Ciara Hanlon

18010773

INKM7312 Assignment
Question One

Xerox is an organisation that has done a lot of Knowledge management (KM) practice. The following
topics such as forces driving knowledge management; different types of knowledge and expertise;
the locations of knowledge in terms of artefacts; KM infrastructure components in organisational
culture; discussion of KM mechanisms and technologies with examples; the impact on employee
learning through communities of practice; the identifying and describing the type of KM sharing
systems used will all be discussed in terms of Xerox and how they are incorporated in the company.

Forces driving KM at Xerox:

According to Becerra-Fernandez and Sabherwal (2014), there are four forces that are driving
knowledge management. They are: an increase in domain complexity; an increase in market vitality;
an intensified speed of responsiveness and employee turnover.

Increase domain complexity - According to Becerra-Fernandez and Sabherwal (2014), domains of

knowledge are becoming increasingly complex. A direct consequence of this has been the increase in
the amount of knowledge required to successfully complete a particular business process. Domain
complexity is a result of the complexity of internal and external processes, increased competition,
and rapid technological advances (Becerra-Fernandez & Sabherwal, 2014). According to CourseHero
(2021) knowledge is becoming increasingly complex. It has become increasingly challenging to
complete a specific business process task because of this.

Increasing market vitality - In the past decade, markets have changed at an increasingly rapid pace, a
due to a phenomenon called volatility (Becerra-Fernandez & Sabherwal, 2014). According to
UKEssays (2015) With globalization, companies such as Xerox saw a lot of opportunities as it brought
a lot of access throughout the world, but it also caused damage and threats as it introduced other
companies into their home markets which created competition and rivalry. With globalization,
customers will have more options and choices. For example, they will have the option to compare
prices on the same type of products and services provided by different companies. Before choosing
a service or product, customers can read reviews on the web or in magazines. It doesn't matter
where the supplier is located, as he can be contacted by phone to check prices.

Intensified speed of responsiveness - With subtle changes occurring across and within domains, it
takes less time to take action. Brisk technological advancements change the landscape of decision-
making constantly, making it crucial to take and implement decisions efficiently. If not, the window
of opportunity will close (Becerra-Fernandez & Sabherwal, 2014). According to UKEssays (2015) by
using Eureka, service technicians can dispense their understandings on a portal that can be accessed
by others. the service representatives use Eureka to share knowledge in a portal for use by others.
During calls with customers, employees encountered undocumented problems with products. The
resolution would take a long time, and once it has been given to the customer, that knowledge
cannot be shared because there are no means of communicating it. Employees with similar issues
would search the search engine for a solution using Eureka, thanks to tools like it. As a result of KM,
there is a cost reduction and employees are prompted to use the technology.

Employee turnover - Employers experience staff turnover for a variety of reasons, including the
choice of employees (e.g., opportunity for advancement in the company) as well as involuntary
reasons (e.g., medical reasons, termination by the company). The organisation loses some
knowledge that the departing employees brought with them. The knowledge that these individuals
have could prove valuable to competitors in some cases. It is necessary to hire and train new
employees when there is turnover. Training costs, as well as the time required for a new employee
to be productive, are considerable. The first step towards minimizing downsizing's impact is to
determine what skills and information will be required to achieve mission-critical goals. Keeping a
competitive edge requires the use of effective methodologies, including tools and techniques for
capturing critical knowledge making KM important in employee turnover (Becerra-Fernandez &
Sabherwal, 2014). According to UKEssays (2015) In order to maintain a centralized system across
Xerox Corporation, the company installed new knowledge management (KM) software. Employees
can share knowledge and find it according to their needs by utilizing a knowledge base, Eureka and
Docushare. Consequently, this information can be updated in real time so that it can be accessed
immediately throughout the organisation. This is still being tested on 25,000 employees and will be
implemented for all 90,000 of Xerox.

Types of KM and expertise found at Xerox

Types of KM at Xerox

Procedural Knowledge - According to Becerra-Fernandez and Sabherwal (2014), the concept of

procedural knowledge refers to beliefs associated with sequences of steps or actions that lead to
desired or undesirable outcomes. This type of knowledge can be analysed as the set of justified
beliefs about the process an organisation should follow in deciding who to award the contract for a
particular area i.e. information systems development. In the case study Doyle (2016) states, that if
Xerox needs repair assistance, they use procedural knowledge as a method of explaining and
teaching repairmen. An example would be a demonstration on how to fix or repair specific
equipment.

Tacit Knowledge - According to Becerra-Fernandez and Sabherwal (2014) this type of knowledge
consists of recognising intuitions and suspicions. Such knowledge is hard to articulate and formalize,
and it is therefore hard to share. Individual experiences, as well as individual activities, are a
significant part of tacit knowledge. Also included in tacit knowledge are the skills that are too specific
to be explicit. The work of the expert may therefore need to remain a secret for the organization.
Doyle (2016) states, that by employing tacit knowledge, Xerox generates knowledge through
experience and on-the-job training, which is then utilized to benefit others. Using the experience of
a repairman, who has repaired related equipment for years and has accumulated useful advice in
the process.

Explicit Knowledge – According to Becerra-Fernandez and Sabherwal (2014) when we refer to

explicit knowledge, we are usually talking about knowledge that has been translated into words and
numbers. A formal knowledge sharing process can be conducted by sharing data, specifications,
manuals, drawings, audio tapes etc. when we look at the case study, Doyle (2016) we see that it
states that Xerox’s Eureka tool provides its customers with a researchable database tool that allows
for customers to search for problems at the time the problem occurs and in a quick manner.

General Knowledge - According to Becerra-Fernandez and Sabherwal (2014) here many individuals
possess general knowledge, which means that the knowledge can be easily transferred from one
individual to another. In the case study Doyle (2016) states, that Xerox normally capitalizes on
general knowledge because it is easily shared and transferred and it is relatively inexpensive. Many
people can also get access to general knowledge through Xerox. It is likely that many of the users are
familiar with the knowledge, such as how to repair everyday equipment.

Specific Knowledge in terms of technically specific knowledge - According to Becerra-Fernandez and

Sabherwal (2014) those who possess technology specific knowledge possess deep knowledge about
a specific area. A person with this knowledge may have access to tools and techniques for
addressing problems in their field. A lot of this knowledge is acquired through formal training and is
then enhanced by on-the-job experience. In the case study Doyle (2016) states that here Xerox uses
specific expert engineers.

Expertise discovered at Xerox

Motor skills expertise - According to Becerra-Fernandez and Sabherwal (2014) knowledge-based

systems cannot accurately emulate motor skills expertise since motor skills are predominantly
physical rather than intellectually. It is through repeated practice and coaching that humans acquire
these skills. Even though some people are more natural than others at these skills, real learning and
expertise come from consistent supervised practice. We see this in the case study Doyle (2016)
when constantly combining the Eureka tool with the mobile platform and the overall Xerox
Knowledge Management system, technicians can resolve 80 percent of issues in real time.

Theoretical (deep) expertise - According to Becerra-Fernandez and Sabherwal (2014) As a result,

experts using this type of knowledge can solve problems in a way that previous experts have never
been able to solve based on associational expertise. Formal education and training are necessary for
acquiring a lot of this knowledge. This type of knowledge is typically possessed by engineers and
scientists who have a high level of formal training. Here this would involve the hands on training and
problem solving of the technicians at Xerox.

Location of KM in Artefacts at Xerox

According to Becerra-Fernandez and Sabherwal (2014) organizational artefacts are also important
repositories of knowledge over time. Practices, organisational patterns, and sequential interactions
are among the ways in which knowledge is stored. Knowledge becomes embedded in procedures,
rules, and norms over times that are shaped by experience and inform future behaviour. A
knowledge repository is another way to store knowledge in artefacts. Archives of knowledge can be
physical such as books, papers, or other documents, or they can be electronic. The KM of Xerox
resides in practices, technologies and resources.

Xerox’s organisational culture

According to Becerra-Fernandez and Sabherwal (2014) the culture of an organisation is a set of

norms and beliefs that guide its behaviour. Culture helps drive knowledge management within
organizations. CourseHero (2021) states that Eureka and Docushare created by Xerox are tools that
have helped the company share its intellectual capital. The Eureka platform enables Xerox's service
representatives to share and reuse intellectual capital throughout the company. In most cases, these
reps make 1 million calls every month, and they may encounter problems among clients that aren't
documented. It would take time for such problems to be resolved, and even if they did, there was no
way to make the solution available to others. Therefore, a new knowledge base was developed
where the reps could share their solutions so that other employees would be able to solve their
clients' problems quickly. Communication throughout the company has been developed by this
culture within the internal organisation. Directness, integrity, and sharing are cultivated during this
communication. Becerra-Fernandez and Sabherwal (2014), state that developing knowledge cultures
will help employees to work together. The organisational structure plays a key role in creating and
developing a knowledge culture. It explains the way the authorities and responsibilities are
distributed within an organization, as well as how knowledge should be distributed so that it can be
readily adapted by the employees. When we look at Xerox they recognised that the environment in
which they work in needs successful KM incentives in order to be successful.

A graphical table of examples of how Xerox has employed KM mechanisms and technology in their
company

KM Process KM Mechanism KM Technology

Knowledge Meetings, Phone Databases created by Xerox, Web based portals,
discovery calls and emails and electronic group conversations such as
collaborating on video calls
documents
Knowledge Models, Learning Computer based communication, chat groups such
Capture through hands on as WhatsApp group, expert systems
work, meeting
face to face
Knowledge Brainstorming, Team collaboration tools such google drive, access
Sharing cooperating to web based data and the use of data bases,
projects emailing, expertise data base locator, group chats
and using video conferencing

Knowledge discovery at Xerox

According to Becerra-Fernandez and Sabherwal (2014) it is possible to define knowledge discovery

as the process of discovering knowledge from data and information or from the analysis of previous
knowledge. New tacit knowledge can be acquired most directly through socialization as opposed to
combining new explicit knowledge. Either way, discoveries are made by analysing and combining
knowledge from two or more different fields, with explicit knowledge from two fields being assessed
through combination, and tacit knowledge from two fields being synthesized through socialization.
In order to share tips on how to fix office equipment, Xerox created a system for technicians and
support representatives. During calls, technicians are constantly coming up with novel and
innovative ways to solve problems. The technicians for example create cheat sheets to help them
find new solutions. Through Xerox's Eureka tool, technicians can share their knowledge or enter
information on problems that they have addressed or ask questions about problems. This knowledge
is then validated and people are able to use it personally or pass it along to others.

Impact of KM on Xerox in terms of the impact of employee learning through communities of practice
(COP)
According to Becerra-Fernandez and Sabherwal (2014) community of practice (COP) describes a
group of individuals who are dispersed in both geography and organizational contexts, but
communicate regularly to discuss issues of a common concern. Through discussion amongst
employees and mentors, or by observing how others apply the knowledge and then trying it out for
yourself, this process of learning can be facilitated. Knowledge is being found, shared, transferred,
archived, and made explicit or tacit in communities of practice. Becerra-Fernandez and Sabherwal
(2014) states that individual learning was enabled by Xerox Corporation's strategic community of
practice. A geographically diverse group of members participated in the communities of practice at
Xerox; both from head office and from the several branch locations. The COP here was not formed
voluntarily by members unlike traditional communities of practice, but by Xerox’s top management,
which established them as a method to share knowledge strategically (Becerra-Fernandez &
Sabherwal, 2014). Becerra-Fernandez and Sabherwal (2014) state, that the recent push in global
services has been helped by Xerox's focus on informal groups of employees to manage knowledge.
The problem knows where and how knowledge is found. That is what Xerox's senior executive, Jim
Joyce, has said. By working with the human elements of this, there are things that can be done to
help people accept the technology and incorporate it into their work routines and in this way,
practical, results-oriented knowledge management solutions can help maximize revenue for
businesses. Since 2007, Xerox has continued to use communities of practice with approximately 15
learning communities including more than 1,000 employees (Becerra-Fernandez & Sabherwal,
2014).

Type of KM sharing system Eureka falls under

According to Becerra-Fernandez and Sabherwal (2014), knowledge-sharing systems facilitate the

transmission of explicit or tacit knowledge among individuals. They accomplish this by encouraging
both exchange (the sharing of explicit knowledge) and socialization (the sharing of tacit knowledge).
Knowledge sharing systems rely heavily on the same mechanisms and technologies discussed as
supporting socialization. By allowing an individual to explain her knowledge to the rest of the group,
discussion groups or chat groups facilitate knowledge sharing. These systems also make use of
technology that will help facilitate exchange. Documents such as memos, manuals, progress reports,
letters etc. are examples of mechanisms that facilitate exchanging ideas. Examples of technologies
that facilitate the exchange of information include groupware and other team collaboration tools
such as google drive; web-based access to information and databases etc.

In the case study Doyle (2016) states that service reps use the Eureka tool to share knowledge in a
portal, so others can use it for problem-solving. It was created for this reason as Xerox found that
employees faced difficulties when they encountered undocumented issues with products during
telephone calls with their clients and it would take a long time to fix these issues, and once a
solution is found it is not documented or shared. Since the Eureka tool helps employees, those
facing the same problem can simply search the database for a solution. By using Xerox's system,
service technicians can search the entire database for solutions that have already been shared by
other knowledge technicians. As employees can retrieve various types of knowledge and
information more quickly, they can add it to their current knowledge to create an even better
solution. The system will help employees save time and reduce costs because they can retrieve
various types of knowledge and information without much hassle.
Question Two

Immediately when we think of artificial intelligence (AI), we associate it with robots, However many
of us aren’t aware of that there are many aspects to AI as well as we aren’t aware of the knowledge
behind it. Below AI will be discussed in terms of what it’s about and a general background into the
knowledge and its aspects will be provided as well. Two intelligent technologies, rule-based and
case-based reasoning systems that that are needed for the development of knowledge-based
systems are also discussed in terms of what they are and what they entail. Examples of AI used at
Xerox will also be mentioned.

Artificial intelligence (AI)

According to Becerra-Fernandez and Sabherwal (2014), artificial intelligence (AI) allows computers to
perform tasks similar to those performed by humans. Al is connected with knowledge, just as KM
and human intelligence are. Rhem (2017) states, that a central aspect of KM and AI is knowledge.
Machine learning is achieved by using artificial intelligence due to the mechanisms AI provides.
Through artificial intelligence, machines are capable of acquiring, processing, and using knowledge
to perform tasks and to uncover information that can be used to improve human decision-making.

Modern intelligent systems rely on the notion that intelligence and knowledge is tightly
interconnected. Human intelligence is our ability to learn and communicate in order to solve
problems. Knowledge is associated with the cognitive symbols we manipulate, while intelligence is
associated with our ability to learn and manipulate symbols. For example when judging a student's
performance in class or hiring an employee, we tend to focus on what they know, not their
intelligence (Becerra-Fernandez & Sabherwal, 2014). Several AI systems, also known as knowledge-
based systems or knowledge application systems, attempt to emulate skilful problem-solvers in a
particular field. With the help of intelligent systems, we can apply, capture, share, and discover
knowledge (Becerra-Fernandez & Sabherwal, 2014).

Advani (2021) states, that the goal of building an AI system is to replicate human capabilities and
traits in a machine and to use its computational power to exceed what we are capable of. To
understand how AI works, it is important to first understand how the various aspects of AI relate to
various fields of the industry and how they could be applied.

According to Advani (2021) the aspects of AI are:

Machine Learning - Machine learning (ML) teaches machines how to deduce inferences and make
decisions based on past experience. The algorithm identifies patterns and analyses past data to draw
a conclusion without the need for human experience. Businesses can use this automation to make
decisions by evaluating data, which saves them time and helps them make better decisions (Advani,
2021).

Deep Learning - A deep learning algorithm is a method of machine learning. Machine learning
teaches a computer to classify, infer, and predict by processing inputs in layers (Advani, 2021).
Neural Networks - The principles behind neural networks are similar to those of human neural cells.
Using algorithms, they capture the relationships between different underlying variables and process
the data in a manner similar to a human brain (Advani, 2021).

Natural Language Processing (NLP) - NLP refers to the science of reading, understanding, and
interpreting a language by machines. The machine responds appropriately once it recognizes what
the user hopes to say (Advani, 2021).

Computer Vision - The computer vision algorithms analyse an image by breaking it down and
analysing different parts of it. It allows the machine to classify and learn from a set of images, so that
it can make a better conclusion based on previous observations (Advani, 2021).

Cognitive Computing - Algorithms used in cognitive computing attempt to mimic a human brain by
analysing texts, speech, graphics, and objects as humans would and aim to provide the desired
outcomes (Advani, 2021).

Rule and case-based reasoning systems

Becerra-Fernandez and Sabherwal (2014) state, knowledge-based systems have witnessed the
greatest popularity in Al, and we refer to these systems as knowledge-application systems.
Application of knowledge to solve specific problems is the essence of knowledge application
systems. Al's research activities cover a wide range of topics, including natural language processing,
categorization, diagnosing, designing, machine learning, planning and scheduling, robotics, and
computer vision. There are two main intelligent technologies that support the development of
knowledge application systems. They are rule-based reasoning systems and case-based reasoning
systems (Becerra-Fernandez & Sabherwal, 2014).

Rule-based systems (RBS) – According to Becerra-Fernandez and Sabherwal (2014), in traditional

knowledge-based systems, domain knowledge is represented by rules or models. In order to
develop such systems, it is necessary to team up a subject matter expert with a knowledge engineer,
who is responsible for eliciting and representing the expertise of the expert.

According to ProfessionalAI (2020), rule-based systems are at the heart of automated processes. This
technology enables the development of knowledge-based systems and applications, i.e. programs
and software are now capable of solving specific problems by utilizing domain-specific knowledge.
Facts, goals, and rules are encoded as knowledge in rule-based systems, and data is analysed and
manipulated according to these facts and rules. In short, these are computers that use rules to
diagnose and solve problems, interpret, or determine a course of action in a given situation. In
addition, the method is also applicable to rule nodes crafted by humans, and it can be used to
compile computer programs or to interpret natural language. Rule-based systems can also be
categorized into two categories:

Forward Chaining - This method of reaching a conclusion through deductive reasoning, also known
as forward chaining, is data-driven and follows a deductive approach (ProfessionalAI, 2020).

Backward Chaining - The backward chaining method is often employed in planning as an alternative
to forward chaining. It is a goal-oriented method of reasoning that uses inductive and associative
approaches (ProfessionalAI, 2020).
ProfessionalAI (2020) note that there are three elements to RBS which are:

The termination criteria - The termination criteria determine whether a solution exists or not, and
when the process should be terminated (ProfessionalAI, 2020).

The set of facts - A set of facts is anything that speaks to the state of a system at the time of its
inception (ProfessionalAI, 2020).

The set of rules - There are a set of rules that describe the actions that should be taken to solve a
problem, and they specify how the assertions should be handled (ProfesionalAI, 2020).

Benefits and drawbacks of rule-based systems:

Rule-based systems offer a range of advantages like: The rule-based programming language is easy
to learn; you can use RBS to represent expert judgment whether it is complicated or simple; RBS
have transparent cause-and-effect relationships; in addition to RBS offering flexibility, it also
provides an effective mechanism for representing several mental processes into machines as well as
it automates logic (ProfessionalAI, 2020).

Rule-based systems have a set number of drawbacks, like: A high level of domain knowledge is
required and manual labour is also needed; for a complex system such as RBS, generating rules is
quite a challenge and can take a long time and as it generates results based on rules, it has less
capacity for learning (ProfessionalAI, 2020).

Case-based reasoning systems (CBR) – According to Becerra-Fernandez and Sabherwal (2014), many
knowledge application systems, including those based on rules, have been successfully implemented
through the application of case-based reasoning methodologies. CBR is an artificial intelligence
algorithm that mimics how humans solve problems. The purpose of CBR is to mimic the way people
solve problems (Becerra-Fernandez & Sabherwal, 2014).

Becerra-Fernandez and Sabherwal (2014) notes that case-based knowledge applications often
involve the following process:

1. Look for similar cases in the case library - Search engines can be used to examine only those
cases that are relevant to the search, as case libraries may be quite big (Becerra-Fernandez
& Sabherwal, 2014).
2. Determine which cases are similar and retrieve them - Whenever new problems arise,
previous cases are retrieved first. By comparison, we mean having the capacity to quantify
the similarity between each examined case and the current problem, as well as to rank each
case in descending order in of similarity (Becerra-Fernandez & Sabherwal, 2014).
3. Find a solution that works for the most similar case - Adapting a solution to fit the needs of
the current problem may be necessary if the current problem and the most similar case
aren’t similar enough. The old solution will be adapted to the new problem in order to solve
the new problem (Becerra-Fernandez & Sabherwal, 2014).
4. Implement the generated solution and get feedback - The system generates a classification
or solution that is applied to a problem once it has been generated. Based on its impact on
the problem, the CBR system classifies its solution as successful or unsuccessful (Becerra-
Fernandez & Sabherwal, 2014).
5. Enter the newly solved issue into the case library - New knowledge can be used in the future
to solve similar problems. In this step, we must decide if the new case is worth adding to the
library and we must place it in the desired location within the library (Becerra-Fernandez &
Sabherwal, 2014).

According to Becerra-Fernandez and Sabherwal (2014) CBR is composed of several kinds of

reasoning methods. They are exemplar-based reasoning, instance-based reasoning, and analogy-
based reasoning.

Exemplar-based reasoning - By classifying an exemplar, these systems aim to solve problems.

Thus, essentially, the most comparable past case becomes the answer to the classification
problem, and the sets of past cases become the possible solutions (Becerra-Fernandez &
Sabherwal, 2014).

Instance-based reasoning - Systems using these methods typically require a large number of
simple instances; that is, that they are defined by a small number of criteria. These systems are
primarily aimed at automated learning, which takes place without any user participation
(Becerra-Fernandez & Sabherwal, 2014).

Analogy-based reasoning - Systems of this type are typically used to solve new problems based
on previously solved problems from another domain. Analogy-based reasoning includes reusing
the solution from an analogous case, which is known as the mapping problem, or finding ways to
translate the solution from an analogue case to the present case (Becerra-Fernandez &
Sabherwal, 2014).

Becerra-Fernandez and Sabherwal (2014) states, that for developing knowledge application
systems, CBR offers several advantages over rules or models. When the relationship between
the cases attributes and the outcome or solution cannot be represented in rules, these
advantages become apparent. CBR systems can also be beneficial when the ratio of cases which
are "exceptions to the rule" is high, since rule-based applications are ineffective in such
situations. In such situations, CBR is particularly useful since it includes the solution of a newly
entered case. This is when methods for adaptation are used, which enable the user to combine
retrieved solutions and generate a possible solution.

Xerox (2021), states that the digital production press of Xerox is working with artificial
intelligence right now. Xerox has outlined five ways on how they have incorporated the use of
artificial intelligence in their organisation in the printing industry:

1. Intelligent algorithms determine how to lay out documents to minimize wasted paper with
the FreeFlow software from Xerox (Xerox, 2021).
2. By gathering data about your customers, you can tailor your direct mail and catalogue
mailings to meet the needs of each their customers. By automating the process, this can be
done more efficiently and accurately (Xerox, 2021).
3. The smart software in Xerox FreeFlow directs new jobs to available presses based on the
number of busy presses, as well as those that aren't (Xerox, 2021).
4. iGen 5 presses, for example, constantly monitor themselves with a variety of sensors.
Algorithms can adjust paper alignment and image quality in real-time, within the printing
 process, using the data collected. In this way, human intervention is not necessary (Xerox,
2021).
5. Information about the press can be transmitted to Xerox. Xerox’s team analyses their
customer’s press' performance data with algorithms and tools, and compares it to what they
anticipated. In this way, technical staff can identify and recommend updates or adjustments
to software, and predictive analytics can predict the need for maintenance before a machine
fails (Xerox, 2021).

When we now look at artificial intelligence we get to see the knowledge behind AI and how
programmers and machines are now able to solve problems with many pattern nodes by using
systems that mimic human thinking and reasoning abilities and not just associate how AI is to do
with robots who might takeover humans.
References

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