See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/359242537

Tilapia wastes to valuable materials: A brief review of biomedical, wastewater

treatment, and biofuel applications

Article in Materials Today: Proceedings · March 2022

DOI: 10.1016/j.matpr.2022.03.174

CITATIONS READS

3 558

7 authors, including:

Lee Te Chuan Nor Atiqah Syafinaz Mohd Pu'ad

Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
70 PUBLICATIONS 1,703 CITATIONS 12 PUBLICATIONS 457 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Janifal Alipal Hatijah Basri

Institute For Development Studies (Sabah) Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
19 PUBLICATIONS 328 CITATIONS 80 PUBLICATIONS 1,141 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Removal of Chromium (VI) in water using Natural Hydroxyapatite View project

IDENTIFICATION AND EVALUATION OF THE CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS IN IMPLEMENTING SOLAR ENERGY PROJECT IN MALAYSIA USING ANALYTIC HIERARCHY
PROCESS (AHP) APPROACH View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Lee Te Chuan on 16 March 2022.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Materials Today: Proceedings

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/matpr

Tilapia wastes to valuable materials: A brief review of biomedical,

wastewater treatment, and biofuel applications
T.C. Lee a, N.A.S. Mohd Pu’ad a, J. Alipal b, M.S. Muhamad b, H. Basri c, M.I. Idris d, H.Z. Abdullah d,⇑
a
Faculty of Technology Management and Business, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, 86400 Batu Pahat, Johor, Malaysia
b
Faculty of Engineering Technology, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, 86400 Batu Pahat, Johor, Malaysia
c
Faculty of Applied Science and Technology, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, 86400 Batu Pahat, Johor, Malaysia
d
Faculty of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, 86400 Batu Pahat, Johor, Malaysia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Scale, skin, internal organs, viscera, trimmings, bone, tails, and fins are common fish wastes that are dif-
Available online xxxx ficult to dispose of. Discarded fish wastes have become a global environmental concern. The conversion of
fish waste into valuable materials, on the other hand, is currently in high demand around the world. In
Keywords: over 120 countries, there are numerous tilapia species available on the market. However, because of its
Tilapia low commercial value, tilapia wastes are discarded. This brief review summarises recent works on tilapia
Fish biowaste wastes utilisation in three areas: biomedical applications such as wound dressing treatment, synthesis of
Biomedical
hydroxyapatite and gelatin extraction, wastewater treatment, and biofuel. The recovery of valuable mate-
Wastewater
Biofuel
rials from tilapia biowaste helps to reduce the environmental problems caused by discarded tilapia
wastes.
Copyright Ó 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International Sympo-
sium of Reaction Engineering, Catalysis & Sustainable Energy.

1. Introduction environments, and negative impacts on biodiversity. However, to

Tilapia, which originated in the Middle East and Africa, is the
second-largest farmed fish. According to reports, fish production
is approximately 6.5 million metric tonnes in 2019 and is expected
to increase by 4 % to 6.8 million metric tonnes in 2021 [1]. Tilapia is
a fish species that is pre-adapted to grow on fish-free diets because
it can be farmed in low trophic status [2]. Compared to other cul-
tured fish species, tilapia consumes fewer fish meals in their feeds,
with plankton and aquatic macrophytes serving as their primary
food sources. Furthermore, tilapia is a fast-growing and hardy fish
that has been used as a protein source in many countries’ food
development [3]. It can grow in shallow streams, rivers, ponds,
lakes, brackish water, and seawater, and it is highly adaptable to
various environments. According to Yue et al. [4], there are chal-
lenges to tilapia aquaculture, such as a lack of omega-3 fatty acids,
intolerance to high salinity, inability to grow in low-temperature
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: tclee@uthm.edu.my (T.C. Lee), atiqahsyafinaz@gmail.com (N.A.
S. Mohd Pu’ad), janifal.alipal@gmail.com (J. Alipal), msuliza@uthm.edu.my (M.S.
Muhamad), hatijah@uthm.edu.my (H. Basri), izwana@uthm.edu.my (M.I. Idris),
hasan@uthm.edu.my (H.Z. Abdullah).
overcome the aforementioned challenges, selective breeding, feed
modification, and land-based recirculation aquaculture can be
used.
Tilapia has been cultured and farmed in over 120 countries,
including the United States, China, Malaysia, Thailand, the Philip-
pines, Indonesia, Egypt, Kenya, Ecuador, Brazil, and Costa Rica, with
China producing half of the world’s supply. There are many differ-
ent species of tilapia on the market, with three primary species
being Mozambique or red tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus),
blue tilapia (Oreochromis aureus), and Nile or black tilapia (Ore-
ochromis niloticus), as shown in Fig. 1. The edible fillets or por-
tions, on the other hand, are the same for their various species
and colours, which are influenced by the growing environments
and feeds. Taiwan and China have the most cultured tilapia, with
Taiwan being an important supplier to the Japanese sashimi mar-
ket and whole frozen tilapia to the US [5]. Asia produces 72% of
the world’s tilapia, followed by Africa (19%) and America (9%). Nile
or black tilapia farming accounts for approximately 90% of total
tilapia production in Malaysia [6]. Because of the flavour of its
meat, tilapia is the most economically important fresh fish, accord-
ing to Dullah et al. [7], and it has been cultivated for more than
3000 years. Tilapia grows quickly and is resistant to a variety of

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2022.03.174
2214-7853/Copyright Ó 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International Symposium of Reaction Engineering, Catalysis & Sustainable Energy.

Please cite this article as: T.C. Lee, N.A.S. Mohd Pu’ad, J. Alipal et al., Tilapia wastes to valuable materials: A brief review of biomedical, wastewater treat-
ment, and biofuel applications, Materials Today: Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2022.03.174
T.C. Lee, N.A.S. Mohd Pu’ad, J. Alipal et al.
Fig. 1. Three primary species of tilapia.
water conditions. Tilapia sexual maturity occurs between four and
five months of age, and they reproduce every two months if the
water temperature is around 25 °C [7]. Furthermore, tilapia larvae
have very high viability [8]. Red tilapia can be identified by its yel-
low belly and olive-grey colour. Blue tilapia can be obtained in the
market through human farming in tropical and subtropical loca-
tions around the world, and it is native in Western and Northern
Africa, as well as the Middle East. This tilapia has a darker dorsal
colouration, a blue-grey colouration, and a white ventral coloura-
tion. Red tilapias have numerous dark vertical bars on their bodies,
as well as a red margin on their caudal fins [9]. The Nile tilapia is
found primarily in Southern Africa and Israel. The Nile tilapia is
found primarily in Southern Africa and Israel. Nile tilapia is gener-
ally greyish or brownish, with a fuzzy bar on the body and a verti-
cal stripe on the tail [10].
Every year, the fish processing industry generates millions of
tonnes of waste. The fillet processing industry is the primary
source of fish waste, including viscera, head, column, vertebral
fin, meat scraps, and scales, which account for 65% of total fish
weight. In other words, only 35% of the total fish weight is used
[11]. Fish waste has high water content and enzymatic activity,
making it susceptible to rapid autoxidation. Fish waste is a biolog-
ically hazardous material that has the potential to become a patho-
genic contaminant. As a result, final disposal can be problematic if
wastes are not properly managed. These wastes are usually thrown
away or buried in the ground. As a result, indiscriminate waste dis-
posal endangers the environment [12]. In addition to being a major
environmental issue, fish waste represents a significant economic
loss. It is critical to implement better fish waste management to
address these issues. The review of tilapia fish wastes is still in
its early stages. Hence, this paper examines how tilapia waste
can be converted into valuable materials for biomedical, water
treatment, and biofuel applications.
2. Applications of tilapia wastes
2.1. Biomedical
2.1.1. Wound healing
Brazilian doctors used sterile tilapia skin to treat patients with
burn injuries in 2017. This unconventional method has gained
2
Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx
worldwide attention due to its benefits in reducing burn victims’
pain and the cost of medical treatment [13]. Surprisingly, using
tilapia skin can shorten healing time by a few days and signifi-
cantly reduce the need for pain medication. This is primarily due
to the presence of collagen in tilapia skin, which promotes wound
healing by inducing fibroblast growth factor expression, epidermal
growth factor, fibroblast and keratinocyte differentiation, and pro-
liferation. The same research team also looked into the use of tila-
pia skin as a xenograft for children’s superficial partial-thickness
wounds. In their study, samples were used to compare the efficacy
of black tilapia skin and silver sulfadiazine cream on wound heal-
ing, with the chosen samples being children with superficial
partial-thickness burns that were less than three days. The pilot
study results revealed that black tilapia skin significantly reduced
the number of dressings without anaesthesia, dressings under
anaesthesia, the total number of dressings, and healing time com-
pared to the conventional method (silver sulfadiazine cream) [14].
Fig. 2 depicts black tilapia skin to treat a burnt wound.
Apart from sterilised tilapia skin, tilapia collagen and gelatin
have gained widespread acceptance for accelerating wound heal-
ing. Ge et al. [15] prepared a collagen hydrogel from tilapia skin
to treat refractory wounds. The hydrogel was prepared using
pepsin-soluble collagen. The tilapia skin hydrogel was non-toxic
to fibroblasts in the study. Furthermore, pathological analysis
and skin repair experiments revealed that using tilapia skin hydro-
gel could speed up the healing of deep second-degree burn
wounds. The formation of new skin appendages demonstrates that
tilapia skin hydrogen has a high potential for various refractory
wound treatments. Due to the drawbacks of native collagen, such
as poor mechanical properties and low biodegradation resistance,
current research is focusing on the crosslinking method to over-
come these drawbacks. Sun et al. fabricated a collagen sponge from
Nile tilapia skin that was crosslinked with 1-Ethyl-3-(3-
dimethylaminopropyl) carbodiimide and N-Hydroxysuccinimide
as hemostatic dressings. Crosslinked Nile tilapia skin collagen
sponge significantly improved the mechanical properties of colla-
gen sponge [16] and demonstrated excellent biocompatibility
[17]. Ou Yang et al. [18] used an ionic crosslink method to encap-
sulate the tilapia peptide with chitosan in a microsphere. They dis-
covered that tilapia peptides have an excellent biostability for
hemostatic dressings and have an optimum loading capacity of
T.C. Lee, N.A.S. Mohd Pu’ad, J. Alipal et al.
Fig. 2. Application of tilapia skin to treat burnt wound [14].
10.6 %. The results showed that tilapia peptides/chitosan micro-
spheres could promote blood clotting, induce haemocyte and pla-
telet adherence, and control haemorrhage in vivo [18]. Because
tilapia collagen sponge does not elicit an immune response, Zhou
et al. [19] developed tilapia collagen nanofibres with adequate
mechanical properties via biomimetic electrospun for wound
dressing. They discovered that tilapia collagen nanofibres signifi-
cantly improved human keratinocyte adhesion, proliferation, and
differentiation compared to tilapia collagen sponge [19]. Further-
more, Chen et al. [20] demonstrated that collagen extracted from
tilapia is a promising candidate for clinical wound healing; similar
results have been observed by Sghayyar et al. [21], Ouyang et al.
[22], and Shalaby et al. [23].
2.1.2. Synthesis of hydroxyapatite (HAp)
Because of its excellent osteoconductive properties, hydroxyap-
atite (HAp), also known as bone-like apatite, is one of the most
studied calcium phosphates [24]. The HAp has a crystallographic
structure similar to bone minerals and is osteoconductive, bioac-
tive, non-immunogenic, and non-toxic. Furthermore, HAp can be
chemically synthesised and derived from tilapia scales or bones
[25]. Various techniques, such as heat treatment and chemical
treatment, can be used to synthesise HAp from tilapia scales and
bones. Prior to treatment, tilapia fish scales and bones are typically
cut into small pieces. Furthermore, HAp derived from various syn-
thesis techniques exhibits varying crystallinity, morphology, and
size [26]. Nowadays, researchers are focusing on the production
of nanosized HAp, which has been extensively pursued due to
the promising benefits of nanosized HAp in biomedical areas
[27]. HAp extracted from tilapia fish scales, like other sources, con-
tains trace elements such as Zn2+, K+, Mg2+, Na+, Ba2+, Si2+, and F-
that are chemically similar to human bone. These tracer elements
are useful in biomedical applications, such as bone promotion and
regeneration [26]. Table 1 summarises recent research on the syn-
thesis of HAp from tilapia. It can be concluded that most research-
ers’ synthesis of HAp from black tilapia was compared to that of
red tilapia. Furthermore, nearly all researchers used NaOH to syn-
thesise HAp from tilapia scales chemically. To synthesise HAp from
tilapia bones and scales, the calcination temperature ranges from
700 °C to 1000 °C. Numerous studies have shown that HAp derived
from tilapia is beneficial for biomedical applications such as
improving the surface hardness of enamel [28], acting as a drug-
carrying support membrane [29], bone replacement [30], scaffold
fabrication [31], and improving cell behaviour [32].
2.1.3. Extraction of gelatin
Gelatin is a biopolymer derived from the hydrolytic degradation
of protein from collagen, and its various amino acid structures pro-
vide medical benefits. It is naturally abundant, inexpensive,
biodegradable, biocompatible, and has low antigenicity. Due to
religious and health concerns, consumers do not prefer gelatin
3
Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx
derived from mammalian sources such as pig skins, cattle bones,
and bovine hides. As a result, gelatin extracted from marine-
based sources such as fish bones, scales, and skin has garnered
much attention as an alternative in the current market [41].
According to Jakhar et al. [42], partial hydrolysis can be used to
extract high molecular weight gelatin from animal bone, connec-
tive tissue, scale, skin, and intestines. In general, gelatin extracted
from tilapia fish scales and skin contains 85 to 92 % protein and a
small amount of water and mineral salt. In comparison to other
sources of gelatin, such as mammalian, fish gelatin has a high dis-
solving rate and a low melting temperature. [41]. Table 2 sum-
marises recent studies on the extraction of gelatin from tilapia.
Because of the high yield, it is reasonable to conclude that most
researchers concentrate on extracting gelatin from black tilapia
skin. Because of its excellent biocompatibility and low-cost pro-
duction, gelatin extracted from tilapia biowaste has attracted
interest in biomedical applications. Subara et al. [43] used a two-
step desolvation method to create tilapia gelatin nanoparticles
for drug delivery applications. They could produce tilapia gelatin
nanoparticles with a particle size of 198.46 nm. As a model drug,
5-Fluorouracil entrapment efficiency was found to be 40%, indicat-
ing its potential to be used as a drug carrier for gelatin extracted
from tilapia. Wonganu et al. [44], on the other hand, prepared gela-
tin from black tilapia scales as an antibiotic hydrogel pad. The
hydrogel pads were created by cross-linking gelatin with car-
boxymethyl cellulose and then loading them with Thai herbal plai.
It has been reported that the hydrogel pad can be used in place of
paper or plastic pads as a medicated pad to alleviate allergy
symptoms.
2.2. Water treatment
Water treatment aims to achieve an acceptable standard level
by removing biological, chemical, and physical pollutants. These
pollutants can be removed using various techniques such as coag-
ulation, filtration, and sedimentation. Combinations of these tech-
niques are also commonly used for efficient pollutant removal [52].
Recently, the recovery of waste material as a medium for water
treatment has received a lot of attention. Aside from biomedical
applications, the by-products of tilapia, HAp and gelatin, can also
be used in the water treatment process. It is worth noting that
HAp derived from tilapia fish wastes has received much attention
due to its benefits in wastewater treatment. It was discovered that
HAp derived from tilapia fish contains a lot of hydroxyl groups,
which increases the active sites for removing heavy metals like
chromium (VI), lead, arsenic, copper, mercury, and so on. Olay
et al. [53] developed a polymer membrane from a composite of
HAp from tilapia bone and Kappa-Carrageenan (-Carrageenan) as
their material. Based on the various ratios tested, it was discovered
that a tilapia: kappa ratio of 40:60 produced good mechanical
properties and water permeability of up to 0.000117 m/s, whereas
T.C. Lee, N.A.S. Mohd Pu’ad, J. Alipal et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Table 1
Summary of recent studies on synthesis of HAp from tilapia.

Source Types of method Properties Ref.

Tilapias
Tilapia Black Calcination (900 °C, 8 h) Particle size: 600–1200 nm [33]
bones tilapia Grain size: 0.25–1.1 mm
Ca/P ratio: 1.66
Black Calcination (1000 °C, 3 h) Particle size: 50 mm [34]
tilapia Ca/P ratio: 1.757
Tilapia Black Ultrasonic treatment (40 kHz, 0.4 kW, 60 °C, 45 min) + chemical treatment (0.8 M Particle size: 8.6 ± 2.4 nm in diameter and [35]
scales tilapia HCl, pH 12) 22.8 ± 2.9 nm in length
Ca/P ratio: 1.68
Surface area: 102.2 m2
g 1
Pore volume: 0.28 cm3
g 1
Average pore size: 9.14 nm
Black Alkaline treatment (5 M NaOH, 100 °C, 1 h) + calcination (1200 °C, 2 h) Particle size: 20–30 nm in diameter [36]
tilapia Ca/P ratio: 1.83
Black Calcination (2 h, 800 °C; followed by Particle size: 1.86 lm [37]
tilapia 1200 °C, 2 h) + milling (24–72 h) + spray- drying (5 psi) Surface area: 4.06 m2 g 1
Black Alkaline heat treatment (5% NaOH, 70 °C, 400 rpm, 5 h; followed by 50% NaOH, Particle size: 30–200 nm in length 50 and [38]
tilapia 100 °C, 1 h) 60 nm in width
Ca/P ratio: 1.74
Red tilapia Calcination (800 °C, 3 h) Particle size: 600 nm to 1200 nm [39]
Grain size: 0.25 and 1.1 mm
Ca/P ratio: 1.598

Red tilapia Alkaline heat treatment method (5% w/v NaOH, 70 °C, 5 h; followed by 50% w/v Tracer elements: Mg, Na, Si, Al, Fe, K, Cu, Zn, [40]
NaOH, 1 h) + calcination (700 °C, 5 h) and Sr
Surface area: 2.5–17.5 m2
g 1
Particle size: 0.108–0.759 mm

Table 2
Summary of recent studies on extraction of gelatin from tilapia.

Source Types of tilapias method Properties Ref.

Tilapia scales Black tilapia Acid treatment (0.4 mol/L HCl) Yield: 5.8% [45]
Protein concentration: 0.144 lg/lL per g
Black tilapia Acid treatment (3% HCl) Yield: 11.88% [46]
Tilapia bone Black tilapia Acid treatment (2 M H2SO4) Yield: 60.08% [47]
Red tilapia Gel strength: 295.40 g
Yield: 54.74%
Tilapia skin Black tilapia Acid treatment (0.03 M HCl) + Ultraviolet treatment Gel strength: 351.7 ± 0.8 g [48]
Black tilapia Acid treatment (2 M H2SO4) Yield: 74.37% [47]
Red tilapia Gel strength: 860.50 g
Yield: 69.62%
N/A Acid treatment (0.2 M CH3COOH) Yield: 12.24% [49]
pH: 5.62
Red tilapia Pressurisation (250 MPa) Yield: 32.04% [50]
Red tilapia Acid treatment (5% v/v HCl) Yield: 11.69%Gel strength: 300 g [51]

a ratio of 20:80 produced a good elastic resistance composite
membrane. In short, HAp synthesised from tilapia bone exhibited
desirable properties as a filtering media, such as high water perme-
ability and excellent mechanical strength. Furthermore, the com-
posite with 80%-Carrageenan and 20% HAp had the smallest pore
size, making it an excellent filtering media [53].
Aside from membrane technology, a composite scaffold made
from tilapia waste also performs well in wastewater treatment.
Liaw et al. [54] used calcination at 1000 °C to extract HAp from
red tilapia scales. The freeze casting method is used to create the
composite scaffold by combining HAp powder and chitosan solu-
tion. They reported that the adsorption capacity of Pb2+ in fixed
bed processes ranges from 94 mg/g to 75–570 mg/g in batch pro-
cesses. Furthermore, Liu et al. [55] used freeze casting, freeze dry-
ing, and sintering to remove Pb2+ from red tilapia scales. At pH 2.2,
the optimum adsorption capacity was 344.8 mg/g. After 20 min,
the Pb2+ was almost completely removed. The results demon-
strated that HAp scaffold derived from fish scales has a high poten-
tial for removing heavy metal ions from wastewater.
On the other hand, tilapia by-products are also used as absor-
bent in the water treatment process. Red tilapia fish scales were
also used in heavy metal (i.e. zinc and ferum) biosorption in
domestic wastewater [56]. Othman et al. [56] achieved the highest
Zn removal rates of up to 60% and Fe removal rates of up to 59%. As
a result, this study demonstrated that fish scale has promising
adsorbent properties against Zn and Fe ions in wastewater. To
remove F- from water, Nasiebanda et al. [57] also used tilapia scale
powders. With an adsorbent mass of 3 g/mL, tilapia scale powders
were able to remove 99% of F-.
A few studies have focused on the extraction of gelatin and HAp
from tilapia waste as a low-cost adsorbent to improve the adsorp-
tion efficiency of tilapia waste. Nematidil et al. [58] used gelatin
extracted from black tilapia biowastes as a heavy metal ion adsor-
bent. The nanocomposite of type B gelatin was tested for biosorp-
tion of Cd2+ and Cu2+. They measured Cu2+ adsorption capacities of
162.4 mg/g and Cd2+ adsorption capacities of 128.7 mg/g. It was
also discovered that the nanocomposite’s metal ion adsorption
capacity in a single-ion system was greater than that in a
multiple-ion system. The optimum conditions were pH 6.0,

4
T.C. Lee, N.A.S. Mohd Pu’ad, J. Alipal et al.
328 K, 60 min of contacting time, 0.1 g of adsorbent, and 200 ppm
initial ion concentration. The results of the kinetic study revealed
that the metal ion’s adsorption kinetic behaviour was a chemical
adsorption process. Meanwhile, Sricharoen et al. [59] converted
low-cost adsorbent black tilapia scales biowaste into nano-HAp
through a chemical treatment aided by ultrasonic to remove
Hg2+. They reported that the maximum adsorption capacity was
227.27 mg/g, and that the adsorbent’s kinetics data were tailored
with pseudo-second-order. Achieng et al. [60] then pyrolyzed black
tilapia scales biochars at various temperatures (200–800 °C) to
remove the indigo carmine dye. At an adsorbent dosage of 0.2 g,
the tilapia scales biochars produced at 600 °C demonstrated the
highest removal efficiency (74.40%). In a nutshell, tilapia biowaste
has the potential to be converted into valuable materials for water
treatment.
2.3. Biofuel
Because of their high energy density, fossil fuels are one of the
most important energy resources. Climate change and global
warming have resulted from the massive consumption of these
resources [61]. Energy sources and technologies are critical as the
world’s population continues to grow at an alarming rate [62]. This
has resulted in the search for new and diverse energy and renew-
able sources for environmental preservation [63]. Petroleum is the
primary source of energy for anthropogenic activities and indus-
trial development. Because of the depletion of these non-
renewable energy sources, as well as increased use and prices over
time, biodiesel has evolved into an alternative biofuel [12]. When
compared to petroleum fuel, biofuel has numerous advantages.
For example, it is a renewable source that can reduce carbon diox-
ide, sulphur dioxide, and particulate matter emissions into the
atmosphere. As a result, it contributes to the reduction of green-
house gas emissions [12,64].
Because of the high oil content of tilapia, oil extracted from tila-
pia waste has been shown to be a potential source for producing
biofuel [65]. With the addition of catalysts and short-chain alco-
hols, the oil is transesterified [11]. The fish residuals contain 40–
65% oil, which can be converted into biodiesel via chemical cataly-
sis [66]. Oils extracted from tilapia proteins had a high acidity
index due to enzymatic activity and autoxidation [11]. The use of
fish oil in the production of biodiesel is a renewable resource alter-
native. This is a new energy matrix option that contributes to new
inputs used in biodiesel production while also producing high-
quality oil [67]. To address solid waste management issues, the
use of organic residues in the production of biofuels is a promising
approach [12].
Fonseca et al. [68] investigated the impact of various black tila-
pia biowaste compositions on methane production. They found
that tilapia heads (571 LN kg volatile solid–1) and tilapia scales
(136 LN kg volatile solid–1) produced the highest and lowest
methane yields, respectively. The first-order kinetic model was
found to be the best fit for predicting the methane yield of tilapia
waste. Furthermore, Lima de Oliveira et al. [69] used Thermomyces
lanuginosus lipase in the transesterification of black tilapia oil. The
optimum parameters for producing biodiesel were found to be a
6:1 methanol/oil ratio with a 20% enzyme concentration at a tem-
perature of 33.5 °C. They also reported that the physicochemical
properties met international standards. Iwahashi et al. [70], on
the other hand, created a novel biofuel cell using tilapia-derived
collagen electrolyte and hydrogen fuel. They demonstrated that
tilapia-derived collagen is a good choice for use as an electrolyte
due to its excellent proton conductivity in a humidified environ-
ment. The results demonstrated that this novel biofuel cell can
generate 0.12 mW/cm2 light intensity. It is possible to conclude
5
Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx
that tilapia waste can be converted into a new type of biofuel cell,
with the potential to become a sustainable energy source.
3. Conclusions
To summarise, the recovery of tilapia biowaste has a high
potential to be used as a commercially valuable product. The use
of tilapia skin in the biomedical field shows promising results in
the wound healing process. Furthermore, the synthesised HAp
and extracted gelatin from tilapia biowaste demonstrated excel-
lent biocompatibility and can be used in various biomedical appli-
cations. Furthermore, both HAp and gelatin have good properties
for use in water treatment as a filter membrane, scaffold, and
absorbent. Furthermore, waste fish oil has the potential to be used
as a source for biofuel production, which is advantageous in the
production of renewable biofuels. As a result, it can be seen that
all parts of tilapia biowaste can be used to create valuable
products.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge Universiti Tun Hussein
Onn Malaysia and the Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia for
the financial support provided for this research through Research
Grant Scheme, FRGS Vot K105 (FRGS/1/2018/STG07/UTHM/02/2).
References
[1] R. Tveteras, R. Nystoyl, D.E. Jory, GOAL 2019: global finfish production review
and forecast, 2019. <https://www.aquaculturealliance.org/advocate/goal-
2019-global-finfish-production-review-and-forecast> (Accessed June 15,
2020).
[2] P.K. Sarker, A.R. Kapuscinski, A.J. Lanois, E.D. Livesey, K.P. Bernhard, M.L. Coley,
Towards sustainable aquafeeds: Complete substitution of fish oil with marine
microalga Schizochytrium sp. improves growth and fatty acid deposition in
juvenile Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), PLoS One 11 (2016) 1–17.
[3] A. Taweel, M. Shuhaimi-Othman, A.K. Ahmad, Assessment of heavy metals in
tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) from the Langat River and Engineering Lake in
Bangi, Malaysia, and evaluation of the health risk from tilapia consumption,
Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 93 (2013) 45–51.
[4] G.H. Yue, H.R. Lin, J.L. Li, Tilapia is the fish for next-generation, Int. J. Mar. Sci.
Ocean Technol. 3 (2016) 11–13.
[5] C.-Y. Huang, J.-M. Kuo, S.-J. Wu, H.-T. Tsai, Isolation and characterization of fish
scale collagen from tilapia (Oreochromis sp.) by a novel extrusion – hydro-
extraction process, Food Chem. 190 (2016) 997–1006.
[6] K. Sockalingam, H.Z. Abdullah, Extraction and characterization of gelatin
biopolymer from black tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) scales, AIP Conf.
Proc. 1669 (2015).
[7] H. Dullah, M.A. Malek, M.M. Hanafiah, Life cycle assessment of Nile Tilapia
(oreochromis niloticus) farming in Kenyir Lake, Terengganu, Sustainability. 12
(6) (2020) 2268, https://doi.org/10.3390/su12062268.
[8] S.M.S.N. Lacerda, S.R. Batlouni, G.M.J. Costa, T.M. Segatelli, B.R. Quirino, B.M.
Queiroz, E. Kalapothakis, L.R. França, A new and fast technique to generate
offspring after germ cells transplantation in adult fish: the nile tilapia
(Oreochromis niloticus) model, PLoS One 5 (2010) 1–9, https://doi.org/
10.1371/journal.pone.0010740.
[9] J. Snow, Mexico – Fish, Birds, Crabs, Marine Life, Shells and Terrestrial Life,
2020. <https://mexican-fish.com/> (Accessed June 13, 2020).
[10] C. Firmat, P. Alibert, M. Losseau, J.F. Baroiller, U.K. Schliewen, Successive
invasion-mediated interspecific hybridizations and population structure in the
endangered cichlid oreochromis mossambicus, PLoS One 8 (2013).
[11] E. Freitas, D. Medeiros, S. Afonso, M. Silveira, M. Aur, R. Andreazza,
Physicochemical characterization of oil extraction from fishing waste for
biofuel production 143 (2019) 471–477.
[12] E.F. de Medeiros, B.M. Vieira, C. Audio, M.P. de Pereira, W.C. Ezar Nadaleti, M.S.
Quadro, O. Andreazza, Production of biodiesel using oil obtained from fish
processing residue by conventional methods assisted by ultrasonic waves:
heating and stirring, Renew. Energy. 143 (2019) 1357–1365.
T.C. Lee, N.A.S. Mohd Pu’ad, J. Alipal et al.
[13] E.M. Lima-junior, N.S. Picollo, M. José, B. De Miranda, W. Lyeverton, C. Ribeiro,
Uso da pele de tilápia (Oreochromis niloticus), como curativo biológico
oclusivo, no tratamento de queimaduras The use of tilapia skin (Oreochromis
niloticus), as an occlusive biological dressing, in the treatment of burn wounds
El uso de piel de ti, Rev. Bras. Queimaduras. 16 (2017) 10–17.
[14] E.M.L. Júnior, M.O. de M. Filho, A.J. Forte, B.A. Costa, F.V. Fechine, A.P.N.N. Alves,
M.E.A. de Moraes, M.B.S. Rocha, F.R.S. Júnior, M.F.A. do N. Soares, A.N. Bezerra,
C.B. Martins, M.B. Mathor, Pediatric burn treatment using tilapia skin as a
xenograft for superficial partial-thickness wounds: a pilot study, J. Burn Care
Res. 41 (2020) 241–247.
[15] B. Ge, H. Wang, J. Li, H. Liu, Y. Yin, N. Zhang, S. Qin, Comprehensive assessment
of nile tilapia skin (oreochromis niloticus) collagen hydrogels for wound, Mar.
Drugs. 18 (2020) 1–16.
[16] L. Sun, B. Li, W. Song, K. Zhang, Y. Fan, H. Hou, Comprehensive assessment of
Nile tilapia skin collagen sponges as hemostatic dressings, Mater. Sci. Eng. C.
109 (2020) 110532.
[17] L. Sun, B. Li, D. Jiang, H.U. Hou, Nile tilapia skin collagen sponge modified with
chemical cross- linkers as a biomedical hemostatic material, Colloids Surf. B
Biointerf. 159 (2017) 89–96.
[18] Q. Ouyang, T. Hou, C. Li, Z. Hu, L. Liang, S. Li, Q. Zhong, P. Li, Construction of a
composite sponge containing tilapia peptides and chitosan with improved
hemostatic performance, Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 139 (2019) 719–729.
[19] T. Zhou, N. Wang, Y. Xue, T. Ding, X. Liu, X. Mo, J. Sun, Electrospun tilapia
collagen nanofibers accelerating wound healing via inducing keratinocytes
proliferation and differentiation, Colloids Surf. B Biointerf. 143 (2016) 415–
422.
[20] J. Chen, K. Gao, S. Liu, S. Wang, J. Elango, B. Bao, J. Dong, N. Liu, W. Wu, Fish
collagen surgical compress repairing characteristics on wound healing process
in vivo, Mar. Drugs. 17 (1) (2019) 33, https://doi.org/10.3390/md17010033.
[21] H.N.M. Sghayyar, S. Shee, I. Ahmed, J. Ying, X. Yi, Fish biowaste gelatin coated
phosphate-glass fibres for wound-healing application, Eur. Polym. J. 122
(2019) 109386.
[22] Q.-Q. Ouyang, Z. Hu, Z.-P. Lin, W.-Y. Quan, Y.-F. Deng, S.-D. Li, P.-W. Li, Y.u.
Chen, Chitosan hydrogel in combination with marine peptides from tilapia for
burns healing, Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 112 (2018) 1191–1198.
[23] M. Shalaby, M. Agwa, H. Saeed, S.M. Khedr, O. Morsy, M.A. El-Demellawy, Fish
scale collagen preparation, characterization and its application in wound
healing, J. Polym. Environ. 28 (1) (2020) 166–178.
[24] J. Rincón-López, J. Hermann-Muñoz, A. Giraldo-Betancur, A. De Vizcaya-Ruiz, J.
Alvarado-Orozco, J. Muñoz-Saldaña, Synthesis, characterization and in vitro
study of synthetic and bovine-derived hydroxyapatite ceramics: a comparison,
Materials (Basel) 11 (3) (2018) 333, https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11030333.
[25] N.I. Agbeboh, I.O. Oladele, O.O. Daramola, A.A. Adediran, O.O. Olasukanmi, M.O.
Tanimola, Environmentally sustainable processes for the synthesis of
hydroxyapatite, Heliyon. 6 (4) (2020) e03765, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
heliyon.2020.e03765.
[26] P. Ideia, J. Pinto, R. Ferreira, L. Figueiredo, V. Spínola, P.C. Castilho, Fish
processing industry residues : a review of valuable products extraction and
characterization methods, Waste Biomass Valor. 11 (2019) 3223–3246.
[27] M. Sadat-Shojai, M.T. Khorasani, E. Dinpanah-Khoshdargi, A. Jamshidi,
Synthesis methods for nanosizedd hydroxyapatite with diverse structures,
Acta Biomater. 9 (2013) 7591–7621.
[28] S. Prihartini Devitasari, M. Hudiyati, D. Anastasia, Effect of hydroxyapatite
from waste of tilapia bone (oreochromis niloticus) on the surface hardness of
enamel, J. Phys. Conf. Ser. 1246 (1) (2019) 012009, https://doi.org/10.1088/
1742-6596/1246/1/012009.
[29] D. Kajiwara, T. Ikoma, Collagen and hydroxyapatite composite membranes as
drug-carrying support for biomedical applications, MRS Adv. 2 (19–20) (2017)
1083–1088.
[30] C.N. Aiza Jaafar, I. Zainol, M. Mohd Amin, Fish scales hydroxyapatite as
potential fillers in HDPE composites for bone replacement applications, Solid
State Phenom. 264 (2017) 79–82.
[31] A. Kara, S. Tamburaci, F. Tihminlioglu, H. Havitcioglu, Bioactive fish scale
incorporated chitosan biocomposite scaffolds for bone tissue engineering, Int.
J. Biol. Macromol. 130 (2019) 266–279.
[32] Y.-C. Huang, P.-C. Hsiao, H.-J. Chai, Hydroxyapatite extracted from fish scale:
effects on MG63 osteoblast-like cells, Ceram. Int. 37 (6) (2011) 1825–1831.
[33] J.A. da Cruz, W.R. Weinand, A.M. Neto, R.S. Palácios, A.J.M. Sales, P.R. Prezas, M.
M. Costa, M.P.F. Graça, Low-cost hydroxyapatite powders from tilapia fish,
Adv. Manuf. Biomater. Biol. Mater. 72 (4) (2020) 1435–1442.
[34] A.N.K. Ahmad Fara, H.Z. Abdullah, Influence of calcination temperature on the
microstructure and crystallographic properties of hydroxyapatite from black
tilapia fish scale, Mater. Sci. Forum 840 (2016) 151–155.
[35] P. Sricharoen, N. Limchoowong, P. Nuengmatcha, S. Chanthai, Ultrasonic-
assisted recycling of Nile tilapia fish scale biowaste into low-cost nano-
hydroxyapatite: Ultrasonic-assisted adsorption for Hg2+ removal from
aqueous solution followed by ‘‘turn-off” fluorescent sensor based on Hg2+-
graphene quantum dots, Ultrason. Sonochem. 63 (2020) 104966, https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.ultsonch.2020.104966.
[36] I. Zainol, N.H. Adenan, N.A. Rahim, C.N. Aiza Jaafar, Extraction of natural
hydroxyapatite from tilapia fish scales using alkaline treatment, Mater. Today
Proc. 16 (2019) 1942–1948.
[37] I.K. Mohd Ismail, C.N. Aiza Jaafar, I. Zainol, M.Z. Mohamed Yusoff,
Preparationand characterization of hydroxyapatite from black tilapia fish
scales using spray-drying method, Malaysian J. Microsc. 15 (2019) 155–163.
6
Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx
[38] N.A.S. Mohd Pu’ad, R.H. Abdul Haq, H. Mohd Noh, H.Z. Abdullah, M.I. Idris, T.C.
Lee, Nano-size hydroxyapatite extracted from tilapia scale using alkaline heat
treatment method, Mater. Today Proc. 29 (2020) 218–222.
[39] K. Sockalingam, M.A. Yahya, H.Z. Abdullah, Preparations of hydroxyapatite
from tilapia scales, Adv. Mater. Res. 1087 (2015) 30–34.
[40] O.H. Ojeda-Niño, C. Blanco, C.E. Daza, J.C. Salcedo-Reyes, High temperature CO2
capture of hydroxyapatite extracted from tilapia scales, Univ. Sci. 22 (2017)
215–236.
[41] J. Alipal, N.A.S. Mohd Pu’ad, T.C. Lee, N.H.M. Nayan, N. Sahari, H. Basri, M.I.
Idris, H.Z. Abdullah, A review of gelatin: properties, sources, process,
applications, and commercialisation, Mater. Today Proc. 42 (2021) 240–250.
[42] J.K. Jakhar, A. Kumar, H.K. Vardia, Extraction of Gelatin from Skin and Scale of
Indian Major Carps Extraction of Gelatin from Skin and Scale of Indian Major
Carps 34 (2019) 1513–1518.
[43] D. Subara, I. Jaswir, M.F.R. Alkhatib, I.A. Noorbatcha, Synthesis of fish gelatin
nanoparticles and their application for the drug delivery based on response
surface methodology, Adv. Nat. Sci. Nanosci. Nanotechnol. 9 (4) (2018)
045014, https://doi.org/10.1088/2043-6254/aae988.
[44] B. Wonganu, M. Sriariyanun, Y.S. Cheng, K. Rattanaporn, P. Yasurin, W.
Rodiahwati, Application of gelatin derived from waste tilapia scales to an
antibiotic hydrogel pad, E3S Web Conf. 141 (2020) 03004, https://doi.org/
10.1051/e3sconf/202014103004.
[45] N.H. Md Zin, W. Abdul Wahab, N. Nur Ariffin, Extraction of collagen and gelatin
from the scales of different freshwater fish, Int. J. Res. Health Allied Sci 3
(2019) 894–903.
[46] K. Sockalingam, H.Z. Abdullah, Extraction and characterization of gelatin
biopolymer from black tilapia (Oreochromis Mossambicus) scales, Malaysian J.
Microsc. 10 (2014) 132–137.
[47] S. Tinratat, M. Sila-asna, Optimization of gelatin extraction and physico-
chemical properties of fish skin and bone gelatin: Its application to panna cotta
formulas, Curr. Res. Nutr. Food Sci. 5 (3) (2017) 263–273.
[48] N. Ismail, M.I. Idris, H.Z. Abdullah, Effects of ultraviolet (UV) treatment on the
properties of black tilapia fish skins gelatin, Mater. Sci. Forum 1010 (2020)
465–470.
[49] M. Ait Boulahsen, H. Chairi, A. Laglaoui, A. Arakrak, S. Zantar, M. Bakkali, M.
Hassani, Optimization and characterization of gelatin and chitosan extracted
from fish and shrimp waste, E3S Web Conf. 37 (2018) 6–13.
[50] N. Yusof, I. Jaswir, P. Jamal, M.S. Jami, F. Octavianti, Optimization of process
condition for extraction of gelatin from red tilapia skin (Oreochromis
niloticus) by high pressure processing (HPP), Int. Food Res. J. 24 (2017)
340–347.
[51] F. Rahayu, N.H. Fithriyah, Pengaruh waktu ekstraksi terhadap rendemen
gelatin dari tulang ikan nila merah, Semin. Sains dan Teknol. (2015) 1–6.
[52] M. Scholz, Introduction, in: Ind. Water Treat. Process Technol., Elsevier Inc.,
2017, pp. 1–19. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-810391-3.00001-1.
[53] J. Olay, K. Ambas, N. Glino, V.R. Rubi, A. Orbecido, V. Bungay, A. Beltran, K.
Aviso, Production of composite membrane from waste Kappa-Carrageenan
and Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) fishbone, MATEC Web Conf. 268 (2019)
04014, https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/201926804014.
[54] B.S. Liaw, T.T. Chang, H.K. Chang, W.K. Liu, P.Y. Chen, Fish scale-extracted
hydroxyapatite/chitosan composite scaffolds fabricated by freeze casting—an
innovative strategy for water treatment, J. Hazard. Mater. 382 (2020).
[55] W.K. Liu, B.S. Liaw, H.K. Chang, Y.F. Wang, P.Y. Chen, From waste to health:
synthesis of hydroxyapatite scaffolds from fish scales for lead ion removal,
Miner. Met. Mater. Soc. 69 (2017) 713–718.
[56] N. Othman, A.K. A, N. Zayadi, Waste fish scale as cost effective adsorbent in
removing zinc and ferum ion in wastewater, ARPN, J. Eng. Appl. Sci. 11 (2016)
1584–1592.
[57] R. Nasiebanda, E. Wamalwa, K. Lusweti, Adsorption of fluoride from water by
use of powdered tilapia fish scales, Africa Environ. Rev. J. 4 (2020) 145–158.
[58] N. Nematidil, M. Sadeghi, Fabrication and characterization of a novel
biosorbentand its evaluation as adsorbent for heavy metal ions, Polym. Bull.
76 (10) (2019) 5103–5127.
[59] P. Sricharoen, S. Kongsri, C. Kukusamude, Y. Areerob, P. Nuengmatcha, S.
Chanthai, N. Limchoowong, Ultrasound-irradiated synthesis of 3-
mercaptopropyl trimethoxysilane-modified hydroxyapatite derived from
fish-scale residues followed by ultrasound-assisted organic dyes removal,
Sci. Rep. 11 (2021) 1–11.
[60] G.O. Achieng, C.O. Kowenje, J.O. Lalah, S.O. Ojwach, Preparation,
characterization of fish scales biochar and their applications in the removal
of anionic indigo carmine dye from aqueous solutions, Water Sci. Technol 80
(2019) 2218–2231.
[61] J.-M. Jung, J.-I. Oh, Y.-K. Park, J. Lee, E.E. Kwon, Biodiesel synthesis from fish
waste via thermally-induced transesteri fi cation using clay as porous material,
J. Hazard. Mater. 371 (2019) 27–32.
[62] F.A.S. Mota, J.T.C. Filho, G.A. Barreto, The Nile tilapia viscera oil extraction for
biodiesel production in Brazil: an economic analysis, Renew. Sustain. Energy
Rev. 108 (2019) 1–10.
[63] J. Patchimpet, B.K. Simpson, K. Sangkharak, S. Klomklao, Optimization of
process variables for the production of biodiesel by transesterification of used
cooking oil using lipase from Nile tilapia viscera, Renew. Energy. 153 (2020)
861–869.
[64] F.J. Marti-quijal, F. Remize, G. Meca, F.J. Barba, E. Ferrer, Fermentation in fish
and by-products processing : an overview of current research and future
prospects, Curr. Opin. Food Sci. 31 (2020) 9–16.
T.C. Lee, N.A.S. Mohd Pu’ad, J. Alipal et al.
[65] J. Silva, C. Peixoto, A. Fl, D. Moreira, M. Alexsandra, D.S. Rios, J. De Queiroz, P.
Silva, Comparative study of synthetic and natural antioxidants on the
oxidative stability of biodiesel from Tilapia oil, 156 (2020) 1100–1106.
[66] J. Ching-Velasquez, R. Fernández-Lafuente, R.C. Rodrigues, V. Plata, A. Rosales-
Quintero, B. Torrestiana-Sánchez, V.G. Tacias-Pascacio, Production and
characterization of biodiesel from oil of fish waste by enzymatic catalysis,
Renew. Energy. 153 (2020) 1346–1354.
[67] G.I. Martins, D. Secco, L.K. Tokura, R.A. Bariccatti, Effectiveness of methods for
reducing tilapia oil acidity for biodiesel production effectiveness of methods
for reducing tilapia oil acidity for biodiesel production, J. Food Agric. Environ.
14 (2016) 124–127.
View publication stats
Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx
[68] C. Fonseca, L.M. Frare, L. D’avila, T. Edwiges, Influence of different waste
compositions from tilapia fish on methane production, J. Clean. Prod 265
(2020) 121795.
[69] A.L. Lima de Oliveira, J.C. da Costa Assunção, C.V.P. Pascoal, M.L.S. Bezerra, A.C.
S. Silva, B.V. de Souza, F.E.A. Rodrigues, N.M.P.S. Ricardo, T.B.M.G. Arruda,
Waste of nile tilapia (oreochromis niloticus) to biodiesel production by
enzymatic catalysis—optimization using factorial experimental design, Ind.
Eng. Chem. Res. 60 (2021) 3554–3560.
[70] A. Iwahashi, T. Yamada, Y. Matsuo, H. Kawakami, Novel biofuel cell using
hydrogen generation of photosynthesis, J. Funct. Biomater. 11 (4) (2020) 81,
https://doi.org/10.3390/jfb11040081.