Garcilaso's Poetics of Subversion and the Orpheus Tapestry

Author(s): Mary E. Barnard

Source: PMLA , May, 1987, Vol. 102, No. 3 (May, 1987), pp. 316-325
Published by: Modern Language Association

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/462479

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Garcilaso's Poetics of Subversion and the Orpheus Tapestry
O RPHEUS LOST Eurydice to the under-
world. Given the chance to restore his wife
to the world of light and life, Orpheus dis-
obeyed the injunction not to look back and lost her
forever. Then, as he had earlier left spirits spell-
bound in Hades, the poet and lover enchanted
beasts, trees, and stones with his piercing lament in
the living world. This poignant tale of the mysteri-
ous lyrist was appropriated by poets of the Span-
ish Golden Age, including Garcilaso de la Vega
(1501[?]-36), whose imitation in his third eclogue
engages his models in an intertextual dialogue.
The Renaissance imitation of models is clearly a
form of intertextuality, the act of writing by which of imitation, see Pigman and Greene.) Petrarch, the
a text emerges as a product of prior texts.I Terence
Cave speaks of this interplay of texts within the
framework of sixteenth-century theories of imitation:main in you in its original state: the bees would have
Imitation theory . . . recognizes the extent to which the
production of any discourse is conditioned by pre-existing
instances of discourse; the writer is always a rewriter, the
problem then being to differentiate and authenticate the
rewriting. This is executed not by the addition of some-
thing wholly new, but by the dismembering and recon-
struction of what has already been written. (76)
Garcilaso's imitation of classical and Italian models
in his treatment of the Orpheus myth in the third
eclogue is an example of this art of rewriting. In
what I call his "poetics of subversion," Garcilaso
"dismembers" his sources, adapts and transforms
fragments of his antecedents, reconstructs them,
and in the process fabricates his text. Garcilaso's
transformation of his multiple sources also betrays
elements of emulation, a correction of the models
in an attempt to achieve a decisive victory over
them. Before I examine instances of intertextuality
in Garcilaso's text, however, a few words about the
role of transformation and emulation in Renais-
sance imitation theory are necessary.
Renaissance theories of imitation called for the
appropriation of an alien text through a transfor-
mation in which the text reemerges as part of a new
idiom. For instance, through a kind of artificial
mythopoeia, Garcilaso presents new variants for the
Orpheus myth: a transformed Orpheus stands with-
out a lyre on a bleak mountain, enchanting neither
inanimate nature nor beasts. In theoretical treatises,
316
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MARY E. BARNARD
this type of transformative act is often compared to
bees gathering pollen from flowers and converting
it to honey-an image derived originally from the
ancients and a popular topic in discussions on im-
itation. In the alchemy of imitation, the industri-
ousness of the bees signals the creative energy of the
poets, who convert what they inherit from their
precursors into elegant variations. Transformation
was often accompanied by emulation (aemulatio),
an attempt to surpass the model; and so the inter-
textual dialogue between surface text and subtext
clearly emerges as a conflict. (On transformation
and emulation in Renaissance theories and practice
master imitator of ancient material, warns: "Take
care that what you have gathered does not long re-
no glory if they did not convert what they found
into something different and something better" (1:
44; trans. based on Pigman 7). To the extent that
emulation strives for a victory, it is revisionary and
corrective, an implicit criticism of the subtext. In the
language of contemporary literary theory-that of
Harold Bloom in his Map of Misreading-the revi-
sionist poet "strives to see again, so as to esteem and
estimate differently, so as then to aim 'correc-
tively' " (4). Through a series of tropes and "psy-
chic defenses," Bloom's revisionist poets "correct"
their precursors in order to win a victory: not only
to assert their freedom from the inevitable tyranny
of earlier poets but to overcome them. In a "trium-
phant wrestling with the greatest of the dead" (9),
Bloom's poets insist on their own uniqueness and
accuracy, seeking in effect to seem self-begotten.
Renaissance revisionist poets may have had simi-
lar anxieties. It is true that, peacocklike, they imi-
tate the ancients to display their classical erudition,
but there is ample evidence from those who speak
on matters of imitation that the pressures exerted
by a prestigious past caused much concern. The
words from Petrarch I quote above are an example.
Erasmus speaks more vehemently in his
Ciceronianus:
Some shrewd people distinguish imitation from emula-
tion. Imitation aims at similarity; emulation, at victory.
Thus, if you take all of Cicero and him alone for your
model, you should not only reproduce him, but also de-
 Mary E. Barnard 317

feat him. He must not be just passed by, but rather left
behind. (116; trans. Pigman 24)
It is safe to assume that, unlike Bloom's poets,
Renaissance poets, in correcting their sources, do
not seek to seem self-begotten; their reverence for
antiquity is too transparent. But they insist on their
individual uniqueness and accuracy and, following
admonitions such as those of Petrarch and
Erasmus, even arrogantly attempt to surpass their
precursors. True creative imitation is, above all, an
act of subversion.
The emergence of the new text from a struggle
with its prestigious sources, however, involves hom-
age as well as correction. In their famous exchange
of letters on imitation, Pico della Mirandola and
En tanto, no te offenda ni te harte
tratar del campo y soledad que amaste,
ni desdenies aquesta inculta parte
de mi estilo, que'n algo ya estimaste;
Aplica, pues, un rato los sentidos
al baxo son de mi ~ampofna ruda,
indigna de liegar a tus oydos,
pues d'ornamento y gracia va desnuda;
mas a las vezes son mejor oydos
el puro ingenio y lengua casi muda,
testigos limpios d'animo inocente,
que la curiosidad del eloquente.
(29-36, 41-48)
Apollo and all nine sisters will give me leisure and a

Pietro Bembo agree that emulation should be the tongue with which to speak the least of the praises of
which you are worthy, for this will be the most that I can
goal of the imitator. They view rivalry as a stimu-
do. Meanwhile, I hope that you're not offended or bored
lus for creative imitation, a notion later elaborated
by my writing of the countryside and solitude you loved,
in Erasmus's eloquent Ciceronianus (1528). But
and that you don't disdain this rustic aspect of my style,
Bembo's clear admiration for the model, coupled
which you once esteemed.. . . Apply then for a while
with the idea of rivalry, reveals the complexity of theyour senses to the humble sound of my crude pipes, un-
imitator's task. In the Renaissance, transformative worthy of reaching your ears, for it is naked of adornment
imitation, with its notions of emulation, has a dou- and grace; but at times it is better to listen to creativity
ble focus: an implicit faith in the original and a free- pure and simple and to an almost silent tongue, pure wit-
dom to create new poetic visions. If I may borrow nesses of the innocent soul, than to the sophistication of
Julia Kristeva's words, "le texte poetique est produit the rhetorician. (69_70)2
dans le mouvement complexe d'une affirmation et
d'une negation simultanees d'un autre texte" 'the
The speaker as poet draws a distinction between two
poetic text is produced in the complex movement of
kinds of poetry: poetry as divine inspiration and
a simultaneous affirmation and negation of an-
poetry as a product of pure ingenio. Since these are
other text' (Se'me'iotike 257; trans. mine). As we
conceived as oral discourse, speaking (30) and sing-
shall see, Garcilaso, whose third eclogue contains
ing (42), the term lengua plays a major role in the
elements of emulation, is one of the most skillful
passage. Apollo and the muses will endow the poet
intertextualists of the Golden Age. His multivocal
with ocio y lengua, the divine gifts that will carry
text wrestles with its sources, at times affirming
out the business at hand, the celebration of the
them, at times transforming them. At other times
woman to whom the poem is dedicated. But the sur-
the text privileges one voice over another; it then
prising "En tanto" 'Meanwhile' of line 33 shifts the
shifts the emphasis, not only "remaking" its sources
direction of the poem and introduces a new poetic
but also seeking to overcome them. In the process,
concern. The poem will address not celebration
there emerges a highly imaginative version of the
through inspiration but something that is suppos-
Orpheus myth, an artificial erotic drama of loss and
edly the result of a "lengua casi muda" 'an almost
brooding pain.
silent tongue,' that is, the lowly pastoral.3 Both the
At the beginning of the eclogue, the speaker as
blemishes of the text ("inculta parte / de mi estilo"
poet reveals thoughts about his writing, about in-
'rustic aspect of my style'; "baxo son de mi cam-
spiration and creativity (ingenio), imitation and ar-
ponia ruda, / indigna de llegar a tus oydos" 'hum-
tifice. He tells Maria:
ble sound of my crude pipes, unworthy of reaching
your ears') and its triumph (the product of "[un]
Apollo y las hermanas todas nueve animo inocente" '[an] innocent soul') are, if not si-
me daran ocio y lengua con que hable lence, something approaching the virtues of silence:
lo menos de lo que'n tu ser cupiere, a lack of artifice and rhetorical eloquence. More-
que'sto sera lo mas que yo pudiere. over, the lengua casi muda, coupled with puro inge-

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318 Garcilaso's Poetics of Subversion and the Orpheus Tapestry

nio (ingenio may be identified with the classical
ingenium, the creative talent of a writer), not only
makes a claim for the moral superiority of the poet
("testigos limpios d'animo inocente" 'pure wit-
nesses of the innocent soul') but seems to announce
the self-begetting of the poem, an autonomous text
that is a product of pure invention rather than of
rhetorical sophistication. The poet disavows all ties
with literary tradition: he sets himself up as the sole
creator and master of his poetic, albeit lowly,
universe.
But here we are dealing with an obligatory mod-
esty topos, the writer who places his creation,
knowingly and shamelessly, in a position of artis-
tic inferiority. Since the topos is simply that, a
topos-and not meant to be believed-it implicitly
affirms what it explicitly denies: rhetoric will be theItalians: the Eurydice tapestry from Sannazaro's
guiding principle of the text. Artifice will rule. And Arcadia (prose 12), Ariosto's Orlando furioso, and
since the key literary theory enacted in the text is
that of imitation of models, we have a text that is
far from autonomous. The poet is affirming, per-
haps even celebrating, his participation in an act of
rewriting.
Pastoral enacts a lost Golden Age of simplicity
and innocence in which there was one tongue and
no need of rhetoric-and the modesty topos
reenacts this state. But in Garcilaso, as in Theocri-
tus, Vergil, and the Italians, the fiction of pastoral
is elaborated in the fiction of words. Garcilaso's
modesty topos reveals the duplicity of pastoral: its
artlessness is a deception. Ultimately the pastoralist
must indulge in the "curiosidad del eloquiente."
Garcilaso-poet, courtier, and soldier in the
army of Charles v-met with an early death in a
skirmish with the French in Provence, leaving be-
hind a small opus. Frustrated love is the predomi-
nant theme of his poems, which include three
eclogues, thirty-eight Petrarchan sonnets, five can-
ciones, one epistle, and two elegies. He also wrote
several coplas and three odes in Latin. Garcilaso's
reworkings of the Orpheus story are featured
prominently in his verses. They appear in sonnets
15 and 24, cancion 5, ode 2, and the second and
third eclogues. The most significant version is sion of the death scene. Vergil's text tells how
elaborated in the first tapestry scene in the third ec-
Eurydice runs toward a huge snake hidden in the tall
logue, whose four tapestries depict frustrated love
affairs: three mythological tales-Orpheus and Eu-
rydice, Apollo and Daphne, Venus and Adonis-
and a pastoral tale, the adventure of Elissa and the
shepherd Nemoroso. Loss and grief are the haunt-
ing notes of these tapestries, which present a
crescendo of violent destruction of a loved one, cul-
minating in the scene of the decapitated Elissa (the
nympha degollada) and Nemoroso's lament.4 Each
of the mythological tales, beginning with Orpheus
and Eurydice, prefigures the pastoral story. Speak-
ing of a text's plurality of meaning ("the signifiers
that weave it"), Roland Barthes points out that
"etymologically the text is a cloth; textus, from
which text derives, means 'woven"' ("Work" 76).
The weaving of the tapestries in the third eclogue
mimes the writing of the text "woven" from frag-
ments of prior texts.
Garcilaso finds the models for his Orpheus in an-
cient and Italian sources. The main ancient model,
according to his early commentators and modern
source critics, is Vergil's Georgics (4.453-527).
There are, moreover, reminiscences from the
the Orphei tragoedia.5 Ovid's Metamorphoses 10
and 11 and Martial's epigram 25 from De spec-
taculis may also have served as models.
To create his Orpheus in the short space of three
stanzas, Garcilaso must be selective. He chooses
three key moments from the ancient tale: the death
of Eurydice; the katadbasis, Orpheus's descent into
Hades to retrieve her; and Orpheus's lament after
her final loss. In the first stanza (121-28), Garcilaso
describes the Thracian landscape and introduces a
reference to Orpheus's lament: "donde el amor mo-
vi6 con tanta gracia / la dolorosa lengua del de Tra-
cia" 'where love moved with so much grace the
grieving tongue of the Thracian' (127-28; 73). By
beginning, in effect, with the ending of his story,
Garcilaso establishes a circular structure that fore-
closes all possibilities for a happy ending. What fol-
lows simply confirms what the lament clearly
announces: the moment of loss and a doomed lover,
a Renaissance Orpheus who cannot disguise his an-
cient origins. Garcilaso has read his sources.
Garcilaso's elaborate treatment of Eurydice's
death in the second stanza is a self-conscious expan-
sion of his classical models, though, as we shall see,
he owes more to Sannazaro, who offers a fuller ver-
grass; her death is conveyed only by the commiser-
ating phrase moritura puella 'doomed maiden'
(458). Ovid's text is more explicit but equally curt:
strolling through the grass, the woman is bitten on
the ankle by the serpent's tooth and dies (10.8-10).
The ancients' clipped renditions give way in Gar-
cilaso to extensive sensual details:

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 Mary E. Barnard 319

Estava figurada la hermosa
Euridice, en el blanco pie mordida
de la pequefia sierpe poncofiosa,
entre la yerva y flores escondida;
descolorida estava como rosa
que ha sido fuera de saz6n cogida,
y el anima, los ojos ya bolviendo,
de la hermosa carne despidiendo. (129-36)
from the spiritual to the erotic. The sensual Gar-
cilaso here outdoes the sensual Italian. Garcilaso
may have also imitated the Orphei tragoedia, where
Eurydice's soul is described as having left a beau-
tiful abode, that is, her body: "Abbandonato ha il
spirto peregrino / Quel bel albergo" 'the wander-
ing spirit has abandoned that beautiful abode'
(2.144-45; trans. mine). But while the tragedy uses

Beautiful Eurydice was depicted, bitten on her white foot

the metaphor albergo for the body, Garcilaso
by the small venomous snake hidden in the grass and speaks of the sensuous carne, lending freshness and
flowers; she was pale like a rose that has been plucked out strength to his text.
of season and, rolling back her eyes, was already releas- Beauty and death are dramatically juxtaposed:
ing her soul from her beautiful flesh. (73) the pastoral landscape with its idyllic splendor
along with the delicate, beautiful woman fatally bit-
ten by the poisonous snake. But Garcilaso offers
To dramatize the loss of Eurydice, Garcilaso fo-
more than the reality of death. He presents Eurydice
cuses on the contrast between beauty and death, on
in the very act of dying, an element absent in the
the process of dying undergone by the beautiful
Italian models. As she expires, there is a sense of
woman, and the soul's departure from the
shock in the realistic rolling back of her unfocused
damaged, lovely flesh. The ancients do not describe
eyes ("los ojos ya bolviendo"), reminiscent of Ver-
the woman, but Sannazaro does, and Garcilaso
gil, where Eurydice's eyes "swim" (496) as, over-
takes his cue from him and from Ariosto's image of
come by the drowsiness of death, she is snatched a
the rose that is left unplucked in the story of Isabel
second time by the powers of the underworld.
and Zerbin in the Orlando. Ariosto depicts Isabel
By transforming Sannazaro (and possibly the Or-
as she grieves over the dying body of Zerbin, who
phei tragoedia) and adapting fragments from Ari-
has been wounded by the Tartar king Mandricard:
osto and Vergil, Garcilaso reconstructs the scene of
loss and gives it precisely the emphasis he wants: a
languidetta come rosa, rosa non colta in sua stagione, drawing out of time to make the instant of dying a
si che'lla impallidisca in su la siepe ombrosa. profound realm of its own, a passage of the beloved
from life to colorless exile from the living, the
drooping like a rose, a rose unpicked in its season and
gradual disappearance of the loved one from the
turning pale on the shady bush.
lover's grasp. Garcilaso's elegant drama of death
(24.80.4-6; trans. mine)
not only reveals his ingenuity and virtuosity, key ele-
ments prescribed for good imitation, but emerges
Garcilaso echoes Ariosto's "impallidisca" in his in a curious way as a correction of his predecessors.
"descolorida," focusing on the ominous paleness In the dialectic established between Garcilaso's text
of death. From Sannazaro's Eurydice tapestry in theand its antecedents, the ancients sin by omission
Arcadia, Garcilaso takes the reference to the white (amplification is the corrective), and Sannazaro and
foot and the exhalation of the soul: the Orphei tragoedia sin by failing to give the loss
of fragile Eurydice the proper emphasis. Garcilaso
engages his ancient models in what Bloom calls tes-
Euridice: si come nel bianco piede punta dal velenoso
sera and his Italian models in what Bloom calls
aspide fu costretta di esalare la bella anima.
clinamen (Anxiety 19-73). Garcilaso "completes"
Eurydice: how pricked on her white foot by the poisonous his ancient precursors, for they have not gone far
asp was compelled to exhale her beautiful soul. enough; he "swerves" away from his Italian sources
(196; trans. mine) and moves in a different direction, giving high
drama to the event.
Garcilaso's subversion of his models points to
But Sannazaro's image of Eurydice exhaling her their insufficiencies and achieves a secret victory
beautiful soul is changed by Garcilaso to the soul over them. The result is not only a unique poetic vi-
leaving the beautiful flesh ("el anima . . . de la sion but one that rivals the models in accuracy of
hermosa carne despidiendo"), so there is a shift presentation. And yet in the correction lies a poetic

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320 Garcilaso's Poetics of Subversion and the Orpheus Tapestry
strategy. Eurydice's loss must be conveyed by Gar-
cilaso as a dramatic withering of beauty because her
death prefigures that of Elissa, the decapitated
nymph, in the fourth tapestry. In this last tapestry,
the mutilated body of the delicate nymph rests, like
a lifeless swan, on the luxuriant pleasance.
In the next stanza Orpheus descends to the un-
derworld, loses Eurydice a second time, and la-
ments her. Garcilaso departs from his models, yet
their intertextual presence points to a radically al-
tered Orpheus:
Figurado se via estensamente
el osado marido, que baxava
al triste reyno de la escura gente
y la muger perdida recobrava;
y c6mo, despues desto, e1, impaciente
por mirarla de nuevo, la tornava
a perder otra vez, y del tyrano
se quexa al monte solitario en vano. (137-44)
The daring husband was seen depicted at length, descend-
ing to the sad kingdom of the dark people and recover-
ing his lost wife; and how after this, he, impatient to see
her again, lost her once more, and in vain complains to
the solitary mountain about the tyrant. (73)
From the start, Garcilaso adds a distinct note.
Whereas Vergil sends Orpheus into a terrifying
Hades but does not specifically speak of him as
brave, Garcilaso actually calls Orpheus osado in
describing the daring descent into the sad kingdom
of dark people. Here there are echoes of another
lover and another ancient source: Martial's audax
Leander, who serves as a model for Garcilaso's Le-
ander in sonnet 29, "Passando el mar Leandro el
animoso" 'Crossing the sea the daring Leander.'6
But this reminiscence is not simply a quotation
from a prestigious Latin source. In an ironic mul-
tiplication of sources, Martial's text qualifies Ver-
gil's, giving way to Garcilaso's text; hence there
emerges a new, courageous Orpheus willing to sac-
rifice himself for love, like "Leandro el animoso,"
who swims the dangerous Hellespont to reach Hero.
The hyperbolic scene of the loss of Eurydice, where
female delicacy and grace are ravished by urgent,
untimely death, finds its counterpart in this inflated the magic of his song loses his beloved because,
passage where heroic Orpheus enters the forbidden
circle of death, ready to do battle to recover his wife.Herein lies the tragedy of the Vergilian Orpheus. Al-
But curiously Garcilaso's Orpheus descends to a
rather tame Hades, described in a brief phrase:
"triste reyno de la escura gente" 'the sad kingdom
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of the dark people.' By contrast, Vergil offers a
wealth of observation of his foul Hades, whose dis-
tinctive features are its darkness and its unhappy
dwellers. His Orpheus enters a "grove that is murky
with black terror" 'caligantem nigra formidine lu-
cum' (468); its inhabitants are the shadows and
phantoms of those deprived of light ("umbrae .
tenues simulacraque luce carentum" [472]). Vergil
offers a pathetic picture of sadness and fear: the
denizens of Hades are like birds hiding amidst
leaves; unmarried girls, sons who died on the pyre
before their fathers' eyes, mothers, men are all held
by the black ooze of the Cocytus and the abundant
waters of the treacherous Styx (473-80). Ovid's
Hades is silent and dark (10.53-54); its inhabitants,
like Vergil's, are umbrae-Eurydice is among them,
limping as she walks because of her wound, a not
so unexpected playful note by the bantering Ovid
(48-49). But Garcilaso has no need for Vergil's ex-
tensive details or, obviously, for Ovid's comedy. It
is his turn to exercise restraint. His description is
crisp and to the point. The expected "escuro reyno
de la triste gente" 'dark kingdom of the sad people,'
perhaps too close to the Vergilian model for Gar-
cilaso's comfort and clearly too ordinary an expres-
sion for the occasion, suffers a dislocation through
a transposition of adjectives. It becomes, as we have
seen, "triste reyno de la escura gente," startling and
thus pleasing in its ingenuity, as it subverts the an-
cient notion of the underworld. Moreover, Gar-
cilaso's "escura gente" has a threatening tone,
insisting not only on mystery but on the inaccessi-
bility of those who live in Hades. Eurydice, no
longer the fair, luminous woman whose beauty is
marked by her blanco pie, is one of them-and
equally inaccessible. The phrase escura gente
presages the unhappy outcome, which is caused by
Orpheus himself, the slave and tragic victim of love.
Love spurs him into the impatience that causes him
to lose Eurydice forever.
By using the epithet iinpaciente, Garcilaso shows
how different his Orpheus is from the Vergilian
archetype, who is caught in a whirl offuror and de-
mentia as he leads Eurydice back to the world of the
living (485-95).7 In Vergil, the Orpheus who con-
quers death and the merciless powers of Hades by
morally weak, he cannot bridle his reckless passion.
though at times sympathetic to Orpheus, Vergil
condemns him for his excesses and, confirming his
flawed character, Eurydice reproaches him, crying
 Mary E. Barnard 321
out, "What madness, Orpheus, what dreadful mad-
ness has ruined my unhappy self and you?" 'quis
et me . . . miseram et te perdidit, Orpheu, quis
tantus furor?' (494-95).
Garcilaso mitigates the tragedy by diminishing
the moral misdeed-frenzy and madness give way
to impatience. The Spanish poet seems to rely on
Ovid's version, where Orpheus is avidus, not fren-
zied or mad but "eager for sight of Eurydice"
(10.56-57). So the Vergilian Orpheus's grave moral
transgression is reduced in Ovid and Garcilaso to
a lover's mistake, for which he is unreproached. In
Ovid, Eurydice does not complain; attributing
Orpheus's action to love, she says merely, "fare-
well." Garcilaso goes one step further: his Eurydice
is totally silent. Whereas the tragic element
persists-Orpheus yields his beloved to doom be-
cause of a flaw in his character-Garcilaso has
created a tame Renaissance lover, whom he ulti-
mately excuses. The love poet is, in the end, more
interested in highlighting the sad consequences of
loving too much than in dealing with questions of
tragic choice.8
Garcilaso also diminishes the tragic dimensions
by shifting blame for Orpheus's loss to Pluto. Al-
though Vergil refers to Pluto as the "ruthless ty-
rant" 'immitis tyrannus' (492), he clearly blames
Orpheus for having broken the vow not to look
back. In Vergil, Pluto and Orpheus are placed on
an epic scale. Pluto appears as a terrible inhuman
force that Orpheus conquers with the power of his
song; later, because of mad passion, Orpheus loses
out justly to his antagonist. Garcilaso, by contrast,
suggests an unfairness in Orpheus's fate and has the
lover complain about the tyrant: "del tyrano / se
quexa al monte solitario en vano" 'in vain com-
plains to the solitary mountain about the tyrant.'
By using the word tyrano, Garcilaso maintains
Pluto on the Vergilian plane of merciless power
while he lowers Orpheus to the level of impatience.
The punishment is clearly excessive.
But Garcilaso's Orpheus is different from Vergil's
and Ovid's in a more profound way: his song no
longer enchants. In the ancient writers, Orpheus is
the vates, the eloquent artist whose lyric power
moves the world and the underworld. Their
Orpheus charms the spirits of Hades, including im-
movable Pluto, and after Eurydice disappears for
a second time, he tames beasts and enchants trees.
Garcilaso does not mention Orpheus's magical
song to the underworld. And, in contrast to the an-
cient models, when Orpheus sings to the world of
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light his voice is sterile. His song spins in a void; Or-
pheus has lost the power of the word as he laments
on a solitary mountain. Moreover, Garcilaso
deprives him of his lyre; its absence reinforces the
notion that Orpheus has lost that special gift to cre-
ate universal harmony, to reach nature and receive
its intimate response.
The failure of the word is a reflection of the fail-
ure of love. It is not Orpheus the poet-musician but
Orpheus the failed lover who takes center stage. The
emphasis falls on his private suffering, his brood-
ing, and the pathos of loss and defeat, touchstones
of the typical tormented Garcilasian lover. Caught
in his complaint against the tyrant of the under-
world who holds Eurydice captive, Orpheus will
forever be the grieving lover, feeding his pain on the
memory of his loss. Vergil's Orpheus can equally be
a loner, singing on a solitary shore (465) or in the
deserted icy regions of northern Greece (517-20).
But when the Vergilian Orpheus is placed in the "icy
caverns" of the Rhodope (509), he is the seductive
lyrist who can and does move nature. Ovid's
Orpheus creates a whole forest with the power of
his lyre (86-105). But Orpheus the enchanter gives
way in Garcilaso to a figure wandering in an un-
responsive monte. The last words are, significantly,
"en vano." There remain two solipsistic entities: the
solitary mountain and Orpheus in his own dispir-
ited wilderness.
In transforming Orpheus, as in transforming
Eurydice, Garcilaso's intertextual play with his an-
tecedents contains an element of correction. Gar-
cilaso seems to be exposing the inadequacy of the
ancients' presentation of Orpheus's response to los-
ing Eurydice.9 Orpheus's lament must be a bleak,
anguished moment without the slightest hint of
consolation or regeneration. The silence of nature
matches and reinforces the silence of the under-
world. And also, as in the scene of Eurydice's death,
what we are witnessing is a specific poetic strategy.
As we shall see, Garcilaso reserves the Orphic voice
for the lyric speaker's self-presentation as poet and
as Nemoroso's instrument to celebrate the doomed
Elissa in the fourth tapestry. The power of the word
belongs to the singer of the eclogue-like a Ho-
meric aoidos seeking to charm his listener
(49-52)-and to one of the poem's key pastoral
figures, the grieving shepherd.
Garcilaso radically subverts Orpheus by leaving
him only his failure as a lover. In so doing, Garcilaso
denies him his triumphant side as the magical ver-
bal artist. The role of the vates, the inspired bard
322 Garcilaso's Poetics of Subversion and the Orpheus Tapestry

with his
with Orphic powers to move nature, is claimed byexalted role as a type of Christ in allegori-
cal exegeses of Ovid's Metamorphoses, such as the
the lyric "I," who, at the beginning of the eclogue,
tells Maria that his voice will celebrate her:10 Ovide moralise and Pierre Bersuire's commentary
(Bersuire circulated widely in the Renaissance): Or-
pheus the tamer of animals and Logos figure be-
Y aun no se me figura que me toca
comes Christ the Good Shepherd and Word
aqueste officio solamente'n vida,
Incarnate. This allegorical tradition was inherited
mas con la lengua muerta y fria en la boca
by Spanish writers such as Calderon, who Chris-
pienso mover la boz a ti devida;
libre mi alma de su estrecha roca,
tianizes Orpheus in his mythological auto El divino
por el Estygio lago conduzida, Orfeo. But Garcilaso kept company with a differ-
celebrando t'ira', y aquel sonido ent lot, those who found a kindred spirit in the likes
hard parar las aguas del olvido. (9-16) of Giovanni Boccaccio. In his influential Genealo-
gia deorum (c. 1370), Boccaccio stayed clear of
And I even imagine it will not be my lot totypological
performinterpretations
this of Orpheus and, even
function only in my lifetime, but with my though
tonguehe dead
did not ignore the ethical possibilities of
and cold in my mouth I intend to stir the voice owed
the myth, histo
Orpheus emerges as the gifted artist
you. My soul, free of its narrow rock and ferried across
whose genius resides in an eloquence that ensures
the Stygian Lake, will continue to celebrate you, and that
immortality (1: 245-46; 5.12).
sound will halt the waters of oblivion. (68)
The appropriation of the Orphic power in the ec-
logue not only serves for the self-presentation of the
The speaker is now a new Orpheus, an artist- lyric speaker as poet-and ensures his immortality,
magician and seer whose voice persists even after as his voice conquers death itself-but has a
death, as it records the beloved and halts the waters programmatic value. The ancient Orpheus is both
of oblivion, that is, the Lethe, twin river to the Styx. poet and seer. When the speaker becomes Orpheus-
Garcilaso's model for the Orphic voice is Vergil. In like, this act is also a rite of passage into the fantas-
the Georgics the head of the dismembered Orpheus tic world of myth, which his eyes will witness and
is swept down the Hebrus River, its "voice and his voice will reveal.
death-cold tongue" calling out Eurydice's name In addition to imitating classical models, Gar-
cilaso adapts, in the same transforming and subver-
(523-27), the devotion to his wife caught in his last
mournful sigh. Garcilaso echoes Vergil in "la len- sive manner, an essential idea of the Orphic cult
gua muerta y fria en la boca." But, whereas in Ver- that has analogues in Gnostic and Christian
gil the voice is mournful, in the eclogue it is thought: the liberation of the soul from the prison
celebratory. or tomb of the body. Following the famous line
In becoming a new Orpheus, the lyric speaker "pienso mover la boz a ti devida" 'I intend to stir
clearly draws attention to his role as poet. Thomas the voice owed to you,' the speaker says, as he be-
Greene has suggested that "imitation at its most comes a new Orpheus, "libre mi alma de su estrecha
powerful pitch required a profound act of self- roca" 'my soul, free of its narrow rock.' The "es-
knowledge and then a creative act of self- trecha roca" is clearly the body as a stone tomb. A
definition" (97). In the typical manner of other tenet in Orphism holds that "the soul is immortal
Renaissance writers, such as Spenser and Ronsard, and divine but imprisoned in a mortal, Titanic
Garcilaso arrogantly defines the lyric persona by body; therefore it becomes the duty of the follower
appropriating the voice of Orpheus, an ancient poet of Orpheus to liberate the divine, ecstatic, and pure
figure that had an enormous vogue in the sixteenth soul from the shackles of an evil body by living a
century." Along with Orpheus the priscus theolo- life of progressive ritual purification oriented
gus of the Neoplatonists and Orpheus the lover, Or- toward the attainment of immortality" (Strauss
pheus the eloquent poet had a lasting currency. It 7-8). In Renaissance Neoplatonism, especially in
is perhaps useful to remember that Orpheus came Ficino, Orpheus is the master theologian of the oc-
to the Renaissance with an illustrious medieval past cult who is supernaturally inspired with knowledge
(see Friedman and Heitmann; on Orpheus in the of both human and divine things. The Neopla-
Golden Age, see Cabafias). He is the courtier and tonists' enthusiasm for the sacral character of the
minstrel in medieval romances-the anonymous Sir Orphic hymns leads to a religious syncretism, an at-
Orfeo and Robert Henryson's Orpheus and Eu- tempt to reconcile the pagan world with the Chris-
rydice, for instance. These images contrast sharply tian (on Orpheus and the Neoplatonists, see Walker

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 Mary E. Barnard 323

and Wind). But Garcilaso eschews the Neoplatonic
way, and the reference to the soul liberated from its within voices there are four centers: (1) the narra-
imprisoning "narrow rock," a notion that could
easily have turned into a mystagogic discourse, is
here at the service of poetry. In leaving the body, the Orpheus, who are there by implication, through the
soul is making a poetic journey, for it carries a
celebratory song devised by the voice of the Orphic
vates.
And this voice does not stay behind in lofty iso-
lation as the poem continues: it is the first voice in
a series of voices that show the mechanism behind
the making of the poem. That complexity draws at-
tention, in turn, to the text as an artifact. The elo-
quence of the game of voices-anchored on the
notion of the Orphic-gives the poem its special
qualities, indeed its structure and brilliance. At the
beginning of the eclogue the speaker assumes the
Orphic voice. Then he becomes a third-person nar-
rator with a pastoral voice, who sings "a lowly
strain" with his "crude pampofia." The narrator,dent,
a bespeaks their artificiality. And since these
visionary endowed with the power to "see" the fan-
tastic, mythological world of the nymphas del Tajo,
tells of their stories embroidered in the four tapes-
tries. In the last tapestry, the narrator has a nymph
introduce another voice, Elissa's, by means of an
epitaph on a poplar whose letters speak ("que ha-
blavan ansi por parte della" 'which spoke thus on
her behalf'):
"Elissa soy, en cuyo nombre suena
y se lamenta el monte cavernoso,
testigo del dolor y grave pena
en que por mi se aflige Nemoroso
y llama 'Elissa'; 'Elissa' a boca llena
responde el Tajo, y Ileva pressuroso
al mar de Lusitania el nombre mifo,
donde sera escuchado, yo lo fio." (241-48)
"I am Elissa, in whose name resounds and laments the
cavernous mountain, witness to the pain and heavy griefher sensual beauty and transforms Orpheus into a
which for my sake afflicts Nemoroso, and he calls out
'Elissa'; 'Elissa' full-throatedly replies the Tagus, and hur- brooding his loss and deprived of the power of his
riedly takes my name to the Lusitanian Sea, where it will
be heard, I trust." (77)
Elissa in turn introduces Nemoroso, in whose dis-
embodied presence the Orphic voice surfaces once
again. His voice, existing within the voice of Elissa,
rings out her name in glorious celebration. The Ta-
gus then responds. This response is a reworking of
Vergil's version, where Orpheus's head calls out for
Eurydice and the banks of the Hebrus echo his cry.
Here we have an extraordinary complexity of inter-
dependent voices. In this Chinese box of voices
tor; (2) the epitaph's speaking letters; (3) Elissa,
Nemoroso, and the Tagus; and (4) Eurydice and
Orphic call and echo that we perceive intertextually
as Garcilaso imitates the Vergilian model.
Garcilaso's emphasis on oral discourse, the
presentation of the text as emerging directly from
the mind or voice of the speaker or speakers, is an
attempt to escape strict rhetorical verse that sup-
presses naturalness. The poet creates an illusion of
refined artlessness that calls forth a paradox simi-
lar to the one found in the obligatory modesty topos
at the beginning of the eclogue: the text both af-
firms and denies what it sets forth. The voices point
to a spoken language, but their very existence in a
written discourse, especially an intricate one where
the hand of the poet is, as we have seen, readily evi-
voices exist in an intertextual space, the interplay be-
tween Garcilaso's text and its Vergilian subtext, they
reveal the text not only as an artifact but as a prod-
uct of an act of rewriting.
Garcilaso's Orpheus is an imitation and subver-
sion of ancient and Italian models. A typical
Renaissance humanist, Garcilaso fully ac-
knowledges his predecessors, paying homage to
them even as he subverts them. At the heart of Gar-
cilaso's revisionist poetics lies an aesthetic opti-
mism, a conviction that his rewriting of the
Orpheus myth is both a tribute to the models and
an affirmation of his poetic mission. Through a
multiplicity of sources, with its reconstruction and
correction of models, Garcilaso not only rivals the
accuracy of his antecedents but authenticates his
text, establishing his unique poetic vision: he por-
trays Eurydice's loss as a dramatic destruction of
pathetic lover caught in a solitary mountain, forever
song. But Garcilaso's most arrogant subversion oc-
curs when he appropriates the Orphic power for his
lyric speaker, who becomes a new Orpheus. In the
eclogue Garcilaso brings his personages alive
through a complex strategy of voices. This inge-
nious device, in the end, gives voice to a major poet,
in an act of self-creation. He subverts Vergil and the
rest to create Garcilaso de la Vega.
Pennsylvania State University
University Park

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324 Garcilaso&s Poetics of Subversion and the Orpheus Tapestry
Notes
'My use of the term intertextuality purposely disregards
Roland Barthes's notion that the texts that make up another text
are anonymous and untraceable (S/Z). Julia Kristeva, who de-
fines intertextuality as the transposition of one (or several) sys-
tem(s) of signs into another (Revolution 59), does at times refer
to texts that can be identified (Sjmjiotik, esp. 194-95). In my
discussion, the prior text (called subtext, source, or model) is
identifiable. Harold Bloom uses the concept of intertextuality
in this restricted sense and, even though his exotic tropes are not
useful for my purposes, some of his views on poetic influence
are curiously akin to those of Renaissance writers. I bring Bloom
briefly into my analysis simply to establish some suggestive re-
lations between a well-known contemporary revisionist formula
and a dominant practice of the Renaissance. I have chosen the
term intertextuality because, even though it is not used in theo-
retical discussions of the Renaissance, it defines the complex re-
lation between Garcilaso's text and the antecedent texts it
imitates. For further thoughts on intertextuality, see Riffaterre,nor poet of the court of Ferrara-authorship remains a matter
Culler, and Jenny.
2 All quotations from Garcilaso's poetry are from Elias L.
Rivers's edition, Obras completas con comentario. Translations
are from Rivers, Renaissance and Baroque Poetry of Spain. I
have made alterations on these translations.
3 This change of direction reveals a fickleness the poet had de- 6 Cum peteret dulces audax Leandros amores
nied in the lines that immediately precede the reference to Apollo
and the muses:
Pero por mas que'n mi su fuerca prueve,
no tornard mi corac6n mudable;
nunca dirdn jamas que me remueve
fortuna d'un estudio tan loable. (25-28)
But, no matter how it tests its strength on me, it will not make
my heart changeable; they will never say that I have been moved
by Fortune from so praiseworthy a purpose. (69)
("Estudio loable" refers to the task of praising the woman.) The
stability topos to stay firm, a commonplace that finds antece-
dents in the ancients and the Italians, proves false since the poet
will indeed abandon his "estudio loable." The poet shows the
stability topos for what it is, a mere topos, by proceeding to con- 10 On the possible identity of Maria, see Garcilaso 417.
tradict it. In his atypical manipulation of the stability topos, as
in his typical use of the modesty topos (discussed below), Gar-
cilaso reveals the artificiality of these commonplaces, their ex-
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