processes
Review
Research Progress and Prospects on Hydrogen Damage in
Welds of Hydrogen-Blended Natural Gas Pipelines
Jiuqing Ban 1,2, *, Xiaopeng Yan 3,4, *, Bin Song 1,2 , Song Deng 3,4 , Hua Wu 1,2 , Yongfan Tang 1,2 and Wen Yin 3,4
Citation: Ban, J.; Yan, X.; Song, B.;
Deng, S.; Wu, H.; Tang, Y.; Yin, W.
Research Progress and Prospects on
Hydrogen Damage in Welds of
Hydrogen-Blended Natural Gas
Pipelines. Processes 2023, 11, 3180.
https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11113180
Academic Editors: Chin-Hyung Lee
and Vladimir S. Arutyunov
Received: 5 October 2023
Revised: 1 November 2023
Accepted: 2 November 2023
Published: 7 November 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Processes 2023, 11, 3180. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11113180
1 Natural Gas Research Institute, PetroChina Southwest Oil and Gas Field Company, Chengdu 610213, China
2 Key Laboratory of Natural Gas Quality Control and Energy Measurement for State Market Regulation,
Chengdu 610213, China
3 School of Energy, School of Petroleum and Natural Gas Engineering, Changzhou University,
Changzhou 213164, China
4 CNPC-CZU Innovation Alliance, Changzhou University, Changzhou 213164, China
* Correspondence: banjiuqing@hotmail.com (J.B.); swpuyxp_2017@foxmail.com (X.Y.)
Abstract: Hydrogen energy represents a crucial pathway towards achieving carbon neutrality and
is a pivotal facet of future strategic emerging industries. The safe and efficient transportation of
hydrogen is a key link in the entire chain development of the hydrogen energy industry’s “production,
storage, and transportation”. Mixing hydrogen into natural gas pipelines for transportation is the
potential best way to achieve large-scale, long-distance, safe, and efficient hydrogen transportation.
Welds are identified as the vulnerable points in natural gas pipelines, and compatibility between
hydrogen-doped natural gas and existing pipeline welds is a critical technical challenge that affects
the global-scale transportation of hydrogen energy. Therefore, this article systematically discusses the
construction and weld characteristics of hydrogen-doped natural gas pipelines, the research status of
hydrogen damage mechanism, and mechanical property strengthening methods of hydrogen-doped
natural gas pipeline welds, and points out the future development direction of hydrogen damage
mechanism research in hydrogen-doped natural gas pipeline welds. The research results show that:
1 Currently, there is a need for comprehensive research on the degradation of mechanical properties
in welds made from typical pipe materials on a global scale. It is imperative to systematically
elucidate the mechanism of mechanical property degradation due to conventional and hydrogen-
induced damage in welds of high-pressure hydrogen-doped natural gas pipelines worldwide. 2 The
deterioration of mechanical properties in welds of hydrogen-doped natural gas pipelines is influenced
by various components, including hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen. It is necessary to reveal
the mechanism of mechanical property deterioration of pipeline welds under the joint participation of
multiple damage mechanisms under multi-component gas conditions. 3 Establishing a fundamental
database of mechanical properties for typical pipeline steel materials under hydrogen-doped natural
gas conditions globally is imperative, to form a method for strengthening the mechanical properties
of typical high-pressure hydrogen-doped natural gas pipeline welds. 4 It is essential to promptly
develop relevant standards for hydrogen blending transportation, welding technology, as well as
weld evaluation, testing, and repair procedures for natural gas pipelines.
Keywords: hydrogen-blended natural gas; pipeline transportation; material compatibility; pipeline
welds; strengthening of mechanical properties
1. Introduction
With the increasing attention to new developments in energy such as “carbon peaking
and carbon neutrality” and “transformation and transition” in line with societal progress [1],
hydrogen energy, widely recognized as a renewable and clean energy source, holds signifi-
cant advantages. These advantages include its abundant resources, high calorific value,
and pollution-free usage, thereby offering broad prospects and an important position in
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/processes
Processes 2023, 11, 3180 2 of 15

the field of energy. It is regarded as one of the crucial strategies for achieving global
carbon neutrality [1,2]. Currently, many countries are actively investing in the research
and industrial layout of hydrogen energy technology. Countries such as the United States,
the European Union, and Japan have even introduced corresponding hydrogen energy
strategic plans to transition from traditional to sustainable and clean energy sources [3].
China places great importance on the high-quality development of the hydrogen energy
industry. In March 2022, the National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC) and
the National Energy Administration (NEA) jointly released the “Medium and Long-Term
Development Plan for the Hydrogen Energy Industry (2021–2035)”. This document clearly
defines the energy attributes and significance of hydrogen, elucidating that hydrogen
energy is an integral part of China’s energy system. It is a beneficial supplement to existing
forms of energy, a vital vehicle for China’s green and low-carbon energy transition, and
an important direction for the development of future strategic emerging industries [4,5].
Leading global energy companies are actively seizing the “golden opportunity” of high-
quality development in the hydrogen energy industry and intensifying their presence in the
hydrogen energy market. Among them, China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC)
is vigorously developing safe, efficient, and cost-effective hydrogen energy technologies.
They are focusing on perfecting hydrogen production, storage, transportation, and utiliza-
tion techniques while coordinating the overall development of the entire hydrogen energy
value chain, including production, storage, transportation, and utilization [6]. The com-
plete lifecycle of hydrogen energy technology mainly involves processes such as hydrogen
production, storage, transportation, and utilization. Among these, hydrogen transporta-
tion plays a crucial role as it connects upstream hydrogen production and storage with
downstream end-users.
Currently, blending hydrogen into natural gas pipelines is considered a potential opti-
mal method for large-scale, long-distance, safe, and efficient hydrogen transportation [7–9].
Several hydrogen-blended natural gas pipeline projects have been completed worldwide
(Table 1). Since the early 21st century, countries and regions around the world have con-
ducted application demonstration research. Demonstrations have been carried out in the
European Union, Norway, the Netherlands, and other countries or regions. According
to research results from various countries, the hydrogen blending ratio in demonstration
projects and related research for hydrogen-blended natural gas pipelines generally ranges
from 5% to 50%. However, most actual hydrogen blending pipeline projects in countries
fall within the range of 10% to 20% [10,11]. The NATURALHY research project led by
the European Union and the HYREADY research project led by NV Nederlandse Gasunie
in Norway have conducted detailed studies on hydrogen-blended natural gas pipeline
transportation technology. These studies cover pipeline adaptability, safety, and interoper-
ability analysis under different blending ratios, providing a solid foundation for subsequent
research. Currently, global hydrogen-blended natural gas pipeline transportation aims to
achieve 100% hydrogen transportation in existing natural gas networks. Based on existing
demonstration projects, efforts are being made to retrofit and upgrade the existing natural
gas pipeline network while further increasing the hydrogen blending ratio. In China,
three hydrogen-blended natural gas pipeline projects have been completed, achieving
safe hydrogen blending ratios of up to 24% in pipeline transportation. In addition, in
2012, the Falkenhagen Wind–Hydrogen Demonstration Project in Germany demonstrated
the entire process of hydrogen-blended natural gas pipeline transportation [12]. In 2012,
Mitsubishi tested a large-scale gas turbine capable of burning a hydrogen fuel mixture with
a volume fraction of 30% [13]. In 2020, the Western Sydney Green Gas (WSGG) project in
Australia utilized the natural gas network of New South Wales for hydrogen blending and
transportation [14].
Processes 2023, 11, 3180 3 of 15

Table 1. Overview of global hydrogen-blended natural gas pipeline transportation projects.

Countries and Hydrogen Doping

Number Company Name Starting Year
Regions Ratio (%)
Netherlands-
1 Dutch Economy [15] VG2 5 2001
Rosemburg
2 NV NederlandseGasunie [16] NATURALHY European Union 0~50 2004
Sustainable Holland-Ameland
3 Ameland, GasTerra, Stedin [17] 20 2008
Ameland Island
4 DVN GL [13] HYREADY Norway 0~30 2014
5 ITM Power [14] HyDeploy UK-Kiel 20 2017
6 ENGIE [15] GRHYD France-Dunkirk 20 2018
Chaoyang
State Power Investment China-Liaoning
7 Demonstration 10 2018
Corporation Limited [18] Chaoyang City
Project
Germany-
8 DVGW [19] Avacon 20 2019
Skopsdorf
9 SNAM [20] ContursiTerme Italy-Salerno 10 2019
Australia-
10 AGIG [21] HYPSA 10 2019
Adelaide
Zhangjiakou
Honghua Clean Energy hydrogen-mixed
China-
Technology Co., LTD., State natural gas
11 Zhangjiakou, - 2020
Power Investment Group Co., pipeline
Hebei Province
LTD. [22,23] demonstration
project
Ningdong natural
gas hydrogen
China Petroleum Pipeline China-Yinchuan,
12 mixing pipeline 24 2023
Bureau [24] Ningxia
demonstration
platform

In a high-pressure hydrogen-rich natural gas environment, the risk of various hydrogen-

induced damages to pipelines increases, leading to the deterioration of material mechan-
ical properties and an increased risk of pipe failure and damage [25,26]. To address the
long-distance utilization of hydrogen energy, hydrogen-blended natural gas pipelines are
primarily based on welded joints, connecting different pipe sections using various welding
techniques to achieve the safe long-distance transportation of hydrogen gas within the
pipelines. However, due to inherent defects and cracks in the welding process, the connec-
tion welds between pipe segments are more susceptible to leakage and other related safety
incidents compared to the pipeline body itself. While natural gas pipeline transportation
technology is already mature, the introduction of hydrogen brings new technical and safety
challenges. With hydrogen blending, the pipeline is exposed to a high-pressure hydrogen-
rich environment. The impact of hydrogen is not only on the pipeline material itself but
also on the welded joints at the connection points, which should not be overlooked [27,28].
Welded joints are the weak points in natural gas pipelines, and the research on
hydrogen-induced damage and adaptability assessment of welds and pipeline materi-
als in hydrogen-blended natural gas pipelines started relatively late on a global scale.
Insufficient research has been conducted on the evaluation of the resistance of metal welds
to hydrogen-induced damage. The study of the degradation mechanisms and strengthening
methods for the mechanical properties of welded joints in high-pressure hydrogen-blended
environments has become a key technological bottleneck in the scale-up of the hydrogen
energy industry for transportation. Therefore, further research is needed to investigate the
Processes 2023, 11, 3180 4 of 15

adaptability of welds in hydrogen-blended natural gas pipelines, delving deeper into the
hydrogen embrittlement mechanisms of pipeline welds and materials. This will ensure
the safe transportation of hydrogen-blended natural gas pipelines from a comprehensive
and multi-scale perspective. To address these challenges, this paper systematically dis-
cusses the current domestic and international research status of hydrogen-blended natural
gas pipeline construction, weld characteristics, hydrogen-induced damage mechanisms
of welds, and methods to enhance their mechanical properties. Additionally, future re-
search directions for understanding the hydrogen-induced damage mechanisms in welds
of hydrogen-blended natural gas pipelines are highlighted.

2. Characteristics of Weld Seam of Hydrogen-Doped Natural Gas Pipeline

The welding method employed in natural gas pipelines is the foundation for deter-
mining the performance of the welds. The appearance, potential cracks, and damage of
the welds formed during the welding process can significantly affect the diffusion and
redistribution of hydrogen atoms within the microstructure. This, in turn, leads to a degra-
dation of the weld’s mechanical properties and alterations in its microstructure [29–31].
Therefore, it is necessary to analyze the welding methods and weld morphology in natural
gas pipelines, clarifying the influence of welding methods on weld morphology and the
hydrogen-blending adaptability of welds under different welding conditions.
Welding in pipeline steels includes the welding during pipe manufacturing and the
circumferential weld joint between pipes. In the field service process, failures in the
longitudinal and spiral welds formed during pipe manufacturing are relatively rare, and
most of the existing failure issues are concentrated in the circumferential weld structure [32].
Large-diameter, high-grade gas transmission pipelines, in particular, are the key focus of
crack formation and failure risk management in circumferential welds. Current long-
distance high-pressure natural gas transmission pipelines are mainly welded using semi-
automatic welding techniques. However, with the construction of new long-distance
natural gas transmission pipelines, such as the China-Russia Eastern Gas Pipeline, the
overall gas flow rates and pressures are increasing, and the pipeline sizes are also growing.
To ensure the safe and efficient transportation of these pipelines, welding technology is
gradually shifting towards fully automated welding techniques, leading to improved weld
appearance [33–35]. Moreover, the non-destructive examination rate of welds formed
by automated welding techniques is higher (above 97%), while welds formed by semi-
automatic welding techniques can also achieve a non-destructive examination rate of up
to 95%.
In addition, after a certain period of service, natural gas pipelines can experience
erosion–corrosion on welds due to the gas flow and the presence of small particles. Re-
gardless of the welding technique used, welds will eventually incur some level of damage.
Figure 1 shows the appearance of a circumferential weld on a pipeline before and after it
was put into operation in a certain location in Southwest China. The left side shows the
weld before it was put into operation, while the right side shows the weld after it was put
into operation. Apart from hydrogen-blended natural gas pipelines, which require special
consideration, when welding operations are carried out on pipelines that already contain
hydrogen, two key factors should be considered. First, there is a possibility of burn-through
due to localized heating of the pipe wall. On the other hand, the heat-affected zone (HAZ)
within weld seams experiences thermal influences associated with heating and cooling
during the welding process, leading to varying degrees of microstructural and performance
changes in the material. These changes include, but are not limited to, grain growth, phase
transformations, and hardening, which in turn impact the strength, toughness, and corro-
sion resistance of the pipeline. Consequently, when designing and maintaining pipeline
systems, engineers must account for the disparities between the base pipeline and the weld
seam region to ensure the safety and reliability of the infrastructure [36,37].
 Processes2023,
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(a) (b)
Figure
Figure1.1. Morphology
Morphologyofofcircumferential
circumferentialwelds
weldsin innatural
naturalgas
gaspipelines:
pipelines:(a)
(a)weld
weldseam
seamof
ofpipeline
pipeline
before
beforeproduction,
production,(b)
(b)weld
weldseam
seamof
ofpipeline
pipeline in
in production.
production.

3.3.Hydrogen
HydrogenDamageDamageMechanism
Mechanismof ofHydrogen-Doped
Hydrogen-DopedNatural NaturalGas GasPipeline
PipelineWeldWeld
The hydrogen-induced
The hydrogen-induced damage damagemechanism
mechanismininwelds weldsofof hydrogen-blended
hydrogen-blended natural gas
natural
pipelines is similar to that in the base material. However, compared
gas pipelines is similar to that in the base material. However, compared to the overall to the overall pipeline,
the mechanical
pipeline, propertiesproperties
the mechanical differ among differdifferent
among parts of the
different circumferential
parts weld (base
of the circumferential
material,
weld (baseweld, and heat-affected
material, zone), and zone),
weld, and heat-affected material andnon-uniformity can affect the
material non-uniformity canstability
affect
of the
the welded
stability structure.
of the weldedTherefore,
structure.the welds are
Therefore, thethe
weldsprimary
are thefocus of hydrogen-induced
primary focus of hydro-
damage in hydrogen-blended
gen-induced natural gas pipelines.
damage in hydrogen-blended natural gas pipelines.
A substantial body of research
A substantial body of research has hasbeen
beencarried
carriedoutoutbybyscholars
scholarson onthethephenomenon
phenomenon
of hydrogen damage in metallic pipelines, leading to the proposition
of hydrogen damage in metallic pipelines, leading to the proposition of various hydrogen of various hydrogen
damage theories, mainly including hydrogen-enhanced
damage theories, mainly including hydrogen-enhanced decohesion, hydrogen-induceddecohesion, hydrogen-induced
dislocation emission,
dislocation emission, and and hydrogen-induced
hydrogen-inducedvacancies vacancies[38–40].
[38–40].Hydrogen-enhanced
Hydrogen-enhanced de-
cohesion theory elucidates the embrittlement phenomenon
decohesion theory elucidates the embrittlement phenomenon by focusing on the decline by focusing on the decline in
inatomic
atomicbonding
bonding force caused
force by electron
caused by electrontransfer between
transfer iron and
between ironhydrogen
and hydrogenatoms [41–43].
atoms
Hydrogen-induced dislocation emission theory posits that the aggregation of hydrogen
[41–43]. Hydrogen-induced dislocation emission theory posits that the aggregation of hy-
atoms at the crack tip precipitates dislocation motion, bolstering dislocation migration
drogen atoms at the crack tip precipitates dislocation motion, bolstering dislocation mi-
rates. This, in turn, intensifies localized plasticity at the crack tip, culminating in localized
gration rates. This, in turn, intensifies localized plasticity at the crack tip, culminating in
deformation. Additionally, further exploration of how hydrogen atoms influence hydrogen-
localized deformation. Additionally, further exploration of how hydrogen atoms influ-
induced dislocation emission and mobility during the welding process is essential for
ence hydrogen-induced dislocation emission and mobility during the welding process is
devising preventive measures and improving pipeline designs. The synergistic interplay
essential for devising preventive measures and improving pipeline designs. The synergis-
between different hydrogen embrittlement mechanisms, including hydrogen-enhanced
tic interplay between different hydrogen embrittlement mechanisms, including hydro-
localized plasticity (HELP) and hydrogen-enhanced decohesion (HEDE), should also be
gen-enhanced localized plasticity (HELP) and hydrogen-enhanced decohesion (HEDE),
considered, as they can impact the fracture process and influence hydrogen-assisted failure
should also be considered, as they can impact the fracture process and influence hydro-
modes in metal welds [44–46]. In hydrogen-rich environments, hydrogen-induced vacan-
gen-assisted failure modes in metal welds [44–46]. In hydrogen-rich environments, hy-
cies and the resulting micro-void coalescence serve as significant damage mechanisms.
drogen-induced
Hydrogen is capable vacancies and the resulting
of permeating through micro-void coalescence
the microstructure servecomprising
of metals as significant
the
damage mechanisms. Hydrogen is capable of permeating through
pipelines, forming bonds with individual atoms. This creates what is termed “hydrogen the microstructure of
metals comprising
vacancies”, whichthe pipelines,
disrupt forming bonds
the structural stabilitywith individual
of the pipelineatoms. Thisleading
material, creates to
what
the
isformation
termed “hydrogen vacancies”, which disrupt
of minuscule voids and internal fractures [47–49]. the structural stability of the pipeline ma-
terial,Understanding
leading to the formation of minuscule
these mechanisms voids and
is crucial internal fractures
for formulating [47–49].
effective maintenance
Understanding these mechanisms is crucial for formulating
strategies and preventive measures in order to mitigate the risks of infrastructural effective maintenance
damages
strategies and preventive
in hydrogen-rich measures
environments of in order to mitigate natural
hydrogen-blended the risksgas of infrastructural
pipelines. However, dam-
ages
thereinexist
hydrogen-rich
ambiguitiesenvironments of hydrogen-blended
and contradictions among variousnatural hydrogengas damage
pipelines.theories
How-
ever,
that there
remain exist ambiguities
unresolved and contradictions
[50–52]. Further research among tovarious
clarify hydrogen damageof
the mechanisms theories
hydro-
that
gen remain unresolved
embrittlement [50–52].
is thus Further research
unequivocally required.to clarify the mechanisms
This paper of hydrogen
primarily elaborates on
embrittlement is thus unequivocally required. This
the combined conventional damage mechanisms and hydrogen damage in paper primarily elaborates onhydrogen-
the com-
bined conventional
enriched damage
gas pipelines, mechanisms
placing particular andemphasis
hydrogenondamage in hydrogen-enriched
the hydrogen blistering and
gas pipelines,
decohesion placing particular emphasis on the hydrogen blistering and decohesion
mechanisms.
mechanisms.
The hydrogen-induced damage in the base material of hydrogen-blended natural
gas The hydrogen-induced
pipelines consists of sixdamagesteps: in the base atom
hydrogen material of hydrogen-blended
generation, hydrogen atom natural gas
adsorp-
pipelines consists of six steps: hydrogen atom generation, hydrogen atom adsorption on
Processes 2023, 11,
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x FOR PEER REVIEW 66of
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tion on the
the outer outer of
surface surface of the steel,
the pipeline pipeline steel, hydrogen
hydrogen atom absorption
atom absorption intosurface
into the inner the inner
of
surface
the pipeline steel, hydrogen atom diffusion within the lattice structure of the steel,oflocal
of the pipeline steel, hydrogen atom diffusion within the lattice structure the
steel, localatom
hydrogen hydrogen atom aggregation,
aggregation, and theofinitiation
and the initiation of hydrogen-induced
hydrogen-induced cracking.
cracking. Currently,
Currently, mechanical damage, brittle fracture, and corrosion damage are the
mechanical damage, brittle fracture, and corrosion damage are the main forms of damage main forms
of damage in natural gas pipeline welds. The interconnection, coupling, and overlapping
in natural gas pipeline welds. The interconnection, coupling, and overlapping of various
of various types of damage with hydrogen-induced damage make the damage mechanism
types of damage with hydrogen-induced damage make the damage mechanism of natural
of natural gas pipeline welds more complex. Figure 2 shows the mechanisms of single
gas pipeline welds more complex. Figure 2 shows the mechanisms of single hydrogen-
hydrogen-induced damage, hydrogen-induced damage combined with mechanical damage,
induced damage, hydrogen-induced damage combined with mechanical damage, hydro-
hydrogen-induced damage combined with brittle fracture, and hydrogen-induced damage
gen-induced damage combined with brittle fracture, and hydrogen-induced damage com-
combined with corrosion damage in hydrogen-blended natural gas pipeline welds [53].
bined with corrosion damage in hydrogen-blended natural gas pipeline welds [53].

Heat Affected (b) Hydrogen Atom

Pipeline Inlet Welds Base Material
Zone
Sulfur Atom
Hydrogen Induced Cracking

Carbon Atom

Oxygen Atom
Metal mechanical
Hydrogen Hydrogen Molecule
(a) properties decrease
Blistering
Hydrogen sulfide
molecule
Carbon dioxide
molecules

Inside the pipeline

External Pipe Welds

sustained load

(c) (d) Weld Crack (e) Inside the pipeline Heat Affected Zone
Hydrogen
Induced Hydrogen
Cracking Weld Crack
Induced
Cracking Misalignment
Perforation
Metal Mechanical
Mechanical Properties Decrease
Diffusion direction
Damage of hydrogen atoms
Cracks Axial Tensile Stress Perforation
Hydrogen Induced Residue Stress

Residue Stress Cracking

Weld Crack
Axial Tensile Stress

Residue Stress External sustained load

Figure 2.
Figure 2. (a)(a)
Welding seam
Welding andand
seam heatheat
affected zone zone
affected of hydrogen-doped naturalnatural
of hydrogen-doped gas pipeline. (b) Sin-
gas pipeline.
gle hydrogen damage mechanism. (c) Hydrogen damage combined with mechanical damage
(b) Single hydrogen damage mechanism. (c) Hydrogen damage combined with mechanical damage mech-
anism. (d) Hydrogen damage superimposed brittle fracture mechanism. (e) Mechanism of hydrogen
mechanism. (d) Hydrogen damage superimposed brittle fracture mechanism. (e) Mechanism of
damage combined with corrosion damage.
hydrogen damage combined with corrosion damage.
3.1. Hydrogen
3.1. Hydrogen Damage Mechanism of
Damage Mechanism of Pipeline
Pipeline Weld
Weld
After hydrogen blending in natural gaspipelines,
After hydrogen blending in natural gas pipelines,the thepipeline
pipeline welds
welds areare
exposed
exposed to
a high-pressure
to a high-pressure hydrogen-rich
hydrogen-rich environment.
environment. In addition to the damages
In addition faced byfaced
to the damages conven-
by
tional natural natural
conventional gas pipeline welds, the
gas pipeline significant
welds, increase in
the significant hydrogen
increase content and
in hydrogen local-
content
ized localized
and hydrogenhydrogen
saturationsaturation
can lead tocan a decrease
lead to aindecrease
the ductility of ductility
in the the welds,ofresulting
the welds, in
hydrogen-induced damage. Compared to the pipeline base
resulting in hydrogen-induced damage. Compared to the pipeline base material, thematerial, the unique micro-
structure
unique of welds allows
microstructure for higher
of welds allows hydrogen
for higher trapping
hydrogen andtrapping
accumulation capabilities,
and accumulation
making them
capabilities, more them
making susceptible to hydrogen-induced
more susceptible damage. Huang
to hydrogen-induced damage.etHuang
al. [43]etstudied
al. [43]
the mechanical
studied properties
the mechanical of X70 pipeline
properties steel weld
of X70 pipeline steeljoints
weld under 10 MPa
joints under 10hydrogen
MPa hydrogen pres-
sure and found
pressure and foundthat with
that an increase
with in hydrogen
an increase concentration,
in hydrogen the fatigue
concentration, crack propa-
the fatigue crack
gation rate inrate
propagation the in
heat-affected zone, base
the heat-affected zone,metal, and weld
base metal, andmetalweld of the weld
metal of thejoint
weld varied
joint
from high to low. The predicted fatigue life of X70 pipeline steel with a hydrogen blending
varied from high to low. The predicted fatigue life of X70 pipeline steel with a hydrogen
blending
ratio of 5% ratio
andofan5% and crack
initial an initial
depthcrack depth
of 0.5 mmofwas 0.5 only
mm was 1/10 only
of the1/10 of the
normal normal
life. Zhanglife.
et
Zhang
al. [44] etconducted
al. [44] conducted
numerical numerical
simulations simulations on the hydrogen
on the hydrogen diffusiondiffusion
in X80 in X80spiral
steel steel
spiral seam submerged
seam submerged arc welded
arc welded pipes. Thepipes.
resultsTheshowed
results that
showed that area
the weld the weld
was aarea was a
hydrogen
hydrogen
accumulation accumulation
zone, andzone, and the stress
the residual residual in stress in the welding
the welding area increased
area increased the riskthe of risk
hy-
of
drogen accumulation. Huang et al. [30] conducted experiments on X70 weld joints in a
hydrogen accumulation. Huang et al. [30] conducted experiments on X70 weld joints in
Processes 2023, 11, 3180 7 of 15

simulated 10 MPa natural gas/hydrogen mixture. The results showed that the degradation
of the weld metal was more severe than that of the base metal. Alvaro et al. [45] found
that the hydrogen embrittlement critical pressure of the heat-affected zone in X70 welds
ranged from 0.1 to 0.6 MPa. Sun et al. [46] conducted potentiation polarization tests on
the hydrogen distribution in X80 steel welds, and the results indicated that the synergistic
effect of hydrogen and stress could lead to a higher susceptibility to hydrogen-induced
cracking in the heat-affected zone. Gou et al. [47] analyzed the hydrogen-induced cracking
behavior in X80 steel welds using surface analysis techniques and molecular dynamics
models. The analysis showed that in the crystal system, cracks were prone to occur at grain
boundaries, but were less likely to occur at the highest hydrogen concentration.
During welding and operation, there may be material defects in the welds, such as
surface arc craters, surface gas pores, and surface cracks [54–57]. These defects promote the
penetration and diffusion of hydrogen atoms in the weld area. Moreover, once hydrogen
atoms enter the surface cracks formed during the welding process, they further intensify
crack propagation, leading to more severe hydrogen-induced damage in the welds [58,59].
Therefore, under the same operating conditions, if there are more pre-existing defects in the
welds and a higher concentration of transported hydrogen, the hydrogen-induced damage
in the welds may be more severe than in the pipeline base steel.

3.2. Mechanical Damage Mechanism of Hydrogen Damage Superposition of Pipeline Welds

Mechanical damage is a common type of weld damage, and it can originate from
various sources. Yang et al. [51] conducted a statistical analysis of 18 cases of circumferential
weld failures in China over the past 10 years, with 10 cases involving leaks and 8 cases
involving fractures. The analysis showed that the leak incidents were related to weld
defects, particularly in challenging welding areas such as arc initiation and termination.
On the other hand, the 8 fracture incidents were related to external loads on the pipeline,
including ground movement, thawing and freezing, additional loads, and landslides.
Jing [49] analyzed the fracture failures of large-diameter stainless steel pipeline welds from
the perspectives of crack location, metallographic structure, fracture spectrum, chemical
composition, and weld stress. It was pointed out that the combined action of residual
welding stress and external sustained loads induced the initiation of weld cracks, which
was the direct cause of weld failure. Luo et al. [56] conducted a failure analysis of a
circumferential weld leak in a long-distance natural gas pipeline using methods such as
macroscopic appearance, non-destructive testing, physical and chemical property detection,
and metallographic structure analysis. The results indicated that internal pressure, residual
stress, and external loads played a collective role in the process of crack propagation leading
to final failure. The main causes of this failure process were identified as initial cracks,
excessive mismatch, and weld root structure defects.
For hydrogen-blended natural gas pipelines, the critical hydrogen concentration that
triggers hydrogen-induced cracking in welds is closely related to the local stress state. When
local stresses are highly concentrated, the critical hydrogen concentration for crack initiation
decreases [60–64]. Conversely, as stress decreases, the critical hydrogen concentration for
crack initiation increases. Once the locally accumulated hydrogen concentration reaches a
certain level, hydrogen-induced cracking can occur even without externally applied stress.
Therefore, when external environmental loads act on the weld area, the penetration and
diffusion of hydrogen atoms may contribute to hydrogen-induced cracking, which can
overlay with weld cracks formed due to mechanical damage, exacerbating the damage
in the welds of natural gas pipelines. Thus, when analyzing the failure mechanism of
pipeline welds, it is important to consider the interaction between hydrogen damage
and mechanical damage. Neglecting the influence of external loads while considering
only hydrogen damage may not accurately reflect the failure behavior of pipelines in
actual operating conditions. A comprehensive consideration of the interaction between
hydrogen damage and mechanical damage can provide a more accurate and comprehensive
assessment of pipeline safety.
Processes 2023, 11, 3180 8 of 15

3.3. Brittle Fracture Mechanism of Hydrogen Damage Superimposed on Pipeline Weld

In a study by Yang et al. [51] on the failure assessment of semi-automatic circumfer-
ential welds in high-grade steel pipelines, an evaluation curve for circumferential weld
failure was established based on full-scale tensile tests of in-service X80 pipeline welds.
The research findings indicated that the failure evaluation curve for X80 gas transmission
pipeline circumferential welds lacked a transitional region and exhibited poorer plasticity
compared to conventional materials, making them more susceptible to brittle failure. Li
et al. [52] analyzed the cracking causes of circumferential welds in a gas transmission
pipeline through chemical composition analysis, mechanical property testing, fracture
analysis, metallography, and load analysis. The analysis indicated that improper nitrogen
purging during welding led to embrittlement of the pipeline material. Under the combined
effects of temperature-induced axial tensile stress and residual weld stress, cracks initiated
at the unwelded or slag inclusion defect locations near the weld root and propagated in
a brittle manner. In the case of hydrogen-blended natural gas pipeline welds, the super-
imposition of hydrogen damage on the mechanical embrittlement of the welds and the
low-temperature embrittlement of the material altered the rate of brittle fracture in the
welds, making them more prone to brittle failure.

3.4. Hydrogen Damage Superimposed Corrosion Damage Mechanism of Pipeline Welds

In a study conducted by Chen et al. [65], laboratory experiments such as tensile tests,
Rockwell hardness tests, scanning electron microscopy observations, and X-ray energy
spectrum analysis were carried out to analyze the mechanical properties, metallographic
structure, corrosion morphology, and chemical composition of the failure zone in pipeline
welds. The analysis suggested that the microstructural differences between the weld
and the base material caused potential differences, making the weld more susceptible to
electrochemical accelerated corrosion. The main causes of corrosion failure in pipeline
welds were identified as Cl− , SO4 2− , CO2 , bacteria, and welding processes. Li et al. [54]
found through their research that the elements Mn and P in X70 pipeline steel had a
significant influence on stress corrosion cracking induced by H2 S. Due to the differences
in composition, structure, and properties between the weld and the base material, as well
as the presence of welding defects, the resistance to stress corrosion cracking in the weld
was inferior to that of the X70 pipeline steel base material. In the case of single hydrogen
damage in pipeline welds, it is mainly caused by the influence of hydrogen atoms on the
metal lattice and the interaction between hydrogen and the metal. In hydrogen-blended
natural gas pipeline welds, the superimposition of hydrogen damage and corrosion damage
mechanisms further exacerbates the failure of the welds. In addition to hydrogen damage,
the welds are also subjected to erosion by corrosive media, which further weakens the
mechanical properties of the welds and accelerates crack propagation.

4. Strengthening the Mechanical Properties of Weld Seam of Hydrogen-Doped

Natural Gas Pipeline
The adsorption, permeation, and diffusion of hydrogen atoms can cause damage to the
welds of pipeline sections, posing a serious threat to the safe transportation of hydrogen-
blended natural gas [66]. Therefore, it is necessary to enhance the mechanical properties
of the welds in hydrogen-blended natural gas pipelines, including strength, ductility, and
corrosion resistance, in order to effectively protect the material at the weld location under
complex conditions of hydrogen blending ratio, operating pressure, and temperature. The
strengthening of weld mechanical properties should be based on the hydrogen damage
mechanism and proposed targeted enhancement measures. For example, when analyzing
the failure mechanism of pipeline welds, considering only single hydrogen damage and
neglecting the influence of external loads may not accurately reflect the failure situation
of the pipeline in actual working environments [67–69]. Comprehensive consideration of
the interaction between hydrogen damage and mechanical damage can provide a more
accurate and comprehensive evaluation of pipeline safety. As shown in Figure 3, based on
Processes 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 15

Processes 2023, 11, 3180 9 of 15

provide a more accurate and comprehensive evaluation of pipeline safety. As shown in

Figure 3, based on the mechanisms of single hydrogen damage, hydrogen damage com-
the mechanisms of single hydrogen damage, hydrogen damage combined with mechanical
bined with mechanical damage, mechanism-based brittle fracture, and corrosion damage,
damage, mechanism-based brittle fracture, and corrosion damage, this paper proposes
this paper proposes targeted weld reinforcement methods from three perspectives: pipe-
targeted weld reinforcement methods from three perspectives: pipeline material structure,
line material
welding structure,
processes, andwelding
externalprocesses,
coatings. and external coatings.

Material structure
optimization

Weld strengthening
measures

Welding process Hydrogen barrier

optimization coating

Figure 3.
Figure Strengthening method
3. Strengthening method for
for mechanical
mechanical properties
properties of
of welds
welds in
in hydrogen-doped
hydrogen-doped natural
natural gas
gas
pipeline.
pipeline.

4.1. Pipeline
4.1. Pipeline Material
Material Structure
Structure Optimization
Optimization
By optimizing
By optimizingthe thematerial
materialstructure,
structure,it itis is possible
possible to to reduce
reduce thethe impact
impact of mate-
of material
rial structure on weld quality and improve the mechanical performance
structure on weld quality and improve the mechanical performance of the welds. Addi- of the welds.
Additionally, this approach enhances the protection and crack resistance
tionally, this approach enhances the protection and crack resistance of the steel against of the steel
against hydrogen damage [70]. The following methods can be employed for optimization:
hydrogen damage [70]. The following methods can be employed for optimization: (1) Op-
(1) Optimize steel material selection: Prioritize the selection of low-carbon, low-alloy steels
timize steel material selection: Prioritize the selection of low-carbon, low-alloy steels with
with high strength, good toughness, and weldability. This helps reduce the concentration
high strength, good toughness, and weldability. This helps reduce the concentration of
of dissolved hydrogen in the pipe material while improving its strength and ductility [71].
dissolved hydrogen in the pipe material while improving its strength and ductility [71].
(2) Optimize welding material selection: Choose welding materials with excellent high-
(2) Optimize welding material selection: Choose welding materials with excellent high-
temperature resistance, high-pressure resistance, and corrosion resistance. This effectively
temperature resistance, high-pressure resistance, and corrosion resistance. This effectively
reduces adverse factors such as hydrogen-induced brittleness and residual welding stress
reduces adverse factors such as hydrogen-induced brittleness and residual welding stress
during the welding process [72–78]. (3) Adjust the grain size of the pipe material: Add
during the welding process [72–78]. (3) Adjust the grain size of the pipe material: Add
trace elements such as Nb and Ti to adjust the grain size in the pipe material, making the
trace elements such as Nb and Ti to adjust the grain size in the pipe material, making the
grains finer. This enhances the heat diffusion capacity in the welded area and improves the
grains finer. This enhances the heat diffusion capacity in the welded area and improves
weld pool’s morphology [79–85].
the weld pool’s morphology [79–85].
4.2. Welding Process Optimization
4.2. Welding Process Optimization
Effective welding processes can significantly reduce the occurrence of critical defects in
Effective
pipeline welds. welding processes can
With continuous significantlyinreduce
advancements welding thetechnology
occurrenceand of critical defects
the upgrading
in
ofpipeline
mechanical welds. With continuous
automation advancements
equipment, the methods in welding
used fortechnology and thegas
welding natural upgrad-
long-
ing of mechanical automation equipment, the methods used for welding
distance transmission pipelines have gradually transitioned from manual arc welding to natural gas long-
distance transmission
semi-automatic pipelines have
and automatic weldinggradually
[86]. As transitioned
mechanicalfrom manual arc
automation welding
becomes moreto
semi-automatic
widespread, innovative and automatic welding
techniques like [86].
singleAs mechanical
and double-arc automation becomeshybrid
welding, laser-arc more
widespread,
welding, andinnovative
multi-torchtechniques
automatic like single
welding mayandalso
double-arc welding,
find application in laser-arc hybrid
the construction
welding, and multi-torch
of new natural automatic
gas pipelines, welding
potentially may also
enabling find application
hydrogen blending forin transportation
the construction in
of
thenew natural
future [87]. gas pipelines,
Figure potentially
4 provides enabling
an overview hydrogen
of the existingblending
pipelinefor transportation
welding methods
in thetheir
and future [87]. Figure
relevant 4 provides
characteristics. Toan overview
ensure of the existing
the protection pipeline
of pipeline welding
welds methods
after hydrogen
blending,
and it is advisable
their relevant to employTosemi-automatic
characteristics. and automatic
ensure the protection welding
of pipeline weldstechniques
after hydro- for
in-service
gen natural
blending, gas pipelines.
it is advisable However,
to employ prior to evaluating
semi-automatic the suitability
and automatic weldingoftechniques
hydrogen
blending
for for natural
in-service natural gas
gas pipeline
pipelines.welds, a comprehensive
However, assessment
prior to evaluating of the specific
the suitability weld
of hydro-
damages
gen in the
blending fortarget pipeline
natural is crucial,
gas pipeline including
welds, a thoroughassessment
a comprehensive analysis to ofdetermine
the specificthe
feasibility of potential weld repairs.
weld damages in the target pipeline is crucial, including a thorough analysis to determine
the feasibility of potential weld repairs.
 Processes2023,
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11,3180
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Welding process and characteristics of long-distance pipelines

Welding
Manual welding Semi-automatic welding Automatic Welding
Process

Single torch melting electrode active Double torch active gas

Gas shielded solid wire semi-
Tungsten Inert Gas gas shielded all position automatic shielded automatic
automatic welding
Welding（TIG） welding welding

Classifica Multi torch pipeline circumferential

tion Self protective flux cored wire Gas shielded solid wire
automatic internal welding machine
semi-automatic welding automatic welding
root welding

Covered -electrode welding

Gas shielded metal powder cored
wire semi-automatic welding Submerged Automatic Welding Flash butt welding

The earliest welding

Fast deposition speed, low hydrogen High welding efficiency, high weld quality, more beautiful shape,
Character technology, with simple
content in the weld seam, beautiful good density, high strength and toughness, low labor intensity of
istics operation, wide application,
forming, and high qualification rate welders, and good welding environment
and mature technology

Figure4.4.Welding
Figure Weldingprocess
processand
andcharacteristics
characteristicsofoflong-distance
long-distancetransportation
transportationpipeline.
pipeline.

4.3.
4.3.Hydrogen-Resistant
Hydrogen-ResistantCoatingCoatingfor
forPipeline
PipelineWelds
Welds
Pipeline
Pipeline weld hydrogen barrier
weld hydrogen barriercoatings
coatingsare areanan effective
effective way way to improve
to improve the me-
the mechan-
chanical properties
ical properties of welds.
of welds. Specifically,
Specifically, pipelineweld
pipeline weldhydrogen
hydrogenbarrier
barrier coatings
coatings can
can bebe
achieved through the following aspects: (1) Prevention of hydrogen atom
achieved through the following aspects: (1) Prevention of hydrogen atom infiltration [88]: infiltration [88]:
By
Byusing
usingmulti-layer
multi-layercomposite
compositestructures
structuresand andspecial
specialmaterials,
materials,thethecoatings
coatingscancanquickly
quickly
eliminate
eliminate crack sources and the harmful effects of hydrogen elements duringlong-term
crack sources and the harmful effects of hydrogen elements during long-term
usage.
usage.(2) (2)Optimization
Optimizationof ofcoating
coatingmaterials
materials[89]:
[89]:Depending
Dependingon onthe
thespecific
specificenvironment
environment
of
ofthe
thehydrogen-blended
hydrogen-blended natural natural gas
gaspipeline,
pipeline, the
the materials,
materials, thickness,
thickness, and
and uniform
uniform ad-ad-
hesion should be optimized accordingly. Existing hydrogen barrier
hesion should be optimized accordingly. Existing hydrogen barrier repair materials forrepair materials for
pipelines
pipelinescan canbebecategorized
categorizedas assingle
singlecoatings
coatingsandandcomposite
compositecoatings.
coatings.Single
Singlecoatings
coatings
include
include silicon-based, titanium-based, aluminum-based, boride-based, aswell
silicon-based, titanium-based, aluminum-based, boride-based, as wellasasCrCr2 O
2O33,,
YY22O , ZrO , and other coating materials, which can reduce the hydrogen
O33, ZrO22, and other coating materials, which can reduce the hydrogen permeability of permeability of
steel
steelsurfaces
surfacesby by33toto66orders
ordersofofmagnitude.
magnitude. However,
However,single
singlecoatings
coatingsmaymaysuffer
sufferfrom
from
low fracture strain, inadequate adhesion, and coating defects. Composite materials can
low fracture strain, inadequate adhesion, and coating defects. Composite materials can
optimize the structural properties of the coating to enhance the hydrogen barrier effect. In
optimize the structural properties of the coating to enhance the hydrogen barrier effect. In
recent years, with the rise of graphene materials, research on their hydrogen barrier perfor-
recent years, with the rise of graphene materials, research on their hydrogen barrier per-
mance has also received widespread attention. Covering metal surfaces with graphene can
formance has also received widespread attention. Covering metal surfaces with graphene
significantly reduce the internal hydrogen content in metals, lowering hydrogen perme-
can significantly reduce the internal hydrogen content in metals, lowering hydrogen per-
ability by 48 to 123 times [90]. (3) Ensuring the integrity of the coatings: The production
meability by 48 to 123 times [90]. (3) Ensuring the integrity of the coatings: The production
and application of coatings should strictly follow standard operating procedures to ensure
and application of coatings should strictly follow standard operating procedures to ensure
a smooth, crack-free, void-free, pollution-free, and oxidation-free coating surface. This
a smooth, crack-free, void-free, pollution-free, and oxidation-free coating surface. This im-
improves the overall corrosion resistance of the coatings and prevents premature oxidation
proves the overall corrosion resistance of the coatings and prevents premature oxidation
or detachment. The diagram in Figure 5 illustrates the mechanism of action for both single
or detachment. The diagram in Figure 5 illustrates the mechanism of action for both single
hydrogen barrier coatings and multi-structured composite coatings.
hydrogen barrier coatings and multi-structured composite coatings.
Processes 2023,11,
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（a） Inside the pipeline （b） Inside the pipeline

Single Coating

Multi-layer composite
structural coating

Hydrogen Induced
Cracking

Figure 5. Mechanism of single hydrogen barrier coating and multi structure composite coating. (a)
Figure 5. Mechanism of single hydrogen barrier coating and multi structure composite coating.
Mechanism of single coating action. (b) Mechanism of multi structure composite coating.
(a) Mechanism of single coating action. (b) Mechanism of multi structure composite coating.

5.5.Summary
Summaryand andProspect
Prospect
(1)Conventional
(1) Conventional natural
naturalgas gaspipelines,
pipelines, made made of ofwelded
weldedor orseamless
seamlesssteel
steelpipes,
pipes,are
are
susceptibletotomaterial
susceptible material defects,
defects, mechanical
mechanical damage,
damage, corrosion,
corrosion, andand fatigue
fatigue issuesissues as they
as they age.
age. Exposure
Exposure to hydrogen
to hydrogen can lead cantolead to additional
additional forms offorms of damage
damage like hydrogen
like hydrogen embrit-
embrittlement,
tlement, hydrogen-induced cracking, and blistering. The combined
hydrogen-induced cracking, and blistering. The combined effect of conventional failures effect of conventional
failures
and and hydrogen-induced
hydrogen-induced damage in damage
pipeline in pipeline welds remains
welds remains uncertain uncertain
and warrantsand warrants
urgent
urgent investigation.
investigation. Currently,Currently, there isresearch
there is limited limited on research on how hydrogen
how different different hydrogen
blending
blending
ratios ratios
impact theimpact the mechanical
mechanical properties properties of weldinmaterials
of weld materials China. By inemploying
China. By employ-
a multi-
ing acharacterization
scale multi-scale characterization approach encompassing
approach encompassing mechanical, microstructural,
mechanical, microstructural, and chemical
properties,
and chemical we properties,
can systematically elucidate the deterioration
we can systematically elucidate themechanisms
deterioration inmechanisms
high-pressure in
hydrogen-blended natural gas pipeline
high-pressure hydrogen-blended natural welds.
gas pipeline welds.
(2)
(2) Research
Research on hydrogen-blended
hydrogen-blended pipelines pipelinesprimarily
primarilyfocuses
focusesononpurepurehydrogen
hydrogen or
or hydrogen-methane
hydrogen-methane (or(or nitrogen)
nitrogen) mixtures,
mixtures, which
which may maynotnot fully
fully represent
represent real-world
real-world hy-
hydrogen-blended
drogen-blended natural naturalgasgas environments.
environments. Natural
Natural gasgas blends
blends notnot
onlyonly methane
methane andandhy-
hydrogen,
drogen, but butalso
alsocontain
containnitrogen,
nitrogen,carbon
carbondioxide,
dioxide, and and other components.
components. For For instance,
instance,aa
high-pressure
high-pressurenatural
naturalgasgaspipeline
pipelinein inthetheSichuan-Chongqing
Sichuan-Chongqingregion regionof ofChina
Chinaconsists
consistsof of
approximately 97.0%
approximately 97.0% CH CH , 1.43% CO
4 4, 1.43% CO , and 1.01% N . Additionally, in-service
2 2, and 1.01%2 N2. Additionally, in-service high-pres-high-pressure
natural gas pipelines
sure natural maymay
gas pipelines suffer internal
suffer damage
internal damage duedueto to
erosion
erosion from
fromsand
sandand andgravel
gravel
during
during prolonged
prolonged operation.
operation. The The deterioration
deterioration of of mechanical
mechanical properties
properties in in hydrogen-
hydrogen-
blended
blended natural
natural gas
gas pipeline
pipeline welds
welds isis influenced
influenced by by various
various factors
factors including
including erosion
erosion
damage, pipeline pressure, hydrogen blending ratio, and the presence
damage, pipeline pressure, hydrogen blending ratio, and the presence of carbon dioxide of carbon dioxide
and
andnitrogen.
nitrogen.This
Thisunderscores
underscoresthe theneed
needfor foran aninterdisciplinary
interdisciplinaryapproach
approachto tounderstand
understand
the complex interactions between these
the complex interactions between these factors. factors.
(3)
(3)While
Whilecurrent
currentstudies
studies acknowledge
acknowledge thethe
adverse
adverseeffects of hydrogen
effects of hydrogen blending in nat-
blending in
ural gas pipelines, there is still a lack of a comprehensive mechanical property
natural gas pipelines, there is still a lack of a comprehensive mechanical property database database for
typical pipeline
for typical steelssteels
pipeline underunderhydrogen-blended
hydrogen-blended natural gas conditions,
natural and specific
gas conditions, meth-
and specific
ods
methods to enhance the mechanical performance of high-pressure hydrogen-blended gas
to enhance the mechanical performance of high-pressure hydrogen-blended natural nat-
pipeline welds are not well-defined. It is imperative to focus on PetroChina’s high-pressure
ural gas pipeline welds are not well-defined. It is imperative to focus on PetroChina’s
hydrogen-blended natural gas pipeline transportation characteristics and draft methods
high-pressure hydrogen-blended natural gas pipeline transportation characteristics and
for enhancing the mechanical performance of typical pipeline welds. Constructing a steel
draft methods for enhancing the mechanical performance of typical pipeline welds. Con-
pipeline weld performance database under PetroChina’s hydrogen blending transportation
structing a steel pipeline weld performance database under PetroChina’s hydrogen blend-
environment will provide essential guidance for selecting appropriate welding processes,
ing transportation environment will provide essential guidance for selecting appropriate
Processes 2023, 11, 3180 12 of 15

materials, and remedial measures for pipeline weld failures under different regional grades
and pipeline design conditions.
(4) Standards and specifications are the important theoretical basis for pipeline trans-
portation, and play a key guiding role in the transportation of hydrogen in natural gas
pipelines. The existing standards mainly provide guidance for the safety of H2 and H2 /CO
hybrid transmission and distribution systems. Among them, GB/T31032-2014 [91] stipu-
lates the evaluation method of weld material, which requires the full-size specimen to be cut
by machinery or oxygen, and the two sides of the specimen should be smooth and parallel
on the premise of retaining the thickening height of the weld. The existing standards do
not specify the specific welding method of pipeline welds, nor do they provide standards
for the welding of hydrogen-doped pipelines in service. Large-diameter, high-grade gas
pipelines and welds with unequal wall thickness need to pay special attention to the causes
of girth weld cracks and failure risk management. In the future, special attention should
also be paid to the welding technology and welding seam of submarine pipeline mixed
with hydrogen.
(5) With the in-depth study of hydrogen-induced mechanical properties degradation,
it is particularly important to accurately predict the degree of hydrogen-induced damage.
However, the high cost and time-consuming of traditional experimental methods limit
the breadth and depth of research. Therefore, the application of artificial intelligence
technology has become a powerful tool to solve this problem. By establishing a machine
learning model, the influence of hydrogen concentration on the properties of materials
can be accurately predicted, and the experimental cost can be greatly reduced, which
provides a new idea for research [92,93]. The future research direction can focus on further
promoting the development of hydrogen-induced damage prediction methods, especially
when considering the use conditions and applied loads related to weldments. This will
provide more forward-looking guidance for engineering practice.

Funding: This research was funded by the Postdoctoral Foundation of PetroChina Southwest Oil &
Gasfield Company (grant number 20230312-10) and 2023 Science and Technology Innovation Talent
Project of CNPC-CZU Innovation Alliance, grant number (CCIA 2023-10).
Data Availability Statement: The data cited in this paper has been marked with references, and the
pictures are all from our team’s own research results.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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