EE 508: Solid

State Electronics

Dr. M. A. Abana
• Reading List:
“Semiconductor Physics and Devices” By Donald A.
Neamen,1997
“Fundamentals of Solid State Engineering” By Manijeh Razeghi
Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2002

• Assessment: Continous Assesment 30%

Exams 70%
 Outline
• Physical Properties of semiconductors including
high field effects, carrier infection and
semiconductor surface phenomena, devices
technology.
• Bulk and epitaxial material growth and impurity
control.
• Semiconductor interface properties.
• Stability and method of characterization of
controlled devices.
 Outline

1. Solid State Electronics: A General Introduction

2. Semiconductor at Equilibrium
3. Carrier Motions
4. None equilibrium Excess Carriers in Semiconductors
5. Junction Diodes
 SECTION ONE
Solid State Electronics: A General Introduction
 SSE: A General Introduction
Outline
Introduction
Classification of Materials
Crystalline and Impure Semiconductors
Crystal Lattices and periodic Structure
Reciprocal Lattices
 SSE: A General Introduction
Introduction
Solid-state electronic materials:
–Conductors, semiconductors, and insulators
 A solid contains electrons, ions, and atoms, ~1023/cm3.
too closely packed to be described by classical Newtonian
mechanics.
Extensions of Newtonian mechanics:
–Quantum mechanics to deal with the uncertainties from
small distances;
–Statistical mechanics to deal with the large number of
particles.
 SSE: A General Introduction
Classification of Materials
• According to their viscosity, materials are classified into
solids, liquid, and gas phases
Solid Liquid Gas
Diffusivity Low Medium High

Atomic Density High Medium Low

Hardness High Medium Low

• Low diffusivity, High density and High mechanical strength means

that small channel openings and high inter-particle force in solids.
 SSE: A General Introduction
Classification of Materials

Geometry (Crystallinity v.s. Imperfection)

Purity (Pure v.s. Impure)
Electrical Classification (Electrical
Conductivity)
Mechanical Classification (Binding Force)
 SSE: A General Introduction
Geometry
Crystallinity
–Single crystalline, polycrystalline, and amorphous
 SSE: A General Introduction
Geometry
 Imperfection
–A solid is imperfect when it is not crystalline (e.g., impure) or its atom are displaced
from the positions on a periodic array of points (e.g., physical defect).

–Defect: (Vacancy or Interstitial)

 SSE: A General Introduction
Purity
Pure v.s. Impure
Impurity:
–chemical impurities : a solid contains a variety of
randomly located foreign atoms, e.g., P in n-Si.
–an array of periodically located foreign atoms is
known as an impure crystal with a super lattice, e.g.,
GaAs
Distinction between chemical impurities and physical
defects.
 SSE: A General Introduction
Electrical Conductivity
Material type Resistivity (Ω-cm) Conduction Electron Examples
density (cm-3)
Super conductor 0 (low T) 1023 Sn, Pb Oxides
0 (high T)

Good conductor 10-6 - 10-5 1022 - 1023 metals: K, Na, Cu, Au

Conductor 10-5 - 10-2 1017 - 1022 semi-metal: As, B,
Graphite
Semiconductor 10-2 - 10-9 106 - 1017 Ge, Si, GaAs, InP
Semi Insulator 1010 - 1014 101 - 105 Amorphous Si
Insulator 1014 - 1022 1 - 10 SiO2, Si3N4,
 SSE: A General Introduction
Mechanical Classification
 Based on the atomic forces (binding force) that bind the
atom together, the crystals could be divided into:
–Crystal of Inert Gases (Low-T solid):
Van der Wall Force: dipole-dipole interaction
–Ionic Crystals (8 ~ 10 eV bond energy):
Electrostatic force: Coulomb force, NaCl, etc.
–Metal Crystals:
Delocalized electrons of high concentration, (1 e/atom)
–Hydrogen-bonded Crystals ( 0.1 eV bond energy)
H2O, Protein molecules, DNA, etc.
 SSE: A General Introduction
Binding Force
• Bond energy is a useful parameter to provide a qualitative
gauge on whether
–The binding force of the atom is strong or weak;
–The bond is easy or hard to be broken by energetic electrons, holes, ions,
and ionizing radiation such as high-energy photons and x-ray.

In semiconductors, bonds are covalent or slightly ionic bonds.

Each bond contains two electrons—electron-pair bond.
A bond is broken when one of its electron is removed by impact
collision (energetic particles) or x-ray radiation, —dangling
bond.
 SSE: A General Introduction
Semiconductors for Electronic Device Application
• For electronic application, semiconductors must be
crystalline and must contain a well-controlled
concentration of specific impurities.
• Crystalline semi conductors are needed so the defect
density is low. Since defects are electron and hole traps
where e- - h+ can recombine and disappear, short lifetime.
 SSE: A General Introduction
Semiconductors for Electronic Device Application
• The role of impurities in semiconductors:
1.To provide a wide range of conductivity (III-B or V-P in Si).
2.To provide two types of charge carriers(electrons and holes) to
carry the electrical current , or to provide two conductivity types, n-
type(by electrons) and p-type(by holes)
• Group III and V impurities in Si are dopant impurities to
provide conductive electrons and holes. However, group I, II,
and VI atoms in Si are known as recombination impurities
(lifetime killers) when their concentration is low
 SSE: A General Introduction
Crystal Lattices
• A crystal is a material whose atoms are situated
periodically on interpenetrating arrays of points known
as crystal lattice or lattice points.
• The following terms are useful to describe the geometry
of the periodicity of crystal atoms:
–Unit cell; Primitive Unit Cell
–Basis vectors a, b, c; Primitive Basic vectors
–Translation vector of the lattice; Rn= n1a+n2b+n3c
–Miller Indices
 SSE: A General Introduction
Basis Vectors
• The simplest means of representing an atomic array is by
translation. Each lattice point can be translated by basis vectors,
â, b, ĉ.

• Translation vectors: can be mathematically represented by the

basis vectors. Rn= n1â+ n2 b+ n3ĉ, where n1, n2 and n3 are integers.
 SSE: A General Introduction
Unit Cell
• Unit cell: is a small volume of the crystal that can be used to
represent the entire crystal. (not unique)

• Primitive unit cell: the smallest unit cell that can be repeated to
form the lattice. (not unique) Example: FCC lattice
 SSE: A General Introduction
Crystal Plane
• To denote the crystal directions and planes for the 3-d crystals
Plane (h k l)
Equivalent planes {h k l}

Direction [h k l]
Equivalent directions <h k l>
 SSE: A General Introduction
Miller Indices
• To describe the plane by Miller Indices
–Find the intercepts of the plane with x, y, and z axes.
–Take the reciprocals of the intercepts
–Multiply the lowest common denominator =Miller indices
 SSE: A General Introduction
Basic Cubic Lattice
• Simple Cubic (SC), Body-Centered Cubic (BCC), and Face-Centered Cubic
(FCC)
 SSE: A General Introduction
Surface Density

Consider a BCC structure and the (110) plane, the surface density is found by
dividing the number of lattice atoms by the surface area;
Surface density =
( )( )
 SSE: A General Introduction
Quiz
• Determine the direction for the lattice vector shown below
 SSE: A General Introduction
3-D Crystal Structures

In 3-d solids, there are 7 crystal systems (1) triclinic, (2)

monoclinic, (3) orthorhombic, (4) hexagonal,
(5)rhombohedral, (6) tetragonal, and (7) cubic systems.
Consisting of 14 Bravais or space lattices.
 SSE: A General Introduction
3-D Crystal Structures

•
 SSE: A General Introduction
3-D Crystal Structures

•
 SSE: A General Introduction
3-D Crystal Structures

•
 SSE: A General Introduction
3-D Crystal Structures

•
 SSE: A General Introduction
3-D Crystal Structures

•
 SSE: A General Introduction
3-D Crystal Structures

•
 SSE: A General Introduction
Diamond Structure (Cubic System)
Elemental Semi conductors: (C, Si, Ge, Sn)
 SSE: A General Introduction
Diamond Structure (Cubic System)
The diamond could be visualized by a tetrahedral Structure
 SSE: A General Introduction
Diamond Structure (Cubic System)
 SSE: A General Introduction
Zinc Blende Structure (Cubic system)
• Compound Semiconductors:
(SiC, SiGe, GaAs, GaP, InP, InAs, InSb, etc)
–Has the same geometry as the diamond structure except that zinc
blende crystals are binary or contains two different kinds of host atoms.
 SSE: A General Introduction
Wurzite Structure (Hexagonal system)
• Compound Semiconductors:
(ZnO, GaN, ALN, ZnS, ZnTe)
–The adjacent tetrahedrons in zinc blende structure are rotated 600 to give the
wurzite structure.
–The distortion changes the symmetry: cubic →hexagonal
–Distortion also increase the energy gap, which offers the potential for optical device
applications
 SSE: A General Introduction
Reciprocal Lattice
• Every crystal structure has two lattices associated with it, the crystal lattice
(real space) and the reciprocal lattice (momentum space).
• The relationship between the crystal lattice vector ( )and reciprocal
lattice vector ( , , ) is
̂
̂
; ̂
; ̂
. . .
• The crystal lattice vectors have the dimensions of [length] and the vectors in
the reciprocal lattice have the dimensions of [1/length], which means in the
momentum space. (k = 2π/λ)
• A diffraction pattern of a crystal is a map of the reciprocal lattice of the crystal
 SSE: A General Introduction
Example
• Consider a BCC lattice and its reciprocal lattice (FCC)

• Similarly, the reciprocal lattice of an FCC is BCC lattice.

 SSE: A General Introduction
Exercise
• Describe the procedure for obtaining the Miller
indices that describe a plane in a crystal.
• What is meant by a substitutional impurity in a
crystal?
• What is meant by an interstitial impurity?
• Describe the procedure for finding the volume
density of atoms in a crystal.
 SECTION TWO
Introduction to Quantum Mechanics
Introduction to Quantum Mechanics
Outline
Introduction
Principles of Quantum Mechanics
Schrödinger’s Wave Equation
Application of Schrödinger’s Wave Equation
Assignment
 Introduction to Quantum Mechanics
Introduction
• In solids, there are about 1023 electrons and ions packed in a
volume of 1 cm3. The consequences of this highly packing density:
–Inter-particle distance is very small: ~ 2x10-8 cm.
the instantaneous position and velocity of the particle are no
longer deterministic. Thus, the electrons motion in solids
must be analyzed by a probability theory.
Quantum mechanics Newtonian mechanics
Schrodinger’s equation: to describe the position probability of a
particle
 Introduction to Quantum Mechanics
Introduction
–The force acting on the jth particle comes from all the other
1023-1 particles.
–The rate of collision between particles is very high, 1013
collisions/sec
average electron motion instead of the motion of each
electron at a given instance of time are interested.
(Statistical Mechanics) equilibrium statistical mechanics:
Fermi-Dirac quantum-distribution Boltzmann classical
distribution
Introduction to Quantum Mechanics
Principles of Quantum Mechanics
Principle of energy quanta
Wave-Particle duality principle
Uncertainty principle
 Introduction to Quantum Mechanics
Energy Quanta
Consider a light incident on a surface of a material as shown
below:

Classical theory: as long as the intensity of light is strong

enough photoelectrons will be emitted from the material.
Photoelectric Effect: Experimental results shows “NOT”.
 Introduction to Quantum Mechanics
Energy Quanta…Cont.
Observation:
–as the intensity of incident light ν< νo: no
electron emitted.
–as ν > νo: at const. frequency, intensity↑,
emission rate↑, K.E. unchanged. At const. intensity,
the max. K. E. the frequency of incident light.
 Introduction to Quantum Mechanics
Quanta and Photon
• Planck postulated that thermal radiation is
emitted from a heated surface in discrete energy
called quanta.
The energy of these quanta is given by
E= hν,
h = 6.625 x 10-34J-sec (Planck’s constant)
 Introduction to Quantum Mechanics
Quanta and Photon…Cont.
• According to the photoelectric results, Einstein
suggested that the energy in a light wave is also
contained in discrete packets called photon whose
energy is also given by E= hν.
The maximum K.E. of the photoelectron is
Tmax= ½mv2= hν-hνo
• The momentum of a photon, p = h/λ
 Introduction to Quantum Mechanics
Wave Particle Duality
•de Broglie postulated the existence of matter
waves.
• He suggested that since waves exhibit
particle-like behavior, then particles should
be expected to show wave-like properties.
 Introduction to Quantum Mechanics
Wave Particle Duality…Cont.
• de Broglie suggested that the wavelength of a
particle is expressed as:
λ= h/p,
where p is the momentum of a particle
• Davisson-Germer experimentally proved de
Broglie postulation of “Wave Nature of
Electrons”.
Introduction to Quantum Mechanics
Davisson-Germer Experiment
• Consider the experimental setup below:
Introduction to Quantum Mechanics
Davisson-Germer Experiment…Cont.
• Observation:
–the existence of a peak in the density of scattered
electrons can be explained as a constructive
interference of waves scattered by the periodic
atoms.
–the angular distribution of the deflected electrons
is very similar to an interference pattern produced
by light diffracted from a grating.
 Introduction to Quantum Mechanics
Davisson-Germer Experiment…Cont.
Conclusion
• In some cases, EM wave behaves like particles
(photons) and sometimes particles behave as if they
are waves.
Wave-particle duality principle applies primarily to
SMALL particles, e.g., electrons, protons, neutrons.
• For large particles, classical mechanics still apply.
 Introduction to Quantum Mechanics
Uncertainty Principle
• Heisenberg states that we cannot describe with
absolute accuracy the behavior of the subatomic
particles.
1. It is impossible to simultaneously describe with the
absolute accuracy the position and momentum of a
particle.
∆p ∆x ≥ ħ. (ħ= h/2π= 1.054x10-34J-sec)
 Introduction to Quantum Mechanics
Uncertainty Principle…Cont.
2. It is impossible to simultaneously describe with the
absolute accuracy the energy of a particle and the
instant of time the particle has this energy.
∆E ∆t ≥ ħ
• The uncertainty principle implies that these
simultaneous measurements are in error to a certain
extent. However, ħ is very small, the uncertainty
principle is only significant for small particles.
Introduction to Quantum Mechanics
Schrodinger’s Wave Equation
• Based on the principle of quanta and the wave-particle
duality principle, Schrodinger’s equation describes the
motion of electrons in a crystal.
• 1-D Schrodinger’s equation,
𝟐

𝟐
Introduction to Quantum Mechanics
Schrodinger’s Wave Equation…Cont.
• Where Ψ(x,t) is the wave function, which is used to
describe the behavior of the system, and mathematically
can be a complex quantity.
• v(x) is the potential function.
• Assume the wave function Ψ(x,t) = ψ(x)φ(t), then the
Schrodinger eq. Becomes


2m  (t )  2 ( x )
x 2  v( x) (t ) (t )  j  ( x)  ( t )
t
 Introduction to Quantum Mechanics
Schrodinger’s Wave Equation…Cont.

• where E is the total energy, and the solution of the eq.

and the time-dep./time-indep. Schrodinger equation
can respectively be written as:
Introduction to Quantum Mechanics
Schrodinger’s Wave Equation
The physical meaning of wave function:
• Since Ψ(x,t) is a complex function, so it can not by itself
represent a real physical quantity.
• | Ψ2(x,t)| is the probability of finding the particle between x
and x+dx at a given time, or is a probability density function.
•
--independent of time
 Introduction to Quantum Mechanics
Boundary Conditions
1. 𝟐

since |ψ(x)|2 represents the probability density function, then for

a single particle, the probability of finding the particle
somewhere is certain.
If the total energy E and the potential V(x) are finite everywhere,
2. ψ(x) must be finite, single-valued, and continuous.
3. ∂ψ(x)/∂x must be finite, single-valued, and continuous.
 Introduction to Quantum Mechanics
Infinite Potential well
• The infinite Potential Well

• In region I, III, ψ(x) = 0, since E is finite and a particle cannot penetrate the infinite
potential barriers.
• In region II, the particle is contained within a finite region of space and V = 0.
1-D time-indep. Schrodinger’s eq. becomes

• The solution is given by Where

 Introduction to Quantum Mechanics
Infinite Potential well…Cont.
• Boundary Conditions
1. ψ(x) must be continuous, so that ψ(x= 0) = ψ(x= a) = 0
, where n is a positive integer.
2.

So the time-indep. Wave equation is given by

 Introduction to Quantum Mechanics
Infinite Potential well…Cont.
• The solution represents the electron in the infinite potential well is in a
standing waveform. The parameter K is related to the total energy E,
therefore,

where n is a positive integer

• That means that the energy of the particle in the infinite potential
well is “quantized”. That is, the energy of the particle can only have
particular discrete values.
Introduction to Quantum Mechanics
Infinite Potential well…Cont.
 Introduction to Quantum Mechanics
The Step Potential Function
• Consider a particle being incident on a step potential
barrier:
• In region I, V= 0,
• And the general solution of this equation is

1 2𝑚𝐸
Where 𝐾 =
ℏ
 Introduction to Quantum Mechanics
The Step Potential Function
• In region II, V= Vo,
• if we assume E < Vo, then

The general solution is in the form:

Where
 Introduction to Quantum Mechanics
The Step Potential Function
• Boundary Conditions
- ψ2(x) must remain finite, B2≡0
- ψ(x) must be continuous, i.e., ψ1(x= 0) = ψ2(x= 0) A1+B1 = A2
 1
- ∂ψ(x)/ ∂x must be continuous, i.e.,
x x  0  x2 x 0  jK1 A1  jK1B1   K 2 A2

• A1, B1, and A2 could be solved from the above equations.

 Introduction to Quantum Mechanics
The Potential Barrier
• Consider the potential barrier set up as shown
Assume the total energy of an incident particle E< Vo,
as Previously demonstrated, we could solve the
Schrodinger’s equations in each region and obtain
the solutions of the wave equation in regions I, II,
and III given, respectively as:
Introduction to Quantum Mechanics
The Potential Barrier

Where
 Introduction to Quantum Mechanics
The Potential Barrier
• We can solve B1, A2, B2, and A3 in terms of A1
from boundary conditions:
- B3= 0 , once a particle enters in region III, there
is no potential changes to cause a reflection,
therefore, B3 must be zero
- At x= 0 and x= a, the corresponding wave
function and its first derivative must be
continuous.
 Introduction to Quantum Mechanics
The Potential Barrier
• The transmission coefficient is
defined by:

• For the special case when E << V0

we find that :
 Introduction to Quantum Mechanics
The Potential Barrier
• The results implies that there is
a finite probability that a
particle impinging a potential
barrier will penetrate the
barrier and appear in region III,
• This phenomenon is called
“tunneling”.
• Tunneling phenomenon can be applied to semiconductor
device characteristics, such as in the tunnel diode
 Introduction to Quantum Mechanics
The Potential Barrier
Example:
Consider an electron with energy of 2 eV impinging on a
potential barrier with V0 = 20 eV and a width of 3 A. Calculate
the probability that the electron will tunnel through the
potential barrier.
Solution:
Using the tunneling equation.
 Introduction to Quantum Mechanics
The Potential Barrier
The factor K2 is obtained using
 SSE: A General Introduction
Exercise

• State the wave-particle duality principle and state

the relationship between momentum and
wavelength
• What is meant by quantized energy levels?
 Semiconductor Application
Doping
• A Process by which a small number of atoms of a different kind is
injected into the crystal structure.
• This is done in a way that the dopants are placed on positions where
normally the atoms of the original crystal are located.
• Typical doping density: 1015 - 1019 /cm3 this is indeed doping and not
alloying (the density is very low).

• The atom density of silicon is 5 × 1022/cm3, so a typical doping of 1017/cm3

means that two atom is changed to a dopant out of every one million,
which leaves us with a purity of 99.9998 %.
 Semiconductor Application
Intrinsic Semiconductor
• A semiconductor in an extremely pure form is known as an intrinsic
semiconductor.
• At room temperature, hole-electron pairs are created.
• When electric field is applied across an intrinsic semiconductor, the
current conduction takes place by two processes:
• free electrons and
• holes
• The total current inside the semiconductor is the sum of currents due to
free electrons and holes
 Semiconductor Application
Extrinsic Semiconductor
• This is achieved by adding a small amount of suitable impurity to
an intrinsic semi conductor.
• The purpose of adding impurity is to increase either the number of
free electrons or holes in the semiconductor crystal.
• Depending upon the type of impurity added, extrinsic
semiconductors are classified into:

• n-type semiconductor
• p-type semiconductor
 Semiconductor Application
N-Type Semiconductor
• When a small amount of pentavalent impurity is added to a pure
semiconductor, it is known as n-type semiconductor.
• Provides a large number of free electrons in the semiconductor
crystal.
 Semiconductor Application
P-Type Semiconductor
• When a small amount of trivalent impurity is added to an
intrinsic/pure semiconductor, it is called p-type semiconductor
• This provides a large number of holes in the semiconductor.
 Semiconductor Application
The pn Junction
• When a p-type semiconductor is suitably joined to n-type
semiconductor, the contact surface is called pn junction.
• Most semiconductor devices contain one or more pn junctions.
• The pn junction is of great importance because it is in effect, the control
element for semiconductor devices.
• For a proper understand the semiconductor devices, a thorough
knowledge of the properties of pn junction is required
 Semiconductor Application
Properties of pn Junction
• The free electrons near the junction in the n region begin to
diffuse across the junction into the p region where they combine with
holes near the junction.
• The result is that n region loses free electrons as they diffuse into the
junction.
• This creates a layer of positive charges (pentavalent ions) near the
junction.
• As the electrons move across the junction, the p region loses holes as the
electrons and holes combine. The result is that there is a layer of
negative charges (trivalent ions) near the junction.
 Semiconductor Application
Properties of pn Junction
• These two layers of positive and negative charges form the
depletion region (or depletion layer).
• Once pn junction is formed and depletion layer created, the diffusion of
free electrons stops.
 Semiconductor Application
Properties of pn Junction
• Once pn junction is formed and depletion layer created, the diffusion of
free electrons stops.
• The positive and negative charges set up an electric field which serves as
a barrier to the free electrons in the n-region called barrier potential (V0)

The typical barrier potential is

approximately:
For silicon, V0 = 0.7 V ;
For germanium, V0 = 0.3 V
 Semiconductor Application
Biasing a pn Junction
• In relation to a pn junction, there are following
two bias conditions:
• Forward biasing
• Reverse biasing
 Semiconductor Application
Biasing a pn Junction
• Forward biasing. When external d.c. voltage applied to the junction is in
such a direction that it cancels the potential barrier, thus permitting
current flow, it is called forward biasing.
• To apply forward bias, connect positive terminal of the battery to p-type
and negative terminal to n-type
 Semiconductor Application
Biasing a pn Junction
• With forward bias to pn junction:
i. The potential barrier is reduced and at some forward voltage (0.1
to 0.3 V), it is eliminated altogether.
ii. The junction offers low resistance (called forward resistance, Rf) to
current flow
iii. Current flows in the circuit due to the establishment of low
resistance path. The magnitude of current depends upon the
applied forward voltage
 Semiconductor Application
Biasing a pn Junction
Reverse biasing. When the external d.c. voltage applied to the junction is
in such a direction that potential barrier is increased, it is called reverse
biasing.
To apply reverse bias, connect negative terminal of the battery to p-type
and positive terminal to n-type
 Semiconductor Application
Biasing a pn Junction
• With reverse bias to pn junction:
i. The potential barrier is increased
ii. The junction offers very high resistance (called reverse resistance, Rr)
to current flow.
iii. No current flows in the circuit due to the establishment of high
resistance path
 Semiconductor Application
Biasing a pn Junction
• Two important terms often used with p-n junction are breakdown
voltage and knee voltage.

• Breakdown voltage: This is the minimum reverse voltage at which pn

junction breaks down with sudden rise in reverse current. Under normal
reverse voltage, a very little reverse current flows through a pn junction
however, if the reverse voltage attains a high value, the junction may
break down leading to a sudden rise in reverse current. This high reverse
current may damage the junction, therefore, care should be taken to
ensure that reverse voltage across a pn junction is always less than the
breakdown voltage.
 Semiconductor Application
Biasing a pn Junction
• Knee voltage: This is the forward voltage at which the current through
the junction starts to increase rapidly. When a diode is forward biased, it
conducts current very slowly until we overcome the potential barrier.
For silicon pn junction, potential barrier is 0.7 V whereas for germanium
junction it is 0.3 V
 Semiconductor Application
Limitations on operating condition of PN junctions

• Maximum forward current: This is the highest instantaneous

forward current that a pn junction can conduct without damage
to the junction. Manufacturer’s data sheet usually specifies this
rating. If the forward current in a pn junction is more than this
rating, the junction will be destroyed due to overheating.
 Semiconductor Application
Limitations on operating condition of PN junctions
• Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV): It is the maximum reverse voltage
that can be applied to the pn junction without damage to the
junction. If the reverse voltage across the junction exceeds its
PIV, the junction may be destroyed due to excessive heat. The
peak inverse voltage is of particular importance in rectifier
service. A pn junction i.e. a crystal diode is used as a rectifier to
change alternating current into direct current. In such
applications, care should be taken that reverse voltage across
the diode during negative half-cycle of a.c. does not exceed the
PIV of diode
 Semiconductor Application
Limitations on operating condition of PN junctions
• Maximum power rating: This is the maximum power that can
be dissipated at the junction without damaging it. The power
dissipated at the junction is equal to the product of junction
current and the voltage across the junction. This is a very
important consideration and is invariably specified by the
manufacturer in the data sheet