative
selection and connection design in order to maintain the structural to each other.
stability. Fig. 10 shows the normal and shear stresses of RF dome.

4.3. Structure 3: A saddle-shaped sunshade

4.2. Structure 2: A sunshade dome with plate elements
Structure 1 had insufficient shading because of using linear ele-
ments so that it was attempted to employ polycarbonate plates as cover.
In structure two that was fabricated on a laboratory scale, 46 trapezoid
plate elements (with bases of 90 and 50 cm in length and a height of
25 cm) formed a dome 3.5 m in diameter and 1 m in height, aimed at
better shading. A fan consisted of 4 members was used in this structure
to produce a square-rectangular pattern (Figs. 11–13).
Like the previous structure, the design process began with a fan.
Notch joints were embedded in the web of members. The connections
and angles were modeled using Rhinoceros software. Web connections
and interlocking of members gave structural strength against down-
ward forces. In other words, the elements were interlocked instead of
using edge joints. To create a suitable rise, however, notch joints within
a member were oriented differently along the Z axis. Structural weight
problems were not recognizable in primary small-scale studies.
Therefore, using MDF, Siberian pine wood and plywood increased the
After making two double-curved forms in the same direction with
regular geometries, the third structure was a saddle-shaped surface with
linear elements. The structure was designed and modeled using para-
metric tools. Since the elements were arranged within a free-form
surface by variable proportions, the design of a fan was not reasonable
(like what was done for the two previous structures). The span of this
structure is similar to structure 1 (equal to 3.40 m). Hence, a reverse
process was applied so that the general form was initially modeled, the
selected pattern was projected on it and the positions of connections
were then determined on the elements. The components were specified
by numbers and then prepared for cutting and installation. In free-form
reciprocal frames, the arrangement of elements in different directions
creates various angles so that the components cannot be cut by con-
ventional cutting machines such as laser cutters and double- and triple-
head CNCs because they cut only in perpendicular direction and cannot
create angular cutting, so there is a need to use multi-head tools for
element's preparation. This even affects the fabrication of small models,

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M. Asefi and M. Bahremandi-Tolou Journal of Building Engineering 26 (2019) 100867

Fig. 7. Sunshade reciprocal dome.

Fig. 8. Structural analysis of RF dome by ANSYS: Total deformation.

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M. Asefi and M. Bahremandi-Tolou Journal of Building Engineering 26 (2019) 100867

Fig. 9. Total deformation (left), compared to before analyze (right).

Fig. 10. Normal stress (left), Shear stress (right).

Fig. 11. Basic model of reciprocal dome with planar elements.

Fig. 13. Fan of planar elements: simulated model (left), A physical model with
PC sheets (right).

fabrication process. The maximum amount of deformation in this

structure equals 0.0102 m gained through the structural analysis by
ANSYS, and it must not exceed 0.017 m. Figs. 22–24 show the structural
analyses of RF saddle form. There are maximum bending moment and
shear force at the support points. As in this structure, not all peripheral
elements reach the ground, so, some of the elements were introduced as
Fig. 12. Polycarbonate planar element.
support points.

and loose joints change the predicted form, requiring additional con-
nections to fix the configuration. This reveals the importance of proper 5. Challenges and complexities of reciprocal structures
cutting tools and demonstrates the challenges associated with the
As mentioned earlier, an advantage of reciprocal frame structures is

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M. Asefi and M. Bahremandi-Tolou Journal of Building Engineering 26 (2019) 100867

Fig. 14. Physical properties of materials.

Fig. 15. Global weight of structure with different materials (elements' number: 46).

that short beams are employed to cover long spans. These structural
systems also provide benefits such as speed and ease of erection.
Despite such advantages, this type of structural system is rarely utilized
in contemporary architecture because of architects' and designers’
limited knowledge of reciprocal frame structures and enormous com-
plexities in their design process. This study aims to detect design
complexities of these structures and to introduce their potentials as
lightweight, economic and symbolic structural systems. Observations
on laboratory- and full-scale samples of these structures indicate the
dimensions of discussed challenges. Three steps of concept, design and
fabrication and maintenance are considered the main phases of the
design process of these structures; most of the challenges are faced with
in design, fabrication and maintenance steps. In this study, the chal-
lenges of these two steps of the design process are investigated, and
solutions are proposed to deal with them.
5.1. Design challenges
5.1.1. Modeling
Modeling of these structures is carried out by determining the form

Fig. 16. Total deformation (left) and Normal stress (right) of structure 2 with pine wood for material.

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Fig. 17. Total deformation (left) and Normal stress (right) of structure 2 with plywood for material.

Fig. 18. Total deformation (left) and Normal stress (right) of structure 2 with MDF for material.

Fig. 19. Total deformation (left) and Normal stress (right) of structure 2 with PVC for material.

and selecting the grid. Grids used for reciprocal systems provide de-
signers with a broad range of forms. Unlike conventional space grid
structures which have simple grids, there is a wide range of forms for
reciprocal frames in terms of the general configuration of the structure
and patterns (Fig. 25).
An overview of patterns used in both types of structures demon-
strates their significant difference. In RF structures, the members are
directly connected to each other without any intermediate connection
(Figs. 26 and 27).
Therefore, their reciprocal geometry cannot be easily modeled by

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Fig. 20. Total deformation (left) and Normal stress (right) of structure 2 with PC for material.

Table 4
Summary of structural analyses results for different materials.
Material Weight (Kg) Total Deformation (m) Direction Deformation (m) Normal Stress (Pa) Shear Stress (Pa)

Max Min Max Min Max Min

Pine wood 64.4 0.00095 0.00049 −0.00053 2.33e8 −2.92e8 6.87e7 −7.03e7
plywood 64.4 0.00084 0.00044 −0.00047 2.50e8 −3.08e8 6.89e7 −7.03e7
MDF 69 0.0042 0.0022 −0.0023 1.5e8 −1.65e8 6.90e7 −7.25e7
PVC 13.8 0.0011 0.0006 −0.00064 5.78e7 −698e7 1.47e7 −1.50e7
PC 11.04 0.0011 0.00059 −0.00063 3.99e7 −5.018e7 1.17e7 −1.20e7

conventional CAD tools because of their non-hierarchical nature. The
geometry of a grid of interlocked reciprocal elements must be derived
from complicated relationships between the shape, geometry, and po-
sition of all elements requiring numerical solutions based on geome-
trical compatibility of elements. In recent years, the Grasshopper (a
plug-in for Rhinoceros) has considerably facilitated modeling of such
structures. Recently developed by Dario Parigi, the Reciprocalizer is a
plug-in for Grasshopper which models the geometry of reciprocal frame
structures based on parameters required for the description of re-
ciprocal elements [14]. There are two main methods for RF geometric
modeling: the first method makes a two-dimensional reciprocal pattern
and projects it on a 3-D surface [15]. This method is applicable only for
closed geometries that have one direction curvatures like domes. The
second method discretizes the geometry of a surface in polygonal form
meshes and makes the reciprocal pattern by moving or rotating the
mesh edges [16]. There are various methods that can be used to achieve
RF surface. Three analytical methods that create standard reciprocal
frames exist: 1) The translation method (based on moving elements), 2)
The rotation method (based on rotating the mesh edges), and 3) The
extended translation method (based on transition and rotation of ele-
ments) [17]. Since the connection type is a notch, the elements’ inter-
sections serve as joints, and the accurate depths of notches are gained
after form-finding.
5.1.2. Form finding
Form finding in architecture and structural engineering is re-
cognized as the process of designing optimal structural shapes. It was
gained by using empirical tools and physical models to simulate me-
chanical behavior. Nowadays, physical models have been exchanged by
digital simulations that let designers investigate form in real time [18].
As explained above, the design of reciprocal structures involves
attention to many geometric parameters and the final form of the
structure cannot be predetermined simply by changing the parameters.
The term form-finding for the reciprocal structure was first introduced
by “Baverel” in 2004. Form finding is an important step towards de-
termining the primary configuration and parameters of the structure. As

Fig. 21. Effect of the spacer on members buckling and structure's rise in light materials.

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M. Asefi and M. Bahremandi-Tolou
Fig. 22. Structural analysis of RF saddle form by ANSYS: Total deformation.
Fig. 23. Total deformation (left), compared to before analyze (right).
mentioned in previous sections (5.1.1), a reciprocal form can be found
through analytical solutions by the first method of modeling, but the
solutions can be applied only for particular shapes such as platonic
polyhedrons. Form-finding is not very crucial for dome forms because
they have a regular geometry and one direction curvatures. While for
geometries with different curvatures' directions like saddle forms, to
reach an accurate position for elements, it is essential to perform a
form-finding procedure. According to the second method of RF's mod-
eling explained in section 5.1.1, to create a reciprocal frame on a sur-
face, it is required to discretize the geometry of a surface in polygonal
form meshes and then create the reciprocal pattern by moving or ro-
tating the mesh edges and extend edges until they overlap each other
[16]. The dynamic relaxation method recently used for form finding
process of these types of structures can also be applied by Kangaroo
plugin used in Grasshopper plugin in Rhinoceros program. In this
paper, Kangaroo plugin was used for the purpose of form-finding of the
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Journal of Building Engineering 26 (2019) 100867
proposed structures. It works based on the transformation of primary
configuration through optimization of the engagement length in two
elements [16]. The particle spring system, used by Kangaroo plugin, is
one of the most famous and common methods for digital form finding.
It is based on the discretization of a continuing model into a finite
number of masses, named particles connected by linear elastic springs.
The particles are in a non-equilibrium state at first. When the simula-
tion commences, they move until they meet an equilibrium position for
a considered set of parameters [18]. In other words, after discretizing
the geometry, lines were transformed into springs, and points into
particles using Kangaroo. An identical upward load was applied so that
the real structure would resist vertical (gravity) loads. All end points of
peripheral elements serve as anchor points. Finally, springs, particles,
forces and anchor points were connected to the Kangaroo Engine in
their respective slots, so, all connections between lines were solved si-
multaneously. For the purpose of this paper that is to evaluate design
M. Asefi and M. Bahremandi-Tolou
Fig. 24. Normal stress (left), Shear stress (right).
Fig. 25. Diversity in global form and tessellations of reciprocal structures.
Fig. 26. Reciprocal structure's tessellations [13].
Fig. 27. Space structure's tessellations [12].
challenges of reciprocal frame structures from an architectural point of
view, it is believed that this is the simplest and practical form-finding
method that can be used by architects and designers during the early
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Journal of Building Engineering 26 (2019) 100867
stages of the design process and could facilitate the employment and
the use of reciprocal frames in their design.
5.1.3. Design of members, connections and cladding
As discussed before, the complexity is transferred from the fabri-
cation process to the design procedure in reciprocal structures. The
design phase is the most important and complicated part of reciprocal
frame structures. Although basic reciprocal modules do not have con-
siderable complexities, using multiple and complex modules whether in
regular or free forms requires an accurate design. Since reciprocal
frames contain many components reciprocally connected to each other,
some behaviors of the structure cannot be predicted with certainty.
Although the connections may be arranged easily, the grid of members
must be erected according to principles of reciprocal structures when it
expands, which requires a significant accuracy during fabrication be-
cause its general geometry is derived from simultaneous and compli-
cated interactions between the “position and size” of all elements.
Hence, geometric parameters of each connection depend on the values
of other parameters during installation. Practical experiences suggest
that elements should be installed according to precise parameters be-
cause if a connection exceeds the allowable tolerance, it affects the
positions of all other elements and necessitates a general modification
in the whole geometry. Connections should be entirely adapted to the
general modification during installation in order to retrieve geometric
compatibility with the whole form. Therefore, if an element is installed
incorrectly, it may cause a huge geometric incompatibility in other
elements during installation based on design parameters [19]. Geo-
metric parameters relevant to the shape of elements and the type of
connections play a key role in the design phase of reciprocal frame
structures:
a) Members: dimensions and type of elements play a major role in
reciprocal frames in terms of the span, rise, shading, structural weight
and type of connections. Elements used in reciprocal frame structures
have various forms which fall into different categories geometrically.
Similar to structures 1 and 2, geometric differences of the members lead
M. Asefi and M. Bahremandi-Tolou
Table 5
Type of elements in RF structures.
Type of element Subdivides
Linear element – Roof structures
Planar element Typical flat planar element
Curved planar element
Optimization planar element (perforated elements)
Fig. 28. Typical connections in reciprocal structures: A) Bolt, B) Notch, C) Connection in aluminum elements.
to the creation of various forms. Moreover, the orientation of connec-
tions relative to each other creates different geometric forms. It can be
argued that all variables are interdependent in these structural systems
and a variation in the smallest member will result in a change in the
whole geometry of the structure. In reciprocal frame structures, ele-
ments are generally classified as linear and plate (Table 5).
According to observations in the construction process of structures 1
and 2, it can be concluded that in case of using linear elements, the
structure would not face a particular complexity due to its geometric
shape; but if plate elements are used to enhance shading conditions or
create reliable thick shells, other problems will occur that must be
solved in order to achieve a desirable structure in terms of speed and
ease of erection.
b) Connections: design complexity of these structures is mostly due
to the integration of elements and connections. In deployable structures
such as scissor-like systems, for instance, the structural configuration
may initially seem complicated, but their design process is simpler due
to the separation of connections from the members, while in reciprocal
frame structures, the final form is determined by the technology of
connections [21]. The connections are a part of members, and the
members are a part of connections, so they cannot be designed in-
dividually [22]. There are three types of connections in this regard:
• Connection of members to each other
• Connection of members to cover of the structure
• Connection of members to peripheral supports
The length of overlap between members affects the overall design of
the structure and its form. In all three structures, notch connections
were used. This kind of connection requires a precise design of position
and length of mortises before implementation. It is stronger than the
other two, especially when combined with the second type of connec-
tion (Fig. 28).
c) Cladding: Few studies have been carried out on RF's cladding.
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Journal of Building Engineering 26 (2019) 100867
Purpose
- Increase the depth and strength of the structure
- Increase rate of shadow
- produce a rugged, thick shell
- Increase rate of shadow [20]
- Decrease in weight and using less material in two ways:
- remove the lower part of elements
- Empty the member using the absorption algorithm [15]
One of the problems of covering these structures is the lack of flat plates
created between structural elements. Among the few structures made
with RF, the cladding is either Polycarbonate or PVC sheets between the
elements (Fig. 29-A) or integrated membrane cover which is located
inside or outside of the structure (Fig. 29-B, C). It is to be mentioned
that the dependence and the severe impact of the material on the be-
havior of this structure, both for the use of structural members and for
cladding elements need to be considered in all design steps.
5.2. Fabrication and maintenance
5.2.1. Materials
Materials are the main drivers of the model because the design
parameters related to the user-defined constraints, context, archi-
tectural geometry, structure, manufacturing technology, assembly lo-
gics, structural performance simulation, and structural optimization are
interlinked to the materials [23]. The appropriateness between material
and kind of structure has an important role in structural behavior.
Unlike the materials used in the construction of continuous free-form
structures that should have out-plane strength and ductility properties,
materials applied for discrete element structures such as reciprocal
frames should have a high buckling strength to be used as long mem-
bers, which may include steel, aluminum, and wood. However, the
selection of materials depends on the permanent or temporary function
of structure (Fig. 30).
The results of structure 2 clearly illustrate the relationship between
the type of element and the material. As previously mentioned, an
important point in using materials is paying attention to the geometry
of elements, whether linear or plate, that affects their weight. Wood and
steel are suitable for linear elements. Since the dimensions of plate
elements are larger than those of the linear type, choosing a material
with low specific weight can have a significant impact on the reduction
of the overall weight of the structure. However, the light weight of
slender members may cause buckling, while stiffeners can reduce the
M. Asefi and M. Bahremandi-Tolou
Fig. 29. Cladding of reciprocal structures: A) Separated panels, B) Integrated membrane cladding, C) Planar element.
Fig. 30. Common material for reciprocal frame structures.
probability of buckling. Therefore, materials with a low specific weight
and high buckling strength are appropriate for plate elements in these
structures.
5.2.2. Fabrication method and steps
The advent of various digital construction techniques in the 1950s,
such as computer-aided design (CAD) and computer aided manu-
facturing (CAM) techniques, and the use of robots in architecture and
technological advances in the 1980s have already helped architects to
construct complex and free forms. However, these techniques still seem
nascent in the construction industry and have not prevailed yet due to
using complex and costly tools such as robots, laser cutting machines,
etc. Construction of reciprocal frames does not need auxiliary equip-
ment such as scaffolds, and the structure can be erected quickly if all
members are properly connected to each other. However, some im-
portant points must be taken into account during the preparation and
fabrication of components; otherwise, the assembly of structure will not
progress correctly.
a) Preparation of components: digital manufacturing tools are es-
sential for the fabrication of reciprocal frames due to the diversity and
multiplicity of their components. There are various methods for making
complex and free forms that can be practically employed depending on
the complexity of the form. If the form has low complexity and can be
converted into several repetitive patterns on a whole form, it is possible
to apply traditional construction techniques such as manual templates,
ropes, etc. but if the form is so complex that conventional methods do
not seem feasible, digital construction techniques should be utilized for
fabrication. These techniques help create forms with complicated geo-
metries. As discussed above, traditional and manual techniques may be
useful for basic reciprocal modules depending on the number of ele-
ments. In short-span structures with a small number of components, it is
13
Journal of Building Engineering 26 (2019) 100867
possible to cut the members and their connection points using a miter
saw. These devices can cut unusual and non-standard angles, but as
mentioned above, their use is justifiable only when the number of
elements is limited. In this case, the cutting angles are applied to the
members manually, and the device cuts the members under the direct
control of the operator. In structure 1, the components were manually
produced, and 90 pieces of wood were cut with their joints with a miter
saw. However, when the structure has a great number of members,
manual cutting tools not only retard the progress of construction, but
also reduce precision. So, it is necessary to employ digital manu-
facturing methods (Fig. 31).
Robots provide more facilities for construction compared to other
digital construction tools such as CNC machines. Their main advantage
is the flexibility which allows them to handle a variety of materials in
the site. Their higher artificial intelligence facilitates and accelerates
the design process compared to other digital construction systems. In
addition, they can cut materials at different angles. Full-scale fabrica-
tion of structure 3 involved the use of multi-head CNC machines, but
the process was not accomplished practically because this type of
equipment was not available.
b) Fabrication steps: an advantage of reciprocal frames is that they
can be erected without supporting equipment such as scaffolds. Their
erection method varies by the form of structure; for example, in geo-
metrically regular short-span domes, it is possible to erect the entire
structure and place it on the peripheral supporting ring after the as-
sembly of components as carried out in structure 1; but in long-span
structures, temporary central columns may be employed to facilitate
the transfer of structure due to a considerable number of components
and the structural weight. In free-form structures, the assembly process
may begin from the peripheral points and end up at the center. There
are two general strategies for the installation of reciprocal frames:
M. Asefi and M. Bahremandi-Tolou
Fig. 31. Cutting tools.
gradual and group [22]. In a gradual strategy, the members are in-
stalled one by one, and the erection of structure resembles weaving. The
installation of components was gradually carried out from the centers in
structures 1 and 2, while the components were installed longitudinally
from peripheral points in the saddle-shaped surface. In group strategy,
components of the structure are categorized and installed in larger
groups which are then joined to each other so that the group installa-
tion method seems reasonable for long spans.
5.2.3. Maintenance
One of the disadvantages of reciprocal frames is the difficulty in
replacing elements. In other words, just a failure in one member may
cause the collapse of the entire structure, which is due to the mutual
dependence of members, so, the feature which makes the structure self-
supported can cause the collapse of the whole structure. Hence, if
spacers are used in connections, the damaged member can be replaced
more easily because the connector piece is separate from the adjacent
elements. However, this must be considered in the early stages of de-
sign.
6. Discussion
Given the advances in technology and construction methods in re-
cent decades, architects and designers have shown more interest in
lightweight structures involving easy and fast construction techniques.
On the other hand, these structures can be used as a symbolic structure
for various functions. Element structures are basically known as low-
cost systems due to a minimal use of materials; moreover, reciprocal
frame structures seem relatively more cost-efficient because their in-
stallation does not need an expert. Different materials were examined in
the structures developed for this study in terms of form and construc-
tion method. The change in each factor produced different results and
effects in the whole structure. The changes in parameters were con-
sidered so that the similarities and differences of the behavior of
structure could be evaluated in different conditions. Table 6 sum-
marizes the parameters changed in the structures.
According to a comparison of the parameters examined in Table 5,
the following can be concluded:
• Form: in a regular geometric form such as a dome, the design can be
Table 6
Parameters examined in 3 structures.
Project Parameters
Form Curvature Element Tessellation
1 Regular Curve in one direction Linear Style fan 6: Triangle and
(identical) hexagonal pattern
2 Regular Curve in one direction planar Style fan 4:
The square and rectangular
pattern
3 Irregular Curve in two directions with Linear Style fan 6: Triangle and
variable rise (variable) hexagonal pattern
14
Journal of Building Engineering 26 (2019) 100867
started from a fan and generalized to the entire structure; while in
free forms, the reverse process must be employed to achieve the
desired form using modeling tools.
• Curvature: using typical elements and following the same assembly
logic (clockwise or counterclockwise) produce a single-curved form
in which there is an inverse relationship between the rise of struc-
ture and eccentricity of members. Double-curved forms are gener-
ated by elements varying in length or location of connections that
follow the combined assembly logic (clockwise and counter-
clockwise).
• Type of element: linear elements have a higher safety factor in terms
of structural weight, but they provide less shading and structural
depth which affect the strength of the structure. Using planar ele-
ments produces more shadow if the structure is used as a sunshade.
• Patterns of the grid: patterns play a significant role in the formal
diversity of these structures; in addition, the applied pattern de-
termines the location of connections.
• Type of connections: when notch connections are embedded in the
edge of members, the structure does not have a high strength against
upward forces, but the elements can be assembled more con-
veniently compared to when notch connections are embedded in the
web of members.
• Material: a selection of materials depends on many factors such as
the shape of the element, type of preparation and scale of the
structure. Treated wood is generally a good material in terms of
resistance to weather conditions, particularly for linear elements.
Problems associated with wood texture and dimensional proportions
should be considered for plate elements and production of compo-
nents. In element structures, e.g., reciprocal frames, it is essential to
notice the specific weight and buckling strength of the material to
reach the predicted form. As in structure 2, low buckling strength
and excessive light weight of polycarbonate plates (chosen to reduce
the structural weight) along with the oblique arrangement of
members caused a decrease in the rise, necessitating the use of
stiffeners. On the other hand, the type of material may dramatically
affect the architectural aesthetics of the structure.
• Cutting tools: implementation of accurate connections among ele-
ments is the most important point in reciprocal frames. However,
the location of connections may have a slight tolerance, although
the tolerance should be in the direction and angle of the main
Connection material Cutting tool Span (m)
Notch (in the edge of Pine wood Compound Miter 3.40
members) Saw
Notch (in the web of PC laser cutter 3.50
members)
Notch (in the edge of MDF laser cutter 3.40
members)
M. Asefi and M. Bahremandi-Tolou Journal of Building Engineering 26 (2019) 100867

Table 7
Challenges and solutions in the design process of reciprocal frame structures.
Aspects Type of challenges Solutions

Design
Construction and maintenance
Modeling and form finding - The dependent variables - Use interactive tools and modeling
Geometry and type of - Rate of shadow - Using of planar elements
elements - Buckling - The proportions between the element's length and thickness
- Type of connections - Use of tightening members among the elements
- Suitable dimension for ease of erection
Connections The requirement of accurate angles in - Use of digital fabrication tools
connections - Use of additional members
Connection of members to cover of the - Use of axial rotational fittings
structure
Connection of members to peripheral
supports
Cladding - The lack of flat plates created between - To define the structural elements as a planar shape
structural elements - Integrated and membrane with the distance from the
- Drainage structural elements
Material - Weight - Suitable material according to the type of element (linear or
- Buckling planar)
- Lower density
- High buckling resistance
Fabrication method and - Different angles of cutting in notch - Use of digital fabrication tools
steps connection - Use temporary columns
- Keep of elements during installation in - Erection the structure on the ground and transfer it after
large span completion to the desired location
maintenance - Replacing elements in case of damage - Use of separate connections from elements

connection. As done in structure 1, members can be cut manually if
the number and type of members are limited, but as the number and
type of elements increase, the use of digital cutting machines be-
comes essential. Laser cutters and two- and three-head CNCs can cut
in the direction perpendicular to the member due to their cutting
instructions. In free forms, a suitable cutting tool must be utilized to
achieve the desired shape due to various locations of the elements
and different engagement lengths in notch connections.
• Scale: the scale and periphery of the structure have a great effect on
the selection of the material, the weight of the structure and its
performance.
Despite all the potentials mentioned for reciprocal frames, architects
and designers must be aware of the design process and challenges as-
sociated with these structures. In the design process, architects have to
consider design evaluation criteria at an initial stage. These criteria
include a wide range of items like the function and size of the structure,
type of use-temporary or permanent, design context, construction and
fabrication methods, expected lifecycle, material and criteria that are
connected to the specific project [24]. Therefore, the architect must
find a balance between requirements and constraints such as existing
resources, structural and operational concerns, financial issues, and
maintenance issues. The structures implemented in this study de-
termined the dimensions of complexity in these structures during dif-
ferent stages. In structure 1, it can be generally said that the preliminary
challenge was related to the design phase in which the structure was
successfully constructed and installed due to precise design of the
members and structural connections although parametric design
method was not applied. In structure 2, the complexities related to the
shape, material, and weight of elements was revealed, and in structure
3, issues related to the production and preparation of elements were
explained. Table 6 briefly illustrates the aspects and challenges men-
tioned above as well as appropriate strategies for these structures.
Other important issues in reciprocal frames include architectural
factors such as aesthetics and the relationship between function and
structural form. As previously mentioned, patterns applied for re-
ciprocal frames provide a broad variety of forms so that each pattern
can create different potentials for lighting and shading. The geometric
shape of elements also affects the overall form of structure. Although
linear elements have a higher safety factor in terms of structural weight,
plate elements increase the strength and depth of the structure. Using
different materials can also be visually and intuitively effective. For
example, wood seems more vernacular than steel or concrete.
Moreover, notch joints are visually more compatible with wood.
Accordingly, it can be stated that both qualitative and quantitative
factors are interrelated in the design of reciprocal frames. Hence, all
factors should be considered simultaneously in the design process of
reciprocal frames by the objectives of each structure (Table 7).
7. Conclusion
In conventional structures, the greatest challenge occurs in the
adaptation of the structure with architectural requirements, while in
reciprocal frames, complexities and challenges mainly happen in the
design step because there are many dependent variables in the struc-
tural form finding. In this step, a slight change in any parameter leads to
a change in the entire structure. For instance, one of the influential
parameters is the dimensions of elements which in turn consists of three
variables of length, width and thickness, and any change in these di-
mensions could affect the global form's properties including its rise or
span. In addition, the type of element in terms of geometry, the angle
between elements, the engagement length, the type of connections and
the material used are among other influential parameters that affect the
structure; and therefore, a slight change in one of these parameters
results in changes in other features of the structure. In other words, the
design process of reciprocal frames is an iterative procedure in which
the final form of structure cannot be conceived by changing a para-
meter because the structural variables depend on each other. Just like a
matrix, all the parameters are reciprocally related to each other in
different classifications based on geometry, design, quantitative issues,
construction, qualitative matters, etc. For example, the type of elements
affects the engagement length, structural weight, structural form and
depth, position of cover and cutting process of components. On the
other hand, the element dimensions affect the span, rise, depth and
weight of the structure. In addition to element dimensions, the type of
material may have an impact upon the weight and rise of the structure
by its buckling strength. Moreover, the rigidity or flexibility of the se-
lected material may play a key role in the installation of components
without damages. In free-form surfaces, the fabrication process involves
using particular cutting tools such as robots and CNC machines due to
the arrangement of elements at different angles relative to each other
(by the form) and the use of non-typical elements. Despite all these

15
M. Asefi and M. Bahremandi-Tolou
complexities and interrelated parameters, the structure can be suc-
cessfully erected if all factors are considered simultaneously and care-
fully during first steps in the design process and next steps such as
preparing the components and locating the connections.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank all members of the International
Academy of Innovative Art and Architecture (IARTECH) for their help
and support in the construction of the structures.
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