Lecture 4

Capacity and Deflection of

Laterally Loaded Piles

Department of Civil Engineering

National University of Singapore

Goh Siang Huat

Centre for Protective Technology
12 Kent Ridge Road
telephone : 6516 8663
email : cvegsh@nus.edu.sg

1
 Laterally Loaded Piles

Lateral
Quay and Harbour earth
•Impact of ships pressure
during berthing
•Wave action Pile-supported earth Restrained
retaining structures head

Unrestrained
pile head
Braking and traction
of moving vehicles

Offshore Structures Bridge Pier

•Wind and wave actions • Traction forces from
vehicles on bridge
Restrained
pile head

Restrained Pile
pile head Foundation

Laterally Loaded Piles : Common Approach in Singapore

High-Rise
PSL + PWL < 1.25 Qallow
PSL PWL
(service loads) (wind loads)
Service
w(y) Loads

= +
y

2
Lateral Pile Behavior
„ Complex soil-structure interaction problem
„ semi-rigid structural element
Pile is a _________
„ diameter and its
Flexural rigidity is affected by its ________
length and of course, the ____________.
______, pile modulus
„ small
Pile behavior may be assumed as elastic for _____
___________
deformations
„ However, pile material yielding under large flexural
deformations may cause ____________________
hinge formation (plastic
moments)
________
„ elastic and plastic
Soil deformation also consist of _____ _____
components

Lateral Pile Behavior

„ Two inter-related aspects of lateral pile response
¾ Capacity ¾ Deformation
Applies to axial pile response too!
„ A rigorous design/analysis should incorporate both
these aspects
„ Feasible only via numerical approach, where the
realistic stress-strain behavior of both pile and soil
_________________
are considered.
„ Alternative approach:
¾ consider Capacity
_______ and Deformation
__________ separately
¾ provide first-order preliminary estimates
¾ serve as useful checks for the results obtained
___________
from more rigorous analysis

3
 Lateral Pile Behavior
„ Capacity
¾ Ultimate resistance to lateral loads
________________
¾ _________________
Rigid-plastic yielding of soils based on
undrained strength or friction angle
¾ ________________
Plastic equilibrium equations
„ Deformation
¾ Assumed _____
elastic behavior of soil
¾ Valid for _______________
small deformations

Two Important Classes of Lateral Pile Response

„ Free Head Pile
¾ Pile head is connected to pile-cap such that the
free to rotate
pile head is ___________
Zero moments at the pile head due to lateral force
¾ ____
applied at the pile head
¾ Rotation usually leads to _____________
some deflection of the
pile head
„ Fixed Head Pile
¾ Pile head is connected to pile-cap such that the pile
cannot rotate but can ______
head ___________, deflect
¾ _____
Zero rotation at the pile head
¾ _________
Non-zero moment at the pile head

4
 4.1 Unrestrained (free head) Piles in Clay
Failure mechanisms

i) Short piles ( soil failure ) ii) Long piles ( Pile structural failure)

Failure is governed by soil strength Failure is governed by pile moment

capacity
H
H

Soil Pile
Failure Failure
Soil
Failure

Does Pile Behave As a Short Rigid Member or

An Infinitely Long Flexible Member?

EI
Stiffness Factor R = 4 Constant stiffness with depth
kB

Stiffness Factor T = EI Increasing stiffness with depth

5
nh
EI = stiffness of pile
B = width of pile
k = modulus of subgrade reaction
nh = coefficient of subgrade modulus variation
k = nhz/B where z = depth below ground surface
________,

5
 Estimation of k
Soil k (MN/m3)
Dense sandy gravel 220 – 400
Medium dense coarse sand 150 – 300
Medium sand 110 – 280
Fine or silty, fine sand 80 – 200
Stiff clay (wet) 60 – 220
Stiff clay (saturated) 30 – 110
Medium clay (wet) 40 – 140
Medium clay (saturated) 10 – 80
Soft clay 2 – 40

Estimation of nh

Soft normally consolidated clays: nh = 350 – 700 kN/m3

________
Soft organic silts: nh ≈ ___
150 kN/m3

6
 Soil Modulus
Pile Type Linearly increasing Constant
Rigid (free head) L ≤ 2T L ≤ 2R
short pile

Elastic (free head) L ≥ 4T L ≥ 3.5R

long pile

Single Piles in Cohesive Soil (clay)

„ The ultimate value of soil resistance varies between
8 to 12 times undrained shear strength of soil, Cu .
___________
„ This value is even smaller to a depth of about three
____
pile diameter.
„ Thus, Broms suggested the soil reaction distribution
to be ____
zero from the surface to a depth of ___
1.5 pile
9Cu below this
diameters and a constant value of ____
depth.

7
Single Piles in clay Moment at any depth z
M = H u (e + 1.5d + z ) − 9Cu d .z.
z
2
i) Unrestrained short pile At z = f = location of maximum moment
Hu = position of zero shear
dM
e = H u − 9Cu d .z. = 0
dz
1.5d
Hu
f ⇒ f =
z 9Cu d
1

g/2 Moment about f (Mmax)

L
(A) From soil & load reaction above f
f
9Cud M max = H u (e + 1.5d + f ) − 9Cu d . f .
g/2 2
= H u (e + 1.5d + 0.5 f ) 2
d 9Cud Mmax (B) From soil reaction below f
Deflection Soil reaction Bending g 3 g g
moment M max = 9Cu d . . g − 9Cu d .
2 4 2 4
Hu = ultimate lateral resistance = 2.25dg 2Cu 3
e = eccentricity
d = pile diameter or equivalent diameter
L = pile length
Since L = 1.5d + f + g
⇒ g = L − 1.5d − f 4

i) Unrestrained short pile (con’t)

As equations (2) = (3) and substitute values of g and f
from equations (4) & (1) respectively into equations
(2) & (3), we get
Hu
H u ( e + 1 . 5 d + 0 .5 )
9C u d
Hu 2
= 2 .25 d ( L − 1 .5 d − ) Cu 5
9C u d

Solutions to equation (5) are shown graphically in Fig 4.1 as

Hu ⎛L e⎞
= function⎜ , ⎟
Cu d 2 ⎝d d ⎠

8
 Fig. 4.1
Ultimate Lateral
Resistance in Clay
for Short Piles
(Broms, 1964a)

Single Piles in clay (con’t)

ii) Unrestrained long pile
Hu
e From equation (2)
1.5d
M yield = M max = H u (e + 1.5d + 0.5 f )
f
Substitute value of f from equation (1) &
L simplify it, we get

9Cud M yield Hu ⎡ e 1 Hu ⎤
= 1.5 + +
Cu d 3 Cu d 2 ⎢⎣ d 18 Cu d 2 ⎥⎦
Mmax 6
= Myield

Bending Solutions are plotted in Fig. 4.2

Deflection Soil reaction
moment

9
 Fig. 4.2
Ultimate Lateral
Resistance in
Clay
for Long Piles
(Broms, 1964a)

4.2 Restrained (Fixed head) Piles in Clay

Possible failure mechanisms:

i) Short Pile ii) Intermediate Pile iii) Long Pile

H H H

Pile Pile
Soil
Failure Failure
Failure

10
Single Piles in Clay

i) Restrained short pile (fixed head pile)

Mmax
Hu
Mmax
1.5d H u = 9Cu d (L − 1.5d )
Hu ⎛L ⎞
L ⇒ = 9⎜ − 1.5 ⎟ 7
9Cud Cu d 2 ⎝d ⎠
9Cud

d Solutions to eqn. (7) are also plotted

in Fig. 4.1.
Deflection Soil reaction Bending
moment

Fig. 4.1
Ultimate Lateral
Resistance in Clay
for Short Piles
(Broms, 1964a)

11
Single Piles in Clay (con’t)
ii) Restrained intermediate pile
Mmax
Hu
Myield
1.5d

f
Normally not considered
L
g

d 9Cud Mmax

Deflection Soil reaction Bending

moment

Single Piles in Clay (con’t)

iii) Restrained long pile
Taking moment about plastic hinge
(i.e. position f)
Hu f
M yield = H u ( 1.5 d + f ) − 9Cu d . f − M yield
Myield Myield 2
f
2 M yield = H u (1.5d + f ) − 9Cu d . f 8
Myield 1.5d 2
At location of zero shear
f
H u = 9Cu d . f 9
L Myield
f
⇒ 2 M yield = H u (1.5d + f ) − H u 10
2
Substitute value of f from eqn. (1) into eqn. (10),
we get
d 9Cud
M yield Hu 1 Hu
= (0.75 + )
Deflection Soil reaction Bending Cu d 3 Cu d 2 36 Cu d 2
moment
Solutions are also plotted in Fig. 4.2.

12
 Fig. 4.2
Ultimate Lateral
Resistance in
Clay
for Long Piles
(Broms, 1964a)

4.3 Unrestrained Piles in Sand

„ The following assumptions are made
„ The active earth pressure acting on the back of a laterally
loaded pile may be ________.
neglected
„ The distribution of passive earth pressure, Kp along the
front of the pile is equal to _____
three times the calculated
Rankine passive earth pressure where
1 + sin φ '
Kp =
1 − sin φ '
φ' = effective angle of friction of soil
„ The shape of pile section has __ no influence on the ultimate
lateral resistance or the earth pressure distribution.
„ The ___
full lateral resistance is mobilized at the movement
considered.

13
Single Piles in Sand
i) Unrestrained short pile

Hu Assumption: Rotation about a point close to the

e pile base.

f
Taking moment at the pile base
L
g
⎛ L ⎞⎛ L ⎞
H u ( L + e) = 3γdLK p ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
d 3γdLKp
⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ 3 ⎠
Mmax
Rearranging the above eqn
Deflection Soil reaction Bending
moment 2
⎛L⎞
0.5⎜ ⎟
Hu
= ⎝d ⎠ 11
K pγd 3 1+
e
L

Solutions to eqn. (11) are plotted in Fig. 4.3.

Fig. 4.3
Ultimate Lateral
Resistance in
Sand for Short Piles
(after Broms, 1964b)

14
Single Piles in Sand (con’t)
ii) Unrestrained long pile
Location of zero shear (at position f)
Hu ⎛f ⎞
e H u = 3γdK p f ⎜ ⎟
3γdfKp ⎝2⎠
f Hu
⇒ f = 0.82 12
dK pγ
L
Maximum moment (at position f)
⎛ f 2 ⎞⎛ f ⎞
M yield = M max = H u (e + f ) − 3γdK p ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜ ⎟
Myield ⎛f ⎞ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ 3 ⎠
= H u (e + f ) − H u ⎜ ⎟
d ⎝3⎠
= H u (e + 0.67 f ) 13
Deflection Soil reaction Bending
moment Substitute value of f from eqn. (12) into eqn. (13)
And rearranging
M yield Hu ⎡ e Hu ⎤
= ⎢ + 0.54 ⎥
K pγd 4 K pγd 3 ⎢⎣ d K pγd 3 ⎥⎦ 14

Solutions to eqn. (14) are plotted in Fig. 4.4.

Fig. 4.4
Ultimate Lateral
Resistance in
Sand for Long Piles
(after Broms, 1964b)

15
4.4 Restrained (fixed head) Piles in Sand

Mmax
Hu
Mmax
⎛L⎞
H u = 3γLdK p ⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠
2
L Hu ⎛ L⎞
⇒ = 1.5⎜ ⎟ 15
K pγd 3 ⎝d ⎠

d 3γLdKp
Solutions to eqn. (15) are also
Deflection Soil reaction Bending plotted in Fig. 4.3
moment

Short pile

Fig. 4.3
Ultimate Lateral
Resistance in
Sand for Short Piles
(after Broms, 1964b)

16
Single Restrained Piles in Sand
Taking moment about plastic hinge
Hu (i.e. position f: maximum moment, zero shear
⎛ f 2 ⎞⎛ f ⎞
Myield Myield 2 M yield = H u f − 3γdK p ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜ ⎟ 16
⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ 3 ⎠
Myield
f At location of zero shear force
⎛ f2⎞
H u = 3γdK p ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 17
L Myield ⎝ 2 ⎠
Thus, eqn. (16) becomes
⎛f ⎞
2 M yield = H u f − H u ⎜ ⎟ 18
⎝3⎠
d 3γfdKp Substitute value of f from eqn. (12) into eqn. (18)
and rearranging
Deflection Soil reaction Bending 1. 5
M yield ⎡ Hu ⎤
moment = 0.27 ⎢ 3⎥ 19
K pγd 4
⎣⎢ K pγd ⎦⎥
Long pile Solutions to eqn. (19) are also plotted in Fig. 4.4

Fig. 4.4
Ultimate Lateral
Resistance in
Sand for Long Piles
(after Broms, 1964b)

17
4.5 Structural Design of Laterally Loaded Piles
ƒ Factor of safety approach
Ultimate lateral force, Hu obtained from design/analysis (e.g.
Broms’s method)
Allowable lateral force, Hallowable = Hu/F
where F=factor of safety (at least __)
2
ƒ BS8110: Load factors
ƒ Dead + Imposed; 1.4Gk+1.6Qk

ƒ Dead + Wind; 0.9Gk+1.4Wk

ƒ Dead + Wind + Imposed; 1.2(Gk+Wk+Qk)

where Gk = characteristic dead load

Qk = characteristic imposed load
Wk = characteristic wind load

„ Concrete piles
combined bending
„ Design piles as columns under ________________
________
and axial loads (refer to BS8110)
„ Design charts can be used to design the
reinforcement required for laterally loaded pile.
Examples of design charts for circular column are
given in Fig. 4.5 and 4.6.
„ Design calculation is shown in Example 4.1.

18
Fig. 4.5
Design chart
for circular
column

Fig. 4.6
Design chart
for circular
column

19
„ Steel piles
The stress σ experienced by the steel section is given by
σ = My/I = M/(I/y) = M/Z
where M = maximum moment
I = second moment of area of cross section
y = d/2 for rectangular pile or
(Do-Di)/2 for steel pipe pile
where Do is the outer diameter and Di is
inner diameter
Z = I/y = section modulus
Figure 4.7

Fig. 4.7
Comparison of Elastic
and Plastic Section
Moduli for Some Simple
Cross Sectional Forms

Modulus Z = I/y

20
Example 4.1:
A 900mm diameter bored pile carrying a centrally applied vertical compressive load of
500kN is installed to a depth of 6m in lightly over-consolidated clay with undrained
shear strength of 50 kN/m2. Find
500kN i) The ultimate horizontal load that can be
applied at a point of 2m above ground level
H Unrestrained ii) The amount of reinforcement for the pile
e = 2m head
L=6m; d=0.9m; e=2m;
Dimensionless parameters:
L/d = 6.67 & e/d=2.22
6m
Assume short pile failure mechanism, determine
allowable horizontal load. From Fig. 4.1,

0.9m Hu/Cud2 = 9
or Hu= 9(50)(0.9)2 = 364kN

Use factor of safety for lateral load, F = 2.5

thus, Hallowable = Hu/F = 364/2.5 = 146 kN

Fig. 4.1
Ultimate Lateral
Resistance in Clay
for Short Piles
(Broms, 1964a)

21
Max. moment in pile obtained from Fig. 4.2 Alternatively, without resorting to the chart
For e/d = 2.22 & Hu/(Cud2) = 9 for long piles:
Myield/(Cud3) = 40
Refer to slide for short pile calculations
hence, Myield = 40(50)(0.9)3 = 1458 kNm
F = Hu/(9cud) = 364/(9x50x0.9) = 0.8988 ≈ 0.9
Weight of concrete above ground level M = Hu(e+1.5d+0.5f) = 364 (2+1.5x0.9+0.5x0.9)
= 2 x π/4 x (0.9)2 x 24 = 30.5kN
= 1383 kNm
Design vertical load, N = 1.4(500) + 30.5 = 730 kN
* load factor of 1.4 is used for applied compressive load; no load factor is needed
for concrete self-weight as it is known accurately.

Design value: N = 730 kN; M = 1458 kNm

use T32 bars with 50 mm concrete cover
hs = 900-2(50+16) = 768 mm
hence, hs/h = 768/900 = 0.85

Characteristic concrete strength, fcu = 30 N/mm2

High yield steel, fy = 460 N/mm2

N/h2 =730x103/9002 = 0.9 &

M/h3 = 1458x106/9003 = 2

Fig. 4.2
Ultimate Lateral
Resistance in
Clay
for Long Piles
(Broms, 1964a)

22
Refer to design chart in BS8110:Part III
Fig. 4.5: hs/h = 0.8, 100Asc/Ac = 1.8
Fig. 4.6: hs/h = 0.9, 100Asc/Ac = 1.6

Interpolate for hs/h = 0.85, 100Asc/Ac = 1.7

Asc = 1.7 x π(900)2/4 = 10815mm2
100

Area of T32 bar, A = π(32)2/4 = 804mm2

No. of T32 bars required = 10815/804 = 13.5

Use 14T32

Note: For economical design, the provision of steel reinforcements should follow the
bending moment profile. But the present design method does not provide for this.

4.6 Pile Groups

Under lateral loads only
„ lesser of
The capacity of a laterally loaded pile group is the _____
„ The ____
sum of the lateral load capacities of individual piles
in the group.
an equivalent single block
„ The lateral load capacity of _______________________
containing the piles in the group and the soil between
them.

For pile groups in clay, it may be preferable to assume zero soil

reaction from ground surface to a depth of 1.5d, where
individual piles rather than the equivalent
d = diameter of _____________
diameter of block

23
 Group Efficiency
Group Efficiency Ge
(Qu )G
Ge=
nQu
(Qu)G = the ultimate lateral load capacity of a group
n = the number of piles in the group
Qu = the ultimate lateral load capacity of a single pile

8 group efficiency expected to be < 1

If S/D < __,

Group Efficiency

Group Efficiency Ge for Cohesionless Soils

S/B Ge
3 0.5
4 0.6
5 0.68
6 0.7

These are interpolated values from graphs provided by Oteo (1972).

S = center to center pile spacing
B = pile diameter or width

24
 Group Efficiency

Group Efficiency Ge for CohesiveSoils

Ge .
S/B 2x2 3x3 Recommended
3 0.42 0.39 0.40
3.5 0.50 0.42 0.45
4 0.57 0.44 0.50
4.5 0.61 0.47 0.55
5.0 0.63 0.48 0.55
*6.0 0.65
*8.0 1.00

These are obtained from curves provided by Prakash and Saran (1967).
S = center to center pile spacing
B = pile diameter or width
* extrapolated values

Group Efficiency: Directional Effect

ηparallel

ηperpendicular

ηparallel __
< ηperpendicular

25
Summary of Materials Covered to this Point

• Different Types of Piles

• Short Piles vs Long Piles
• Free Head vs Fixed Head
• Different Failure Mechanisms
• Ultimate Capacity Evaluations for Cohesive and
Cohesionless Soils
• Deflections Not Considered

Ultimate Resistance Deflection

• Limit Strength • Stress-Strain

Relationship
• Plastic Moments • Force Equilibrium

• Force Equilibrium • Compatibility

• Deflections Not • Solution Not As Easily

Considered Derivable

26
 4.7 Deflection of Laterally Loaded Pile
Two Approaches Considered in this Course
Soil modeled
M Pile modeled using Springs
H using Beam
Elements

subgrade
reaction
L modulus
ks
E, ν

2ro

Elasticity Theory Subgrade Reaction

Soil Treated as Continuum Model

Beam on Elastic Foundation

w (kN/m2)

beam
soil springs ks
(kN/m3)

w (kN/m2)
∆ uniform settlement

Consider 1 m into the page

Uniform force in springs = ws (kN)
Uniform Settlement ∆ = w/ks

27
Beam on Elastic Foundation
w (kN/m2)

mat

soil continuum

w (kN/m2)

Dishing Profile of Mat under Uniform Loading

Beam on Elastic Foundation

w (kN/m2)

mat

soil continuum

w (kN/m2)

y
2ks 2ks

ks
4
d y
EI + w( x ) = 0
dx 4
d 4 y w( x ) d 4 y ks y
+ =0 ⇒ + =0
dx 4 EI dx 4 EI

28
 We first look at the calculation of
lateral pile deflections using elastic
theory which treats the soil as a
Continuum

Elastic Theory modeling Soil as a Continuum

M
H • Closed form solutions difficult to
obtain, except for very simple cases
• Approximate solutions using
L numerical approach, such as finite
element or boundary element
method

• Considers fundamental soil

2ro properties such as E and ν

• Effort required to set up the model

29
 Elastic Theory modeling Soil as a Continuum

M
• Randolph (1981) ‘The Response of
H Flexible Piles to Lateral Loading’
• Objective is to provide relatively
simple solutions for lateral pile
L
response under different loading
and soil conditions
• Carried out parametric studies using
Finite Element Analyses

2ro • Results from Finite Element Analyses

used to derive simple expressions for
pile deflections and stresses

Elastic Theory – Randolph (1981)

M
H
Lc (Critical Length)

Lc
For a pile of bending rigidity (EI), there is a
critical length Lc of pile beyond which the pile
L behaves as if it is infinitely long (and thus the
length of the pile does not influence the
deformation at the loaded end).

2ro

30
 Legend :

δh Lateral pile deflection at ground surface

θ Pile rotation at ground surface
G Shear modulus of soil = Es/(2(1+νs)); Es & νs = Young’s modulus & Poisson’s ratio of soil
G* G(1+3νs/4)
Gc Characteristic shear modulus, i.e. average value G* over the critical length Lc of the pile
GL*c / 4 Value of G* at depth of Lc/4
G *L c /2 Value of G* at depth of Lc/2 = Gc
GL* G*L
ρc' Degree of homogeneity over critical length Lc = *
c /4
= c /4

G Lc / 2 Gc
υs Poisson’s ratio of soil
E pe Equivalent Young’s modulus of pile = EpIp /(πro4/4) = Ep (for solid circular pile)
Lc Critical pile length for lateral loading = 2ro(Epe/G*)2/7 (homogeneous), 2ro(Epe/m*ro)2/9
m* = m(1 + 3ν/4), where m = dG/dz stiffness α depth

H Horizontal load
M Bending moment
EpI p Bending stiffness of pile
ro Pile radius

Variation of Lc/d vs G (G constant with depth)

Take
12
νs = 0.3
Epe = 21 GPa
10
For any G (soil),
8 Calculate G*
G* = G(1+3νs/4)
Lc/d

6
Lc = 2ro(Epe/G*)2/7
(homogeneous)
4
Lc/2ro = (Epe/G*)2/7
(homogeneous)
2

0
0 20000 40000 60000 80000 100000
G (kPa)

31
1) Non-homogeneity Factor
G*Lc/4 G*Lc/2=G*c
G * G*
ρc = Lc / 4
*
G Lc / 2
Lc/4
ρc = 1 for soil with uniform G
ρc = 0.5 for Gibson soil
Lc/2

2) Critical length
2/9
⎛ E ⎞
L c = 2ro ⎜⎜ *p ⎟⎟
Depth, z
⎝ m ro ⎠

⎛ 3ν ⎞
where m * = m⎜1 + s ⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠
m = dG/dz
= rate of increase of shear modulus with depth
ro = pile radius
Ep= pile modulus

i) Unrestrained (free head) piles

The horizontal displacement and rotational angle for unrestrained single pile
can be estimated using the following expressions using Elastic Theory:
M
1
H ⎛ Ep ⎞
7
⎛ ⎞
⎜ G ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
Horizontal displacement, δ h =
⎝ c⎠ ⎜ 0.27 H + 0.3M ⎟
ρ 'c Gc ⎜ Lc ⎛ Lc ⎞ ⎟
2

⎜ 2 ⎜ 2⎟ ⎟
Lc ⎝ ⎝ ⎠ ⎠
1
L ⎛ ⎞
⎛ Ep ⎞
7

⎜ G ⎟ ⎜ 1 ⎟
⎜ 0.3H + 0.8( ρ c ) M
'
Rotational angle, θ = ⎝ ' ⎠ ⎟
2
c

ρ c Gc ⎜⎛L ⎞ 2
⎛ Lc ⎞
3
⎟
⎜⎜ c2 ⎟ ⎜ 2⎟ ⎟
⎝⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎠

2ro

32
i) Free-headed piles (con’t)
The maximum moment for a pile under a lateral load H occurs at a depth
between Lc/4 (for homogeneous soil) and Lc/3 (for soil with stiffness
proportional to depth).
The maximum moment may be approximated using the following expression:
⎛ 0.1 ⎞
M max = ⎜ ' ⎟ HLc
⎜ρ ⎟
⎝ c⎠

Using Randolph’s Elastic Theory Approach

_________
Maximum Displacement, Rotation and Moment
__________
Normalized Charts for Displacement and BM Profiles Available
Actual
______________
Length L of the Pile Not Used
Long, Flexible Piles (L>Lc)
Simplified Solutions only Valid for _____________

Normalized Deflection and Bending Moment Profiles

Free-Head (under Lateral Force Loading)

33
 Normalized Deflection and Bending Moment Profiles
Free Head (under Moment Loading)

ii) Fixed-headed piles

• Rotational angle, θ equals to zero because pile head is retrained from rotating.
• The fixing moment, Mf and lateral deflection, δh are given by the following
expressions:

⎛ 0 . 375 H ( L c ) ⎞
⎜ 2 ⎟
Fixing moment, M f = −⎜ 1 ⎟
⎜ ( ρ 'c ) 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
1
⎛ Ep ⎞
7

⎜ G ⎟ ⎛
0.11 ⎞⎟ H
Horizontal displacement, δ h = ⎝ ' ⎠ ⎜ 0.27 −
c

ρ c Gc ⎜
⎝ ( )
1 ⎟
ρ c' 2 ⎠ ⎛⎜ Lc ⎞⎟
⎝ 2⎠

The lateral deflection of a fixed-headed pile is approximately half

___
of that of a corresponding free-headed pile.

34
 For a Pile Subjected to Combined Lateral Force and
Moment Loading at Pile Head, we can obtain the
Normalized Profile by
• Use Superposition
___________ of Normalized Profiles for (i)
Lateral Force Loading and (ii) Moment Loading
Randolph’s paper does not provide normalized
profiles for Fixed
______________
Head Piles .

Randolph’s method may not be applicable to more

complex soil conditions such as a stiff layer near
____________________,
the top half of the pile, underlying a softer layer
along the lower half of the pile.
This brings us to our second approach :
The Subgrade Reaction Method

Subgrade Reaction Approach

Soil modeled
Pile modeled using Springs
using Beam
Elements

subgrade
reaction
modulus
ks

Structural Approach : Simple Form of Finite Element Analysis

Beams and Springs
Beams: Pile Properties, Springs: Soil Properties (Subgrade Reaction Modulus, ks )

35
 Estimation of ks
Soil k (MN/m3)
Dense sandy gravel 220 – 400
Medium dense coarse sand 150 – 300
Medium sand 110 – 280
Fine or silty, fine sand 80 – 200
Stiff clay (wet) 60 – 220
Stiff clay (saturated) 30 – 110
Medium clay (wet) 40 – 140
Medium clay (saturated) 10 – 80
Soft clay 2 – 40

Doesn’t Say Anything About Variation

____________________________
of Stiffness with Depth

To account for variation with depth

ks = As + Bzn
z = depth below ground surface
z=0
As = ks at depth _____

B = value that affects how ks changes with

depth (similar to a slope)
rate of change
n = exponent that controls the ____________
of ks with depth
n = 1 ⇒ ks increases _______
linearly with depth
n = 0 or B = 0 ⇒ ks _______________
remains constant with depth
Use judgment. Do sensitivity studies.

36
 How to Relate ks to Es or cu
No universally accepted method

Can do finite element analysis (using Young’s

modulus E and Poisson’s ratio ν). From FE
results, backfigure the ks values. (Not common
for pile analysis, but has been done for mat or
raft foundations.

How to Relate ks to Es or cu
Various Approaches (d = pile diameter)

⎛ 0.65 ⎞ E s d ⎛⎜ E s ⎞
4

Vesic k =⎜ ⎟12 ⎟
⎝ d ⎠ E p I p ⎜⎝ 1 −ν s ⎟
2
⎠

Broms k = 1.67 E50 / d

Chen k = 3 Es / d cohesionless
k = 1.6 E s / d cohesive

Skempton k = ( 80 − 320 )cu / d

Davisson k = 67 cu / d

37
 Soil Spring Response (p-y curves)
Simple: Linear Elastic

P
(force)
ks (x area)
P
1
∆=y
y
Realistic, Non-Linear, Plateau (deflection)

elastic perfectly plastic

P yield force = F(cu or φ)
(force)
ks (x area)
1

y
(deflection)

Excel Spreadsheet for Subgrade Reaction Analysis

(only linear
_____ response considered)

38
 Simple Example 1

H = 100 kN

Assume Homogeneous Soil

Ep = 21 GPa
Es, ν, Gs constant with depth
Es = 20 MPa = 20000 kPa
10 m ν = 0.25

Gs = Es/(2(1+ν)) = 8 MPa
= 8000 kPa

d = 1m

Legend :

δh Lateral pile deflection at ground surface

θ Pile rotation at ground surface
G Shear modulus of soil = Es/(2(1+νs)); Es & νs = Young’s modulus & Poisson’s ratio of soil
G* G(1+3νs/4)
Gc Characteristic shear modulus, i.e. average value G* over the critical length Lc of the pile
GL*c / 4 Value of G* at depth of Lc/4
G L*c / 2 Value of G* at depth of Lc/2 = Gc
GL*c / 4 GL*c / 4
ρ '
c Degree of homogeneity over critical length Lc = *
=
G Lc / 2 Gc
υs Poisson’s ratio of soil
E pe Equivalent Young’s modulus of pile = EpIp /(πro4/4)
Lc Critical pile length for lateral loading = 2ro(Epe/G*)2/7 (homogeneous), 2ro(Epe/m*ro)2/9
m* = m(1 + 3ν/4), where m = dG/dz stiffness α depth

H Horizontal load
M Bending moment
EpI p Bending stiffness of pile
ro Pile radius

39
 Simple Example 1

Using Randolph’s Elastic Solution

(for constant G
Gc = G* = Gs (1 + 3ν/4) = 9500 kPa with depth)

Lc = 2ro(Epe/G*)2/7 = 8.95 m ≈ 9 m
For H = 100, M = 0, and assuming free head
1
⎛ Ep ⎞
7
⎛ ⎞
⎜ G ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
Horizontal displacement, δ h =
⎝ c⎠ ⎜ 0 . 27 H
+
0 . 3 M ⎟
⎜ Lc = 0.00184 m
ρ 'c Gc ⎛ Lc ⎞ ⎟
2

⎜ 2 ⎜ 2⎟ ⎟
⎝ ⎝ ⎠ ⎠

⎛ 0.1 ⎞
Maximum moment M max = ⎜ ' ⎟ HLc = 89.5 kNm
⎜ρ ⎟
⎝ c⎠
at approximately depth Lc/4 = 2.3 m

Simple Example 1
Using Subgrade Reaction Approach (Excel Spreadsheet)
Deflection (m) Moment (kNm)

-0.0005 0.0000 0.0005 0.0010 0.0015 0.0020 0.0025 -120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20
0 0

0.0019 m
2 2

110 kNm
4 4
Depth (m)
Depth (m)

6 6

8 8

10 10

12 12

40
 Simple Example 2

Same as Example 1, but fixed head

For H = 100, M = 0, and assuming fixed head
1
⎛ Ep ⎞
7

⎜ G ⎟ ⎛
0.11 ⎞⎟ H
Horizontal displacement, δ h = ⎝ ' ⎠ ⎜ 0.27 −
c
= 0.0011 m
ρ c Gc ⎜
⎝
1 ⎟
ρ c' 2 ⎠ ⎛⎜ Lc ⎞⎟ ( )
⎝ 2⎠
⎛ 0.375H ( Lc ) ⎞
⎜ 2 ⎟
Max. Moment, M f = −⎜ 1 ⎟ = 168 kNm
⎜ (ρ c )
' 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠

Simple Example 2

Using Subgrade Approach

Deflection (m) Moment (kNm)
-0.0004 -0.0002 0.0000 0.0002 0.0004 0.0006 0.0008 0.0010 0.0012 -50 0 50 100 150 200
0 0

0.00097 m
171 kNm
2 2

4 4
Depth (m)
Depth (m)

6 6

8 8

10 10

12 12

41
 Simple Example 3

H = 100 kN
8 MPa G

Ep = 21 GPa

4.5 m
10 m

ν = 0.25

d = 1m

Simple Example 3
Using Randolph’s Elastic Solution
Lc = 8.95 m ≈ 9 m (as before)
Gc = 9500 kPa = G*d=4.5m
Assume G*d=2.25m = 4750 kPa ⇒ ρ 'c = 0.5

For H = 100, M = 0, and assuming free head

1
⎛ Ep ⎞
7
⎛ ⎞
⎜ G ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
Horizontal displacement, δ h =
⎝ c⎠ ⎜ 0 . 27 H
+
0 . 3 M ⎟
⎜ Lc = 0.0038 m
ρ c Gc ⎛ Lc ⎞ ⎟
' 2

⎜ 2 ⎜ 2⎟ ⎟
⎝ ⎝ ⎠ ⎠
⎛ 0.1 ⎞
Maximum moment M max = ⎜ ' ⎟ HLc = 180 kNm
⎜ρ ⎟
⎝ c⎠

42
 Simple Example 3

Using Subgrade Approach

Deflection (m) Moment (kNm)
-0.0010 0.0000 0.0010 0.0020 0.0030 0.0040 0.0050 0.0060 -250 -200 -150 -100 -50 0
0 0

0.0048 m
2 2

206 kNm
4 4
Depth (m)

Depth (m)
6 6

8 8

10 10

12
12

Simple Example 4 (Some Parametric Studies)

Effect of Using More Beam Elements
Deflection (m) Moment (kNm)
-0.010 -0.005 0.000 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 -150 -100 -50 0 50
0 0

2 2
40 Elems
40 Elems
20 Elems
20 Elems
10 Elems
4 10 Elems 4
5 Elems
5 Elems
Depth (m)

Depth (m)

6 6

8 8

10
10

12
12

43
 Simple Example 4 (Some Parametric Studies)
Effect of Free vs Fixed Head

Deflection (m) Moment (kNm)

-0.005 0.000 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 -200 -100 0 100 200 300
0 0

2 2
Free Free
Fixed Fixed
4 4
Depth (m)

Depth (m)
6 6

8 8

10 10

12 12

Simple Example 4 (Some Parametric Studies)

Effect of Soft vs Stiff Soil
Deflection (m) Moment (kNm)
-0.005 0.000 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 -150 -100 -50 0 50
0 0

2 2
Shear Modulus G
Shear Modulus 10G

4 4
Depth (m)

Depth (m)

6 6

Shear Modulus G
8 8
Shear Modulus 10G

10 10

12 12

44
 Simple Example 4 (Some Parametric Studies)
Effect of 10 m vs 15 m Pile

Deflection (m) Moment (kNm)

-0.005 0.000 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 -150 -100 -50 0 50
0 0

2 2

L = 10 m
4 4
L = 15 m

6 6

Depth (m)
Depth (m)

8 8

10 10
L = 10 m
L = 15 m

12 12

14 14

16 16

Simple Example 4 (Some Parametric Studies)

Effect of 2m Embedment in Stiff Soil

Deflection (m) Moment (kNm)

-0.005 0.000 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 -150 -100 -50 0 50
0 0

2 2
All Clay
Lower 2m Stiff Soil

4 4
Depth (m)

Depth (m)

6 6

All Clay
Lower 2 m Stiff Soil
8 8

10 10

12 12

45
 Simple Example 4 (Some Parametric Studies)
Effect of 5m Embedment in Stiff Soil

Deflection (m) Moment (kNm)

-0.005 0.000 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 -150 -100 -50 0 50
0 0

2 2

All Clay
Upper 2m
Lower 5m Stiff Soil
4 4

Depth (m)
Depth (m)

6 6

All Clay
Upper 25m
Lower m Stiff Soil
8 8

10 10

12 12

4.8 Deflection of Laterally Loaded Pile Groups

Subgrade Reaction Approach (Davisson 1970)

Pile Spacing in the Group Reduction Factor

Direction of Loading for nh or ks

3B 0.25
4B 0.40
6B 0.70
8B 1.00

If pile spacing normal to the load direction > ____,

2.5B group
reduction factor for the direction normal to the load is 1.00

46
Interaction factor αij (Elastic Theory Approach)

Defined as the fractional increase in deformation of one pile

due to the presence of a similarly loaded neighboring pile.
δF α δF
1 n
δ i = ∑ α ij Pj F
soil
F
k j =1

αij = interaction factor between the ith and jth pile

Pj = load on the jth pile

k = stiffness (load divided by deformation) of a single

isolated pile

1 n
δi = ∑ α ij Pj
k j =1
P1 P3
1 3
P

2 4
P2 P4

Assume P1 = P2 = P3 = P4 =P/4
4
α 2 j Pj = (α 21 P1 + α 22 P2 + α 23 P3 + α 24 P4 )
1
δ2 = 1
∑
k j =1 k

=
1
k
(
α 21 P + α 22 P + α 23 P + α 24 P
4 4 4 4
)
=
P
(1 + α 21 + α 23 + α 24 )
4k
= (1 + α 21 + α 23 + α 24 ) x displacement of one pile under load P/4

47
 4.8 Deflection of Laterally Loaded Pile Groups
Interaction factors

i) Increase in Deflection of a Fixed Head Pile subjected to Lateral Load

1
⎛ Ep ⎞
( )
7
ro
α ρF ≈ 0.6 ρ c ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟ 1 + cos 2 β
⎝ Gc ⎠ s d=2ro

If α ρF > 0.5 from this expression β

s
use α ρF = 1 − ( 4α ρF )−1

ii) Increase in Deflection of a Free head pile subjected to Lateral Load

1
⎛ Ep ⎞
( )
7
ro
α ρH ≈ 0.5 ρ c ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟ 1 + cos 2 β
⎝ Gc ⎠ s

If α ρH > 0.5 from this expression

use α ρH = 1 − ( 4α ρH )−1

iii) Increase in Deflection of a Free Head Pile due to Applied Moment

α ρM ≈ α ρ2H

iv) Increase in Rotation of a Free Head Pile Subjected to Lateral Load

α θH ≈ α ρ2H

v) Increase in Rotation of a Free Head Pile Subjected to Applied Moment

α θm ≈ α ρ3H

48
Equations for Laterally Loaded Pile Group
1) Lateral Deflections Note that AρH and AρM
{δ } = (AρH ){H }+ (AρM ){M } are Flexibility Matrices.
These are the inverse of
2) Rotations the Stiffness Matrices!
{θ } = ( AθH ){H }+ ( AθM ){M }
3) Equilibrium
HG = ∑ Hi
MG = ∑ Mi
4) Boundary Conditions
for rigid cap:
{δ } = δ G {1}
{θ } = θG {1}

Equations for Laterally Loaded Pile Group

1) Matrix Expansion for the Lateral Deflections

{δ } = (AρH ){H }+ (AρM ){M }

⎧δ 1 ⎫ ⎛ 1 α 12 α 13 α 14 ⎞⎧ H 1 ⎫ ⎛ 1 α 12 α 13 α 14 ⎞⎧ M 1 ⎫
⎜
⎪⎪δ 2 ⎪⎪ ⎜ α 21 1 α 23 α 24 ⎟⎟⎪⎪ H 2 ⎪⎪ ⎜⎜ α 21 1 α 23 α 24 ⎟⎟⎪⎪M 2 ⎪⎪
⎨δ ⎬ = α α 32
+
α 34 ⎟⎨⎪ H 3 ⎬⎪ ⎜ α 31 α 32 α 34 ⎟⎨⎪ M 3 ⎬⎪
⎪ 3 ⎪ ⎜⎜ 31
1 1
⎪⎩δ 4 ⎪⎭ ⎝ α 41 α 42 α 43 1 ⎟⎠⎪⎩ H 4 ⎪⎭ ⎜⎝ α 41 α 42 α 43 1 ⎟⎠⎪⎩M 4 ⎪⎭

AρH AρM

49
 Example 4.2:
A restrained-head steel pipe pile (Pile 1) of Grade 43 (fy=265 N/mm2) with diameter of
1.2m and wall thickness of 20mm forms part of a 3-pile group for the foundation of an
offshore platform. This pile is driven to a penetration depth of 40m into stiff uniform clay
with undrained shear strength, Cu = 75 kN/m2 and bulk density, γ = 18 kN/m3. The lateral
working load acting on the pile is 300 kN. Assuming all the piles carry the same horizontal
load, determine the lateral deformation of this pile (Pile 1). Would you expect this
assumption of equal horizontal load in the piles to hold if the piles are constrained to deflect
the same amount by the mudmat and pile sleeves?

3
Pile 1: L = 40 m; d = 1.2 m; wall thickness = 20 mm
4.5m Soil: Cu = 75 kN/m2; νs = 0.5
Loading
Direction
1 Typical values:
2
Sand – Es = N (in MPa); νs = 0.3 where N =
4.5m
standard penetration resistance;

Clay – Es = 100 cu (in kPa) for soft clay to 400 cu for

stiff clay; νs = 0.5

Es = 200Cu = 200 × 75 = 15000kN / m 2

Es 15000
G= = = 5000kN / m 2
2(1 +ν s ) 2(1 + 0.5)
⎛ 3ν ⎞ ⎛ 3 × 0.5 ⎞
Gc = G* = G⎜1 + s ⎟ = 5000⎜1 + ⎟ = 6875kN / m
2

⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠
ρ c' = 1.0
π
EpI p 210 × 106 ×
4
(0.6 4
− 0.584 )
E pe = = = 26.63 ×106 kN / m 2
π π
r
o
4
(0.6) 4

4 4
2 2
⎛ E pe ⎞ 7
⎛ 26.63 × 106 ⎞ 7
Lc = 2ro ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 1.2 × ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 12.7
⎝ Gc ⎠ ⎝ 6875 ⎠

Deflection of pile 1 in group

1 n
∑ α ij Pj = k [H1 + α12 H 2 + α13 H 3 ]
1
δ1 =
k j =1

=
H
(1 + α12 + α13 ) = δ h (1 + α12 + α13 ) δh = lateral displacement of single pile
k under load H
[ assuming all piles carry the same load ]
i.e. H1 = H2 = H3 = H = 300 kN

50
 1
⎛ 26.63 ×106 ⎞ 7
⎜⎜ ⎟
⎝ 6875 ⎟⎠
δh = (0.27 − 0.11) 12300
1.0 × 6875 (
.7
2
)
−3
= 3.6 ×10 m = 3.6mm

Interaction factors:
1
⎛ 26.63 ×106 ⎞ 7 0.6
α pF = 0.6 × 1.0 × ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ × 1 + cos 2 β ( )
⎝ 6875 ⎠ s

=
1.172
s
(
1 + cos 2 β )
Pile s β α
1 − − 1.0
2 4.5 0ο 0.52
3 4.5 90ο 0.26

Thus,
δ1= 3.6(1+0.52+0.26) = 6.4 mm

4.9 Method of Increasing Lateral Resistance of Piles

Plan
H H H

Sand or Collar
gravel fill
Wings

H H

Concrete
Beams
or mortar

51