240-99527377 Inspection Manual For Civil Works at Eskom's Power Stations

Manual Technology
Title: Inspection Manual for Civil Unique Identifier: 240-99527377

Works at Eskom's Power
Stations
Alternative Reference Number: N/A
Area of Applicability: Engineering
Documentation Type:
Manual
Revision: 2
Total Pages: 113
Next Review Date: March 2024
Disclosure Classification:
CONTROLLED
DISCLOSURE
Compiled by Approved by Authorised by
………………………………….. ………………………………….. …………………………………..

N. Moodley Q. Cai G. MacIntosh
Engineer: Structural Design Chief Engineer: Structural Structural Design CoE
CoE Design CoE Manager
Date: …………………………… Date: …………………………… Date: ……………………………
Supported by SCOT/SC/TC
…………………………………..
G.N. Dudenska
SCOT/SC/TC Chairperson
Date: ……………………………
PCM Reference : 240-53573086

SCOT Study Committee Number/Name : Roads and Railways
Inspection Manual for Civil Works at Eskom’s Unique Identifier: 240-99527377
Power Stations Revision: 2
Page: 2 of 113
FOREWORD
This manual was compiled to assist civil and structural engineering staff at Eskom’s power stations in
their maintenance and inspection activities. It provides guidance for maintenance planning of the
various civil and structural assets at Eskom’s Power Stations.
CONTROLLED DISCLOSURE
When downloaded from the EDMS, this document is uncontrolled and the responsibility rests with the user to ensure it is in line
with the authorised version on the database.
Page: 3 of 113
CONTENTS
Page
FOREWORD ................................................................................................................................................................ 2
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .............................................................................................................................................. 9
1. SUPPORTING CLAUSES ...................................................................................................................................... 10
1.1 SCOPE ............................................................................................................................................................ 10
1.1.1 Purpose ................................................................................................................................................... 10
1.1.2 Applicability.............................................................................................................................................. 10
1.2 NORMATIVE/INFORMATIVE REFERENCES ................................................................................................ 10
1.2.1 Normative References ............................................................................................................................. 11
1.2.2 Informative References ........................................................................................................................... 11
1.3 ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................................................................ 11
1.4 DEFINITIONS .................................................................................................................................................. 12
1.5 ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES .................................................................................................................. 12
2. MOTIVATION AND OBJECTIVES ........................................................................................................................ 13
2.1 SAFETY AND LEGISLATION ......................................................................................................................... 13
2.2 TRAINING AND EXPERIENCE ...................................................................................................................... 13
2.3 INSPECTIONS OBJECTIVES ......................................................................................................................... 13
3. OVERVIEW OF INSPECTION MANUAL REQUIREMENTS ................................................................................ 14
4. MAINTENANCE POLICY ....................................................................................................................................... 15
5. GENERAL INSPECTION AND MONITORING REQUIREMENTS ....................................................................... 16
5.1 CONDITION CATEGORIES ............................................................................................................................ 16
5.2 VISUAL INSPECTIONS SAFETY ................................................................................................................... 16
5.2.1 Accompanying Person ............................................................................................................................ 16
5.2.2 Induction .................................................................................................................................................. 17
5.2.3 Risk Assessment ..................................................................................................................................... 17
5.2.4 Access and Lighting ................................................................................................................................ 17
5.2.5 Equipment ............................................................................................................................................... 17
5.3 INSPECTION PLANNING ............................................................................................................................... 17
6. INSPECTION SCHEDULE ..................................................................................................................................... 18
6.1 SCHEDULING INSPECTIONS ....................................................................................................................... 18
6.2 FREQUENCY OF ENGINEERING VISUAL INSPECTIONS .......................................................................... 18
7. REPORTING AND FOLLOW-UP........................................................................................................................... 18
7.1 REPORTING ................................................................................................................................................... 18
7.2 FOLLOW-UP ................................................................................................................................................... 20
8. STRUCTURAL INSPECTIONS .............................................................................................................................. 21
8.1 COOLING TOWERS ....................................................................................................................................... 21
8.1.1 Description............................................................................................................................................... 21
8.1.2 Typical Problems in Cooling Tower Structures ....................................................................................... 21
8.1.3 Inspections .............................................................................................................................................. 22
8.1.4 Testing ..................................................................................................................................................... 24
8.2 CHIMNEY STRUCTURES .............................................................................................................................. 24
8.2.1 Description............................................................................................................................................... 24
8.2.1.1 Single Flue Chimneys: .................................................................................................................... 24
8.2.1.2 Multiple flue chimneys: .................................................................................................................... 24
8.2.2 Typical Problems in Chimney Structures ................................................................................................ 26
8.2.3 Inspections .............................................................................................................................................. 27
8.2.3.1 External Inspections ........................................................................................................................ 28
8.2.3.2 Internal Inspections ......................................................................................................................... 28
8.2.4 Testing ..................................................................................................................................................... 28
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8.2.4.1 Brick Lining ...................................................................................................................................... 28
8.3 CONCRETE SILOS ......................................................................................................................................... 28
8.3.1 Description............................................................................................................................................... 28
8.3.2 Typical Problems in Concrete Silos ........................................................................................................ 29
8.3.3 External Inspections ................................................................................................................................ 29
8.4 LIQUID CONTAINING STRUCTURES ........................................................................................................... 29
8.4.1 Description............................................................................................................................................... 29
8.4.2 Typical Problems in Liquid Containing Structures................................................................................... 30
8.4.3 Inspections .............................................................................................................................................. 30
8.4.3.1 External Inspections ........................................................................................................................ 30
8.5 CONVEYOR STRUCTURES .......................................................................................................................... 30
8.5.1 Description............................................................................................................................................... 30
8.5.2 Typical Problems in Conveyor Structures ............................................................................................... 30
8.5.3 Inspections .............................................................................................................................................. 30
8.6 STEEL STRUCTURES.................................................................................................................................... 31
8.6.1 Description............................................................................................................................................... 31
8.6.2 Typical Problems Associated with Steel Structures ................................................................................ 31
8.6.2.1 Rusting ............................................................................................................................................ 31
8.6.2.2 Structural Deficiencies .................................................................................................................... 31
8.6.2.3 Non-Structural Deficiencies ............................................................................................................. 31
8.7 BUILDINGS ..................................................................................................................................................... 31
8.7.1 Description............................................................................................................................................... 31
8.7.2 Typical Problems in Buildings ................................................................................................................. 32
8.7.2.1 Deterioration .................................................................................................................................... 32
8.7.2.2 Foundation failure ........................................................................................................................... 33
8.7.2.3 Brickwork and partition walling failure ............................................................................................. 33
8.7.2.4 Damp penetration and condensation .............................................................................................. 33
8.7.2.5 Windows and doors failure .............................................................................................................. 34
8.8 OTHER POWER STATION STRUCTURES ................................................................................................... 34
8.8.1 Description............................................................................................................................................... 34
8.8.1.1 Boiler house structures ................................................................................................................... 34
8.8.1.2 Turbine house structures ................................................................................................................ 35
8.8.1.3 Coal staithes.................................................................................................................................... 35
8.8.1.4 Blow-down sumps ........................................................................................................................... 35
8.8.1.5 Precipitators & bag filter plant ......................................................................................................... 35
8.8.1.6 Auxiliary bays .................................................................................................................................. 35
8.8.1.7 Flue ducts ........................................................................................................................................ 35
8.8.1.8 Machine foundations ....................................................................................................................... 35
8.8.1.9 Boiler bottom ash sumps................................................................................................................. 35
8.8.1.10 Workshops and stores .................................................................................................................. 35
8.8.1.11 Pump houses ................................................................................................................................ 35
8.8.1.12 High voltage yards ........................................................................................................................ 35
8.8.1.13 Sub-stations .................................................................................................................................. 35
8.8.2 Problems ................................................................................................................................................. 36
8.8.2.1 Boiler House Structures .................................................................................................................. 36
8.8.2.2 Turbine House Structures ............................................................................................................... 36
8.8.2.3 Coal Staithes ................................................................................................................................... 36
8.8.2.4 Blow down Sumps ........................................................................................................................... 36
8.8.2.5 Precipitators & Bag filter Plant ........................................................................................................ 37
8.8.2.6 Auxiliary Bays .................................................................................................................................. 37
8.8.2.7 Flue Ducts ....................................................................................................................................... 37
8.8.2.8 Machine/Equipment Foundations ................................................................................................... 37
8.8.2.9 Boiler Bottom Ash Sumps ............................................................................................................... 38
8.8.2.10 Workshops and Stores .................................................................................................................. 38
8.8.2.11 Pump houses ................................................................................................................................ 38
8.8.2.12 High Voltage Yards ....................................................................................................................... 38
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8.8.2.13 Sub-stations .................................................................................................................................. 38
9. ROADS ................................................................................................................................................................... 39
9.1 DESCRIPTION ................................................................................................................................................ 39
9.2 INSPECTIONS ................................................................................................................................................ 40
9.2.1 Visual Assessment .................................................................................................................................. 40
9.2.1.1 Assessment procedure ................................................................................................................... 41
9.2.1.2 Distresses........................................................................................................................................ 41
9.2.1.3 Visual Assessment of Surfaced and Unsurfaced Roads ................................................................ 43
9.2.2 Instrument Assessment ........................................................................................................................... 47
9.2.2.1 Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP) Analysis ................................................................................ 48
9.2.2.2 Structural adequacy ........................................................................................................................ 49
9.2.2.3 California Bearing Ratio (CBR)-Trial Pits ........................................................................................ 49
9.3 PAVEMENT CONDITION INDICES ................................................................................................................ 49
9.4 INSPECTION FREQUENCY ........................................................................................................................... 50
9.4.1 Monitoring ................................................................................................................................................ 50
9.5 REMEDIAL ACTIONS ..................................................................................................................................... 50
9.5.1 Flexible Pavements ................................................................................................................................. 50
9.5.2 Rigid pavements (Concrete Roads) ........................................................................................................ 52
9.5.3 Unsurfaced pavements (Gravel Roads) .................................................................................................. 54
9.5.4 Drainage and Drainage Structures .......................................................................................................... 54
10. CULVERTS .......................................................................................................................................................... 55
10.1 PROBLEMS ................................................................................................................................................... 55
10.2 INSPECTION FREQUENCIES ..................................................................................................................... 55
10.3 REMEDIAL ACTIONS ................................................................................................................................... 55
10.3.1 Vegetation Management and Control ................................................................................................... 55
11. RAILWAY LINES AND SIDING ........................................................................................................................... 56
11.1 EARTHWORKS ............................................................................................................................................. 56
11.2 BRIDGES AND CULVERTS.......................................................................................................................... 56
11.3 BALLAST ....................................................................................................................................................... 57
11.4 RAILS ............................................................................................................................................................ 57
11.5 SLEEPERS .................................................................................................................................................... 57
11.6 TURNOUTS ................................................................................................................................................... 57
11.7 RAIL FURNITURE ......................................................................................................................................... 57
11.8 OVERALL ...................................................................................................................................................... 58
12. SURFACE DRAINS.............................................................................................................................................. 59
12.1 DESCRIPTION .............................................................................................................................................. 59
12.1.1 Stormwater drains, Clean water drains and Diversion canals .............................................................. 59
12.1.2 Dirty water drains and central drains ..................................................................................................... 59
12.1.3 Dissipater structures .............................................................................................................................. 60
12.1.4 Silt traps ................................................................................................................................................. 60
12.1.5 Low flow Sluice gates ............................................................................................................................ 61
12.2 PROBLEMS ................................................................................................................................................... 61
12.2.1 Drains and canals .................................................................................................................................. 61
12.2.2 Silt traps ................................................................................................................................................. 61
12.3 INSPECTION FREQUENCY ......................................................................................................................... 62
12.3.1 Monitoring .............................................................................................................................................. 62
12.4.1 Drains and Canals ................................................................................................................................. 63
12.4.2 Silt traps ................................................................................................................................................. 64
13. SUB-SURFACE DRAINS ..................................................................................................................................... 65
13.1 DESCRIPTION .............................................................................................................................................. 65
13.2 PROBLEMS ................................................................................................................................................... 65
13.4 MAINTANENCE LIMITATIONS ..................................................................................................................... 66
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14. ASH DAMS ........................................................................................................................................................... 67
14.1 DESCRIPTION .............................................................................................................................................. 67
14.1.1 Wall Building .......................................................................................................................................... 67
14.1.2 Daywall, Night-wall and Innerwall sections ........................................................................................... 67
14.1.3 Pool on top of the ash dam ................................................................................................................... 67
14.1.4 Filter Drains ........................................................................................................................................... 68
14.1.5 Penstocks .............................................................................................................................................. 68
14.1.6 Stormwater Management ...................................................................................................................... 68
14.1.7 Solution Trenches ................................................................................................................................. 68
14.1.8 Stormwater Diversion Canals ................................................................................................................ 68
14.1.9 Walkways to Penstocks ......................................................................................................................... 68
14.1.10 Piezometers......................................................................................................................................... 68
14.2 PROBLEMS ................................................................................................................................................... 68
14.3.1 Ash Dam Monitoring .............................................................................................................................. 71
14.3.1.1 Monthly monitoring ........................................................................................................................ 71
14.3.1.2 Weekly monitoring ......................................................................................................................... 72
14.3.1.3 Daily monitoring ............................................................................................................................ 73
14.3.2 Piezometer Monitoring .......................................................................................................................... 73
14.3.3 Ash Water Return Dam Monitoring ....................................................................................................... 73
14.3.3.1 Monthly monitoring ........................................................................................................................ 73
14.3.3.2 Daily monitoring ............................................................................................................................ 73
14.3.4 Ash Dam Contour Survey...................................................................................................................... 74
14.3.5 Legal and Safety Requirements ............................................................................................................ 74
14.3.6 Groundwater Monitoring ........................................................................................................................ 74
14.3.7 Settlement Monitoring ........................................................................................................................... 74
14.3.8 Rainfall Monitoring ................................................................................................................................. 74
14.4.1 Compliance with O&M Manual Requirements ...................................................................................... 75
14.4.2 Emergency Situations and Procedures ................................................................................................. 75
14.4.2.1 Emergency situation: Evacuation .................................................................................................. 75
14.4.2.2 Emergency situation: Preparedness ............................................................................................ 76
14.4.2.3 Emergency situation: Uncertainty ................................................................................................ 76
15. ASH DUMPS ........................................................................................................................................................ 77
15.1 DESCRIPTION .............................................................................................................................................. 77
15.1.1 Mechanical Components ....................................................................................................................... 77
15.1.1.1 Conveyors ..................................................................................................................................... 77
15.1.1.2 Spreader machines ....................................................................................................................... 77
15.1.1.3 Stacker machines .......................................................................................................................... 77
15.1.2 Drainage Systems ................................................................................................................................. 77
15.1.3 Erosion Protection ................................................................................................................................. 78
15.1.4 Emergency Ashing System ................................................................................................................... 78
15.1.5 Dust Suppression System ..................................................................................................................... 78
15.1.5.1 Smooth drum roller compaction .................................................................................................... 78
15.1.5.2 Water ............................................................................................................................................. 78
15.1.5.3 Polymers ....................................................................................................................................... 78
15.1.5.4 Soil cover....................................................................................................................................... 78
15.1.6 Topsoiling and Rehabilitation ................................................................................................................ 78
15.1.7 Road Network (see Chapter 15);........................................................................................................... 79
15.2 PROBLEMS ................................................................................................................................................... 79
15.2.1 Dust Problems ....................................................................................................................................... 79
15.2.2 Slope Stability Problems ....................................................................................................................... 80
15.2.2.1 Poor underlying ground conditions ............................................................................................... 80
15.2.2.2 Safe edge distance (S.E.D.) not achieved .................................................................................... 80
15.2.2.3 Inadequate pozzolanic cementing action ...................................................................................... 80
15.2.2.4 Inadequate drainage ..................................................................................................................... 80
15.2.3 Checklists .............................................................................................................................................. 80
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15.3.1 Dust Suppression Monitoring ................................................................................................................ 87
15.3.2 Slope Stability Monitoring ...................................................................................................................... 87
15.3.2.1 Underlying ground conditions ........................................................................................................ 87
15.3.2.2 Safe edge distance (S.E.D.) for strategic stacking plant .............................................................. 87
15.3.2.3 Pozzolanic cementing action......................................................................................................... 87
15.3.2.4 Drainage systems ......................................................................................................................... 88
15.3.2.5 Legal and Safety aspects .............................................................................................................. 89
15.3.3 Survey and Setting out .......................................................................................................................... 89
15.3.3.1 Control beacons and bench marks ............................................................................................... 89
15.3.3.2 Audit surveys ................................................................................................................................. 89
16. COAL STOCKYARDS ......................................................................................................................................... 91
16.1 DESCRIPTION .............................................................................................................................................. 91
16.2 PROBLEMS ................................................................................................................................................... 91
16.3 EROSION & SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION CONTROL.......................................................................... 91
16.3.1 Stockpile Construction Geometry .......................................................................................................... 92
16.3.2 Compaction ........................................................................................................................................... 92
16.3.2.1 Vibrating rollers: ............................................................................................................................ 92
16.3.2.2 Impact rollers: ................................................................................................................................ 92
16.3.3 Reclamation of a Stockpile .................................................................................................................... 93
16.3.4 Quality Control ....................................................................................................................................... 93
16.3.4.1 Dynamic Cone Penetrometer test - side slopes:........................................................................... 93
16.3.4.2 Dynamic Cone Penetrometer test - terrace layers: ....................................................................... 93
16.3.4.3 Sand Replacement test - side slopes and base layer: .................................................................. 93
16.3.4.4 Other tests: .................................................................................................................................... 93
16.4.1 Monitoring .............................................................................................................................................. 94
16.5.1 Contingency Measures .......................................................................................................................... 95
17. DAMS ................................................................................................................................................................... 96
17.1 DESCRIPTION .............................................................................................................................................. 96
17.1.1 Dam Walls ............................................................................................................................................. 96
17.1.2 Spillways ................................................................................................................................................ 96
17.1.3 Upstream and Downstream areas ........................................................................................................ 96
17.1.4 Inlet and Outlet works ............................................................................................................................ 96
17.1.5 Environmental Requirements ................................................................................................................ 97
17.2 PROBLEMS ................................................................................................................................................... 97
17.2.1 All Dams: ............................................................................................................................................... 97
17.2.2 Dirty Water Dams: ................................................................................................................................. 97
17.2.3 Dam Wall ............................................................................................................................................... 98
17.2.4 Spillways ................................................................................................................................................ 99
17.2.5 Downstream Areas ................................................................................................................................ 99
17.2.6 Inlet and Outlet works ............................................................................................................................ 99
17.2.7 Sluice Gate Calibration (For Dirty water dams)..................................................................................... 99
17.2.8 EXAMPLE OF A ROUTINE INSPECTION FORM .............................................................................. 100
17.2.9 Completion of the Routine Inspection Form ........................................................................................ 101
17.3 INSPECTION FREQUENCY ....................................................................................................................... 101
17.3.1 Monitoring ............................................................................................................................................ 102
17.4 REMEDIAL ACTIONS ................................................................................................................................. 103
17.4.1 Earthfill Dam Walls .............................................................................................................................. 103
17.4.2 Concrete and Masonry Structures ...................................................................................................... 104
17.4.3 Spillways .............................................................................................................................................. 104
17.4.4 Downstream Toe ................................................................................................................................. 104
17.4.5 Inlet/ Outlet Works ............................................................................................................................... 104
17.4.6 Contingency Measures ........................................................................................................................ 104
17.4.6.1 Seepage and piping .................................................................................................................... 105
17.4.6.2 Cracking ...................................................................................................................................... 105
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17.4.6.3 Sliding failure on embankment .................................................................................................... 105
17.4.6.4 Cracks on spillway ...................................................................................................................... 105
17.4.7 Emergency Situations and Procedures ............................................................................................... 105
17.4.7.1 Emergency situation: Evacuation ................................................................................................ 105
17.4.7.2 Emergency situation: Preparedness .......................................................................................... 106
17.4.7.3 Emergency situation: Uncertainty .............................................................................................. 106
18. AUTHORISATION .............................................................................................................................................. 108
19. REVISIONS ........................................................................................................................................................ 108
20. DEVELOPMENT TEAM ..................................................................................................................................... 108
APPENDIX A : CIVIL WORKS INSPECTION CHECKLIST TEMPLATE ............................................................... 109
APPENDIX B : ROADS VISUAL INSPECTION SHEETS....................................................................................... 110
FIGURES
Figure 9-1 Typical multiple flue chimney .................................................................................................................... 25
Figure 9-2 Typical cross section of a flue lift at support slab level ............................................................................. 25
Figure 9-3 Typical cross section of a flue lift at support slab level ............................................................................. 27
Figure 10-1 Classification of Pavement Types based on Materials [16] .................................................................... 39
Figure 10-2: Types of Road Condition Assessments ................................................................................................. 40
Figure 10-3: Diagrammatical illustration of extent [14] ............................................................................................... 42
Figure 10-4: Visual Assessment Elements for Flexible Pavements ........................................................................... 43
Figure 10-5: Visual Assessment Elements for Rigid Pavements ............................................................................... 45
Figure 10-6: Types of Instrument Assessments ......................................................................................................... 48
Figure 16-1: Ash dump checklist ................................................................................................................................ 85
TABLES
Table 6-1: Condition Categories ................................................................................................................................. 16
Table 8-1: Prioritisation of Elements ........................................................................................................................... 19
Table 9-1: Number off and Location of Concrete Silos .............................................................................................. 29
Table 10-1: Visual inspection standards ..................................................................................................................... 40
Table 10-2 : Summary of definitions of degrees of distress ....................................................................................... 44
Table 10-3: Sound, warning and severe categories for roads ................................................................................... 45
Table 10-4: Street hierarchy and traffic class (after TMH9) ...................................................................................... 48
Table 10-5: Pavement Condition Indices.................................................................................................................... 49
Table 10-6: Frequency of inspections for roads ......................................................................................................... 50
Table 13-1: Frequency of inspections ........................................................................................................................ 62
Table 15-1: Frequency of inspections ....................................................................................................................... 70
Table 18-1: Frequency of inspections for Dams ....................................................................................................... 101
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
A coal-fired power station comprises a vast number of civil infrastructures. In these assets a variety of
building materials are used and they are often combined in the same structure. These materials, in
turn, are subjected to diverse environmental and exposure conditions which may cause some
deterioration of the structures over time. The great majority of the civil structures at power stations are
typically constructed with reinforced concrete and structural steel. These structures need to be
regularly inspected to ensure that any structural defect or degradation will not compromise their
structural stability and at the same time to allow intervening in time either to repair the problem or to
follow up with a more stringent site inspection and laboratory tests.
This inspection manual provides guidelines for best precautionary measures in identification and
rectification of defects. It is therefore recommended that each Power Station should develop and
implement an individual maintenance plan.
Following each inspection, the condition of civil and structural assets must be reported and recorded.
The guideline defines five condition categories, ranging from 1 being excellent/new condition, to 5
being deterioration to the extent that the assets are unusable. A Plant Engineer must provide a
comprehensive report on findings and liaise with the Centre of Excellence (CoE) to ensure that all
safety critical findings are adequately addressed as soon as possible.
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1. SUPPORTING CLAUSES
1.1 SCOPE
This manual provides recommendations for Inspections and Maintenance Management of civil
engineering assets in Power Stations within Eskom. All civil engineering assets (for example: Cooling
towers, Silos, Chimneys, Bridges, Boiler structures, Dams, Coal staithes, Conveyor Structures, Water
Treatment Plants etc.) are included.
The document also provides guidance on typical problems and recommended inspection approach on
each of the civil and structural engineering assets.
The scope also includes building and general infrastructure such as roads, railways and stormwater
drains. Procedures for formal monitoring and assessment of structural vibration are excluded from this
guideline, although observed vibration may be noted in an inspection report. This guideline also does
not cover inspections of mechanical or electrical equipment, or other associated plant and equipment.
It is intended to provide practical guidelines to assist plant maintenance personnel with the following in
respect of the plant structures:
a) What should be inspected and monitored?
b) How should inspection and monitoring be accomplished?
c) At what intervals should inspections and monitoring be done?
d) What should be expected in an inspection report?
e) What are the typical defects to be noted?
f) What follow-up actions are required?
This manual does not provide guidance for the design or construction of Power Station Civil and
Structural engineering assets. Some guidance is provided for remedial work required where small
amount of deterioration has occurred. Reference should be made to the relevant Eskom Specifications
for the design and construction of Civil and Structural infrastructure. This guideline does not cover
structural inspections that are necessary following incidents such as fire, flooding, impact from vehicles
or falling objects or structural failure. It is only intended to cover regular, scheduled inspections and
maintenance management.
1.1.1 Purpose
This Civil and Structural inspection manual has been developed to provide guidelines for Inspections
and Maintenance Management at all Power Stations within Eskom. Listed below are the main
objectives of the document.
 To incorporate latest OHS Act inspections requirements
 Provide consistent procedures for inspecting civil engineering assets and reporting
 To proactively prevent structural failures that may result to loss of life and financial loss.
1.1.2 Applicability
This document applies to Technology Engineering, Generation (Gx).
1.2 NORMATIVE/INFORMATIVE REFERENCES

Parties using this document shall apply the most recent edition of the documents listed in the following
paragraphs.
Page: 11 of 113
1.2.1 Normative References
[1] 240-77801161: Inspection of Boiler Structural Supports – Conventional Fossil Fuel Fired Power
Stations Standard
[2] Civil and Building Works Strategic Report
[3] ISO 9001 Quality Management Systems
1.2.2 Informative References

[4] Technical plans and LOPP for each station
[5] 240-144332407: Guideline for Eskom Power Stations Concrete Remedial Work
[6] 240-144387236: Guideline for Eskom Power Stations Geotechnical Engineering Remedial Work
[7] 240-142483465: Guidelines on Maintenance and Rehabilitation of Roads
[8] Occupational Health and Safety Act and Regulations (Act No. 85 of 1993)
[9] Construction Regulations, 2014
[10] National Water Act (Act No. 36 of 1998)
[11] Government Notice No. 704 of the National Water Act, 4 June 1999
[12] Dam Safety Regulations, Government Notice No. R. 139 of 25, 24 February 2012
[13] TRH 22: Pavement Management Systems, 1994
[14] TMH 9: Visual Assessment Manual for Flexible Pavements, 1992
[15] TMH 12: Pavement Management Systems: Standard Visual Assessment Manual for Unsealed
Roads, 2000
[16] SANRAL M3-1: Visual Assessment Manual for Concrete Pavements
[17] 240-142484987: Inspection Guidelines for Railway Maintenance and Rehabilitation
[18] COTO: Guidelines for Network Level Measurement of Road Roughness
[19] South African Pavement Engineering Manual, 2014
[20] SANRAL Routine Road Maintenance
[21] Manual for Track Maintenance
[22] 23CB189 A/148: Blow down Systems for Operating Fossil Stations, Preliminary Assessment
Report
1.3 ABBREVIATIONS
Abbreviation Description
AM Asset Management
CBR California Bearing Ratio
COE Centre of Excellence
COTO Committee of Transport Officials
DCP Dynamic Cone Penetrometer
ECSA Engineering Council of South Africa
ERAP Engineering Risk Assessment Process
Page: 12 of 113
Abbreviation Description
FD Forced Draft
GTE Group Technology Engineering
Gx Generation Division
ID Induced Draft
ISO International Organization for Standardization
LOPP Life of Plant Plan
OHSA Occupational Health Safety Act
SANRAL South African National Roads Agency Limited
TMH Technical Methods for Highways
TRH Technical Recommendations for Highways
1.4 DEFINITIONS
For the purpose of this document, the following definitions will apply;
Safety Critical item: A safety item is any asset element where the deteriorated condition constitutes
an immediate risk to the safety of personnel in the plant.
Inspection: Activities which by means of examination, observation or measurement, determine the
conformance of material, parts, components, etc. to predetermined specifications and quality
requirements.
Maintenance: All activities required retaining an item of plant in, or to restore it to acceptable condition,
including the examination and evaluation of the actual condition.
Maintenance Philosophy: The principle approach decided upon for performing maintenance, such as
pro-active or reactive maintenance.
Maintenance Strategy: Management method used in order to achieve the maintenance objectives.
Furthermore it is the choice of routine maintenance tasks and the timing of those tasks, designed to
ensure that an item of equipment continues to fulfil its intended functions.
Testing: All activities required determining the actual performance or condition of an item.
Civil or Structural Engineering Designer: An Engineer specialising in the Civil or Structural
Engineering field, having experience in the design and construction of Civil or Structural Engineering
infrastructure.
Engineer: A registered Professional Engineer or a registered Professional Engineering Technologist,
specialising in and having experience in the design and construction of respective civil engineering
assets.
Inspector: A competent civil or structural Designer, Engineer, Plant/Power Station Engineer or Plant
Foreman who have been specifically trained in how to conduct structural inspections, and has
experience in structural inspections.
1.5 ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES

Client: The owner of the Power Station at which the visual inspections are to be done. Normally, the
Client will be represented by the Power Station Engineer or Plant Engineer. In terms of the OHSA
construction regulations, the owner of a structure shall ensure that inspections of that structure upon
completion are carried out periodically by competent persons in order to render the structure safe for
continued use.
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Power Station Engineer: The person designated by the Client as having engineering responsibility for
the Power Station being inspected.
Plant Engineer: A person designated by the Client as having engineering responsibility for a specific
plant area within the Power Station.
2. MOTIVATION AND OBJECTIVES

When civil engineering related infrastructure are designed, relevance is given to its stability and
durability taking into consideration the life of the assets, its environment and maintenance. It is also
assumed that they will be properly maintained during its life. Unfortunately, during the course of their
structural life, structures can be subjected to changes in environmental and exposure conditions, lack
of proper maintenance and overload or incorrect use which may cause damage to the structures.
Traditionally an investigation on the integrity of an asset is carried out when there is a clear indication of
distress or degradation.
2.1 SAFETY AND LEGISLATION

By legislation, owners of structures are required to conduct inspections of all structures during the life of
the plant asset in term of the OHSA Construction regulations.
The OHS Act in Regulation R 84 of 07/02/2014, Construction Regulations (2014) states the following
with regards to existing structures
Regulation 11(2):
“An owner of a structure must ensure that:
a) inspections of that structure are carried out periodically by competent persons in
order to render the structure safe for continued use;
b) that the inspections contemplated in sub-regulation (a) are carried out at least once
every six months for the first two years and thereafter yearly;
c) the structure is maintained in such a manner that it remains safe for continued use;
d) the records of inspections and maintenance are kept and made available on request to
an inspector.”
2.2 TRAINING AND EXPERIENCE

Engineers generally have specific training and experience by which they are enabled to identify the
condition of critical assets and the implications of the condition. Based on their training and experience,
it means that they are competent to inspect the assets and identify maintenance requirements or
potential problems. A visual inspection conducted by competent inspectors will ensure that important
issues are identified, and appropriate remedial measures are recommended.
2.3 INSPECTIONS OBJECTIVES

The primary objective of conducting inspections and development of maintenance management is to
assess the current condition of civil engineering assets with reference to their strength and condition
and to ensure that appropriate maintenance is carried out where significant deterioration has occurred.
It forms part of the overall Asset Management (AM) strategy. This is done by comparing the current
condition of the assets with their original condition, and specifying what is necessary to reinstate their
original strength. These inspections do not lead to the certification of the asset inspected.
The secondary objective may be related to the development of civil and structural engineering
maintenance budgets. This may include verification of a current maintenance programme, in line with
ERAP findings.
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It is envisaged that the initial inspection will either be visual or carried out with a mechanised system,
depending on the asset to be inspected. After the inspection, a report must be submitted. This report
will be kept on record for the OHSA inspector. The report shall indicate, depending on the type of the
asset to be inspected, how the inspection was carried out, supported by photographs and sketches. It
must also provide recommendations on possible repair methods. If needed, recommendations are to
be provided on how to proceed with more detailed investigations or to deem the structure structurally
sound.
3. OVERVIEW OF INSPECTION MANUAL REQUIREMENTS

Listed below are the high level requirements of a comprehensive inspection maintenance manual
programme;
a) Regular scheduled inspections by the Power Station/Plant Engineer to ensure that Power Station
civil infrastructure are assessed by a competent person who has a high level of training and
appropriate experience.
b) A formalised procedure for recording the condition of the infrastructure, using defined condition
categories, ensures a common understanding of the severity of deterioration.
c) All findings regarding the condition of the system are recorded in a report to the Client.
Maintenance requirements are defined and prioritised in this report.
d) A feedback loop is established. All safety critical findings are reported to the Client’s management
and the procedures require follow-up of the necessary maintenance actions to ensure that
appropriate remedial work is done
e) Annual visual inspections facilitate a formal and systematic general assessment of the condition of
Power Station assets, and follow-up of recommendations made by the Inspector
f) It is recommended that each Power Station should define a maintenance policy for civil and
structural assets, aimed at ensuring a safe environment in which the value of assets is protected.
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4. MAINTENANCE POLICY
It is strongly recommended that each Power Station should develop a civil engineering maintenance
policy, based on the principles outlined in these guidelines. The primary purpose of a maintenance
policy is to ensure that all civil engineering assets are maintained in such a way that personnel working
in the plant can do so safely, with minimal production interruption, and that the value of the assets is
protected. Attached in Appendix A is a Civil Engineering Status Tracking Checklist Guideline that may
be used by stations as a guide.
A civil engineering maintenance policy must cover the following;

a) A civil and structural assets inspection programme, defining the inspection intervals for each
portion of the plant.
b) A reporting, record keeping and feedback system to ensure that assets condition reports are
received by the appropriate people, retained properly, and that corrective actions are taken.
c) Provision for a budget to ensure that necessary maintenance is carried out timeously.
d) Allocation to specified people of the responsibility for each aspect of the civil engineering
maintenance policy.
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5. GENERAL INSPECTION AND MONITORING REQUIREMENTS

The fundamental purpose of Power Station inspections is to confirm that the plant remains safe to use
productively. Guidelines are provided in this document for inspections and monitoring of the condition
of civil and structural assets.
5.1 CONDITION CATEGORIES

In order to ensure consistency of reporting and common understanding of the severity of deterioration
of plant structures, five condition categories are used, as defined in Table 5-1 below;
Table 5-1: Condition Categories
% Original Typical
Category Description
Strength Remedial Action
The plant assets are in excellent/new condition
or have slight evidence of surface deterioration,
1 100 None Required
but to an extent that there is no reduction in
strength.
The plant assets have some deterioration, to an Repaint, tighten

2 extent that there is slight reduction in strength. 95-100 bolts, other minor
Safe use of the plant assets is assured. work
The plant assets show deterioration, to an

extent that there is some reduction in strength. Repair, repaint,
3 There is some compromise to safe use of the 75-95 tighten bolts,
plant assets. Repair must receive attention in other minor work
maintenance scheduling.
The plant assets show severe deterioration, to

an extent that there is a major reduction in
strength. Safe use of the plant is severely
Repair or replace
4 compromised and/or continued use of the plant 50-75
components
asset will result in Environmental
contraventions. Urgent attention must be given
to repair.
The plant assets show severe deterioration, to
an extent that they have little useful residual Repair or
strength. Safe use of the plant is impossible replacement of
5 < 50
and/or continued use of the plant asset will components
result in Environmental contraventions. Urgent required urgently
attention must be given to repair.
5.2 VISUAL INSPECTIONS SAFETY

The purpose of this section is to define safety requirements for a visual inspection;
5.2.1 Accompanying Person

When the visual inspection is carried out by any person who is not normally employed in the plant, it is
required that the Client will provide a Plant Engineer, who is familiar with the plant being inspected, to
accompany the Inspector at all times, throughout the period of inspection. The Inspector will assume
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that this person is familiar with all safety and operational procedures in the plant, and will guide the
Inspector according to these procedures, so that the visual inspection does not compromise the safety
of anybody involved.
5.2.2 Induction
Where an induction is required, the Client must make the necessary arrangements and inform the
Inspector in advance. The Client must communicate requirements for personal protective equipment to
the Inspector upfront. This requirement should be specified in the scope of work of enquiry documents
for the procurement of professional services.
5.2.3 Risk Assessment

With the involvement of the Client, the Inspector conducting the visual inspection must conduct a risk
assessment prior to commencement of the inspection, to identify any hazards and risks that may be
encountered, and to develop risk mitigation measures.
5.2.4 Access and Lighting

The visual inspection will generally be conducted from the ground or from easily accessible floors,
stairs, and walkways. Where access is required to inspect inaccessible or hidden areas, it is required
that a means of safe access be provided by the Client. No inspection will be carried out where the
Inspector performing the inspection has any reason to doubt the safety of the means of access
provided.
The client must ensure that there is adequate lighting in all areas to be inspected, or that lights are
available during the inspection.
5.2.5 Equipment
The following equipment will generally be required depending on the infrastructure to be inspected:
 Camera
 Binoculars
 Crack width gauge
 Geologist hammer
 Torch
5.3 INSPECTION PLANNING

Prior to the start of the visual inspection, the Inspector is to obtain applicable drawings of the
infrastructure from the Plant Engineer to assist with:
 Understanding the infrastructure to be inspected;
 Identifying critical areas for inspection;
 Identifying allowable imposed loads if indicated;
 Verifying if any unauthorised additions or alterations have been made to the infrastructure.
O&M manuals as well as previous inspection reports shall also be studied prior to the start of the
inspection.
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6. INSPECTION SCHEDULE
6.1 SCHEDULING INSPECTIONS

It is the responsibility of the Plant Engineer to ensure that the relevant engineering visual structural
inspections and ordinary visual inspections are scheduled when required. In terms of the current OHS
Act in Regulation R 84 of 07/02/2014, the requirement is that all structures must be inspected by a
competent inspector at intervals not exceeding 6 months for the first two years and 12 monthly intervals
thereafter. Regulations governing lifting equipment require that inspections and testing be carried out at
intervals not exceeding 12 months.
6.2 FREQUENCY OF ENGINEERING VISUAL INSPECTIONS

The engineering visual inspections of the entire plant must be carried out as follows;
a) In accordance with the Construction Regulations, the first annual engineering visual structural
inspection post plant commissioning, must be carried out.
b) Annual inspections must be carried out and dependent on the inspector’s recommendations the
level of inspection per infrastructure will be determined and this is to be written into the plant
maintenance schedule. Following every engineering visual inspection, the interval before the next
engineering visual inspection must be specified in the inspection report. This period must be based
on the condition of the infrastructure.
It is understood that the inspection of various infrastructure is dependent on outages which may impact
on production. This will result in certain plant areas not being inspected yearly in accordance with the
OHS Act if no outages are available. It will not be acceptable to defer these inspections without suitable
justification. This can only be justified based on the condition of the plant area as documented in the
previous inspection report.
If no previous inspection was carried out, a risk assessment must be conducted by the Client to
document the risks of deferring the inspection to the next outage and to determine if the risks are
acceptable.
7. REPORTING AND FOLLOW-UP

It is important that all issues identified by the Inspector during an engineering visual inspection are
immediately pointed out to the plant personnel present. This is important for two reasons:
a) The Inspector is viewed by the plant personnel as the expert in the field. Whatever is not pointed
out is therefore implicitly understood by the plant personnel to be condoned, and thus acceptable. It
must be noted that the Inspector can only point out what can be visually inspected; therefore all
areas where access is restricted must be highlighted to the plant personnel and documented in the
inspection report, to prevent the impression that such areas are condoned or has no defects
because it hasn’t been reported on.
b) The visual inspection report should not contain any surprises. All issues raised in the report should
confirm what has already been pointed out, and if necessary discussed, with the plant personnel.
7.1 REPORTING
All reports described in this section must be retained in both electronic and hardcopy format. Listed
below are the minimum requirements for all inspection reporting;
 The date of the inspection, name and affiliation of the Inspector.
 The names of plant personnel present during the inspection.
 What assets were inspected, and what portions of those assets were inspected. It must not be
assumed that where a report records nothing there were no problems. Reasons for not inspecting
certain portions must also be documented e.g. restricted or unsafe access.
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 The condition category for all elements of the plant assets inspected, using the categorisation
described in Table 5-1.
 Recommended actions to be taken by the maintenance personnel at the plant. Where any
structural member or portion of any structure is identified as 4 or 5, recommendations regarding
repairs or replacement must be provided as soon as possible, especially if the structure is at risk of
failure and therefore a safety risk. As the intention of the visual inspection does not include design
remedial measures, the recommendation may simply be that an Engineer must be contracted to
provide a design.
 Clearly labelled photographs identifying defects, showing their condition and location.
 Marked up layouts indicating locality of infrastructure.
 Details of any alterations made to or improper usage of infrastructure, including exposure to
conditions not generally designed for.
 Possible root causes of defects.
 A written report must contain a summary of all remedial actions recommended, and these must be
prioritised according to the priorities defined in Table 7-1 below
Table 7-1: Prioritisation of Elements
Priority Description
X Where a plant asset or portion thereof cannot be used for its intended purpose
in its current condition, but may not be required to be used for some time, it
must be recorded as Priority X.
A. All members in condition category 5, any primary structural members in
conditions category 4, and any other members where the deterioration leads to
risk to personnel safety must be recorded as Priority A.
Repair or replacement of the structural members, or other recommended work,
requires urgent, immediate action.
B. All secondary or tertiary members in condition category 4, and any other
structural members requiring repair or replacement in the short term must be
recorded as Priority B.
Repair or replacement of the structural members, or other recommended work,
should be scheduled as soon as possible, but not later than one year from date
of this report.
C. Repair of the structural members, or other recommended work, will be required
within the next three years.
 A written report must be submitted to the Plant Engineer within four weeks after the date of the
inspection. Depending on the scope of the inspection, the report may be submitted sooner or later
as agreed prior to the start of the inspection.
 All safety critical findings must be communicated to the Plant Engineer immediately or at the end of
that day of inspection.
 A brief written report of all safety critical findings must be submitted within three days after the date
of inspection. Safety critical items include only those items that are considered by the Inspector to
constitute an immediate hazard to the safety of personnel in the plant.
 All inspection reports submitted must be signed by an Engineer or Technologist professionally
registered with ECSA.
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 The inspection report must be captured on the relevant document management system.
Recommendations made should be captured and progress tracked ensuring that remedial actions
are implemented timeously.
7.2 FOLLOW-UP
Within one month of receiving the Report of Safety critical Items, the Client must submit to the
Inspector a statement of what actions has been taken to rectify each of the safety critical items
identified, and recommendations issued. Should this statement not be received, the Inspector must
then request it from the Client, or must visit the site to ensure that appropriate action has been taken.
Within six months of receiving the inspection report, the Client must submit to the Inspector a statement
of what action has been taken as a result of the report, and what further action is planned, in
addressing the recommendations made in the report.
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8. STRUCTURAL INSPECTIONS
8.1 COOLING TOWERS
8.1.1 Description
Eskom power stations use the following cooling systems:
a) Wet-cooling: the wet-cooling system follows the counter-flow concept in which air flows upward
through the fill section and interfaces counter-currently with falling hot water; or
b) Indirect dry-cooling: the dry cooling system follows the concept where air flows upwards through
the piping or radiators situated at the bottom of the shell filled with flowing with hot water and so
thus cooling it down.
c) Direct dry-cooling: direct dry cooling involves directly cooling of steam from the turbine e.g. using
air cooled condensers instead of a cooling tower.
Generally cooling tower shells are cast in rings by means of a climbing formwork system and supported
on inclined columns, which in turn are supported on ring-shaped foundations.
Typically cooling towers are measured at the foundation annular ring beam. The foundation ring beams
are typically supported on augered reinforced concrete piles. In other cases they may be supported by
mass concrete bases under diagonal columns taken to the bedrock.
Typically pond floors, in areas of made-up or back-filled ground, are supported on augered piles.
8.1.2 Typical Problems in Cooling Tower Structures

The mode of operation will certainly have an effect on the structural performance. Frequency of
starting and shutdown as well as low-load operation has an impact on the concrete exposure conditions
and will influence the long-term performance of the concrete.
In the cooling tower shell, the compressive membrane forces during operation are primarily resisted by
the concrete and not the reinforcement, however the reinforcement does contribute under wind and
seismic conditions. It also contributes to the control of cracks due to temperature differential. Severe
reduction in the steel area due to corrosion, or a drastic decrease of the concrete section as a result of
spalling with consequent reduction in its ultimate compression strength, may eventually reach
dangerous proportions.
It is relevant to highlight some of the possible stress-related problems in cooling tower structures.
Due to the hyperbolic shape of the cooling tower, membrane forces essentially take up the self-weight
and the wind loads. The cooling towers are, therefore, very sensitive to geometric imperfections.
These imperfections disturb the stress pattern and result in high local compressive and tensile
stresses, which may cause cracking.
The skirt of a cooling tower’s shell is only supported at concentrated points. High local stresses will
cause edge shearing strain, which may lead to a state of distress, if disregarded.
The hyperbolic shell is also very sensitive to differential settlement of the foundations. Differential
settlement will induce partial edge effects, which, according to research in cooling towers of this
magnitude, could spread up to 1/20 to 1/5 of the height of the tower.
Temperature variations, and in particular differential temperatures across the thickness of the shell wall,
can also cause considerable stresses. Apart from exposure, the degree to which these stresses result
in structural problems will also depend on the quality of the concrete and, in particular, on the type of
aggregate employed.
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8.1.3 Inspections
Visual inspections should be performed on all cooling towers up to a height not exceeding 10m; above
which this height mechanised systems should be used. The visual inspection shall comprise of the
following:
a) Shell
 Outer surface for the first 10m;
 Inner surface, if possible;
b) Supporting columns;
c) Cooling pond with floor and wall
 Water distribution channels;
 Packing and drift eliminators supports;
 Walkways.
Photographic records should be compiled to assist and document the inspection. Observations should
be referenced to the photographs.
Typically inspections of cooling towers should include the following:
a) Check for major geometrical imperfections in any of the cooling tower shells. Edge shearing strain
effects will generally be noticeable in cooling towers and manifested in the form of hairline bending
cracks at the skirt level. These may be of insignificant concern.
b) Check for signs of cracks in the shell. Cracking at the skirting is usually specifically ascribed to
temperature from solar radiation. Shells are generally provided with reinforcement at both faces
(some of the old cooling towers are reinforced with a single layer of reinforcing placed in the middle
of the shell) to cater for horizontal bending moments that could be caused by the distribution of
wind pressure and/or an uneven rise in temperature. Localised bulging; meridianal bulging; as well
as circumferential bulging due to bad setting out of shutters during construction; may be evident.
Large meridianal or vertical cracks in the shell will be cause for concern. Cracking on the outer
surface of the shell, attributable to inadequate concrete compaction, may also be evident. In
addition, during concrete casting, large aggregate may have been retained between the upper
shutter and the diagonal reinforcement and, as a result, voids could have formed underneath it.
From these voids hairline cracks might develop and propagate to the surface.
c) Check for water seeping through the shell. This takes place where grout leakage has occurred,
and generally occurs at the horizontal construction joints at the concrete casting lifts. It can be
particularly noticeable on the negative slopes.
d) Check for any signs of localised spalling. Spalling is typically more evident lower in the shell and
up to the sixth construction ring. The probable cause is reduced cover in parts of the shell where
the reinforcement is very congested. The typical concrete cover on the outer surface of the shell
should be established from the drawings.
e) Check the cooling tower components for signs of biochemical attack by algae or other micro-
organisms.
f) Check the condition of the shell-supporting columns. Where scale deposits (presumably calcium
sulphate) are evident on the surface; this is caused by wind-driven falling water. It may then be
necessary to scratch the surface with a sharp instrument in order to reveal the quality of the
concrete underneath. Concrete samples are usually sent to a laboratory to analyse the percentage
of sulphate in the concrete. Check for cracks in the columns and plinths or column blocks. Some
columns may display minor cracks. Concrete spalling may be evident as a consequence of the
small cover provided to the hoop steel.
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g) Check the joints between the foundation and the cooling water duct inlets for spalling. Check for
visible signs of sandpaper texture formation as a result of condensate attack.
h) Check water-distribution channels and drainage trenches for blockages by grass, leaves and other
debris.
i) Check the condition of the packing support structure. Check the column and beam system
supporting the drift eliminators for any awkward eccentricities or movement caused by the volume
changes in the asbestos louvres, even though packing is regarded as a part of the operating plant.
Maintenance and repair thereof is therefore considered part of the normal maintenance. Check
whether drift eliminator louvres have fallen and caused damage to the fill, distribution pipes or
sprayers. Misalignment can result from a best-achievable fit at the time of construction. In such
cases, check for visible sliding movement at the interface. Also swelling of asbestos components
can push the ribbed beams away from their original position. Where the displacement cannot be
recovered during the contraction of the asbestos; and the catchment slots in the beams are not
deep enough to hold the louvres in position; then local collapse may result. Check for blockage of
drift eliminators as a result of algae growth. Check for localised spalling in the precast columns.
Check for cracks in the connections of bracing components. As the drift eliminators expand during
the normal operation of the cooling tower, and contract when not in operation, check whether the
allowance for expansion has been reached and whether the drift eliminators bear directly onto the
eliminator support beams. (Any movement in the drift eliminators may then result in a lateral push
on the support beam and over a period of time, especially during periods of rapid expansion
immediately after an outage, and the induced force may be sufficient to push the support beam
from its support.)
j) Check safety of walkways, handrails and cat ladder, even though safety issues are regarded as a
part of the normal plant operating procedures. Check whether walkway support beams rest fully on
their supports, or whether they slide on them. If in timber, deterioration is usually the result of the
intermittent dry and wet conditions experienced.
k) Check the pond wall and the precast packing supports. The minimum cover to reinforcement
should be established from the drawings. If the cooling pond is emptied for the purpose of
inspection, check the pond walls for shrinkage cracks. Pond wall expansion joints generally require
replacement at certain intervals. Check the pond floor slab for cracks.
l) Check for Vertical cracks. Vertical cracks in the top third of cooling towers tend to occur as a
consequence of wind-induced vibration; foundation movements; and thermal conditions inherent in
the operation of the towers.
There are many unknown factors affecting a Cooling Tower, which could in fact affect the integrity and
result in of the collapse of the structure.
The principal factors are:
 The wind speed on its own is already an uncertainty:
 The wind uprating factor, which is applied to the tower, may be different. The Design Engineer
normally decides on this value from certain values, which are given in the Code.
 The distribution of the wind around the tower could be influenced by the position of the towers and
the materials of the tower could differ from those accepted i.e. the crushing and tensile strength of
the concrete; the effect of the reinforcing on the concrete; and the reinforcing on its own.
 The lengths, depths and spacing of the existing vertical cracks in the shell.
For those cooling towers which were mothballed, it is recommended that, prior to any cooling tower
being placed back into operation; a detailed inspection is to be performed.
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8.1.4 Testing
In the case that testing is recommended following the visual inspection, these shall be performed by a
specialist company. These tests shall comprise of but not limited to the following:
 Reading of Concrete Surface Hardness to provide indication of concrete strength;
 Depth of Carbonation;
 Concrete Strength of Cored Samples;
 Chemical Tests on the Cooling Water and Condensate;
 Chemical tests on concrete samples;
 If possible, chemical analysis of the soils under the slab of the Ponding Area and foundations;
 3D Survey to assess possible foundation settlements.
8.2 CHIMNEY STRUCTURES
8.2.1 Description
Chimneys at Eskom power stations are:
 Single flue chimneys: The typical single flue chimney consists of a concrete shell, serving
between two to five generating units; with an interior brick-lining supported at regular intervals on
corbels on the shell. A non-accessible air space exists between shell and lining.
 Multiple flue chimneys: The typical multiple flue chimney consists of a reinforced concrete
windshield with three brick flues supported on intermediate concrete floors.
8.2.1.1 Single Flue Chimneys:

Access to the top of a chimney is not necessarily provided in all cases. At some power stations access
to the top of chimneys is provided by means of a cat-ladder attached to the concrete shell. Many of
Eskom’s chimney shells were cast in rings by means of a climbing formwork system in 1.20m high
sections. The shell has a cylindrical shape at the base and rests on a ring-shaped foundation. The
annular ring beam is founded either on piles or on a mass concrete foundation.
In most single flue chimneys the brickwork lining was constructed in free-standing cylindrical lifts.
These lining lifts are supported directly on concrete corbels in the shell. Where the quality of the brick is
not specified on drawings, it is assumed that high quality acid resistant bricks laid in acid resistant
cement mortar were used. The minimum space between the lining and the shell differs from station to
station and typically varies between 60mm and 115mm. The ventilation of this air space is provided by
means of radially-placed asbestos cement pipes, through the concrete shell just below each corbel.
75mm bore asbestos cement pipes are also generally provided through the corbel, at identical
intervals.
Cast-iron capping rings are provided at the top of the chimneys. The chimneys are also equipped with
lightning protection.
8.2.1.2 Multiple flue chimneys:

Typically the brick flues of a multiple flue chimney are supported on concrete platforms. The platforms
consist of a reinforced concrete slab and reinforced concrete beams, supported on elastomeric bearing
pads onto reinforced concrete corbels and onto the windshield. The brick flues have a typical internal
diameter of about 8m and a wall thickness of about 100mm above the bottom cone section. The wall
thickness in the 2m high cone section may vary between 150mm and 285mm. A mineral wool layer
typically provides thermal insulation to the brickwork.
The elements of a multiple flue chimney are:
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a) Concrete windshield;
o The top 40m of the chimney is treated with acid resistant paint. Rainwater falling onto the top
support slab drains off through a series of weep holes in the windshield.
b) Brick flues
Figure 8-1 Typical multiple flue chimney
Figure 8-2 Typical cross section of a flue lift at support slab level
c) Concrete support slabs;

o The reinforced concrete slabs support the individual brick flues.
d) Bearing pads;
o The bearing pads between the concrete corbels and the support slabs.
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e) Lightning protection, earthing connections and other fixtures at the chimney top;
f) Waterproofing at the top slab;
o Typically waterproofing consists of acid resistant ceramic tiles on top of a mortar screed. The
tiles have an adequate slope to drain rainwater away. The jointing material is also acid
resistant.
g) Chimney lift;
o The steel gantry tower is braced back to the windshield at regular intervals.
h) Steel staircase and steel platforms;
o The stairs provide access. The steel structure is supported on columns on plinths at ground
level anchored to the windshield at regular intervals.
i) Thermal insulation;
o Mineral wool is used as thermal insulation.
Generally the typical layout and elevation of a power station’s chimneys; the concrete used; and the
concrete strength; is indicated on the construction drawings. These drawings are, in most instances,
stored at the Power Station.
8.2.2 Typical Problems in Chimney Structures

Some of the specific problems as well as the possible problems that may be encountered in chimney
structures are:
a) A sudden high rise in flue gas temperature leads to a fluctuating transmission of heat through the
brick lining. As a result of uneven heating and large temperature gradients through the brick lining,
ultimate stress values can be exceeded and cracks may develop.
b) Should flue gas temperature drop below its dew point, acid attack of the bricks, and especially the
mortar, may take place. The severity of the attack depends on operating conditions and particularly
on the frequency of start-ups and shut-downs.
c) During certain operating conditions, especially during start-ups, over-pressure in the flue can result.
Flue gases can penetrate the structure through corroded spots in the brick lining; gaps at
expansion joints; or through cracks; and cause excessive thermal stresses in the shell.
d) Fly ash may also enter the space between lining and shell and cause cold spots, which can lead to
acid condensation and subsequent deterioration of the concrete.
e) Under certain operating conditions, a flue gas plume is blown onto the concrete windshield and, as
a result, downwash of flue gasses occurs on the top portion of the windshield. Acid attack at the
outer surface of the concrete on the top 20m to 30m of the windshield may then take place as a
consequence of this downwash.
f) Cracking of the windshield, as a result of uneven distribution of temperature or ovalisation due to
the harmonic motion of the wind, may occur.
g) Signs of distress in the windshield as a result of local stresses at the corbels, or at other concrete
sections weakened by corrosion, are also traditional problems.
h) Flaking or scaling of the brick lining, which could indicate that serious corrosion is in process.
Multiple flue chimneys:
a) Cracking may occur on the inside face of any of the brick sections. Higher thermal stresses are
likely to develop at the thicker sections.
b) The mineral wool thermal insulation may no longer be intact.
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c) The concrete slabs may develop cracks that fall outside the specified limits for reinforced concrete
sections in bending. Creep deformation; and lateral movement between the support slabs and the
windshield may also take place.
d) Rotation or distortion of the bearing pads may occur.
e) The acid resistant ceramic water proofing tiles may have an adequate slope to drain the rainwater
away and may deteriorate. The condition of the jointing material may also deteriorate.
f) The acid resistant paint at the top 40m of the chimney may no longer be intact resulting in signs of
deterioration. Rainwater falling onto the top support slab could be acidic and stain the chimney.
g) The anchors of the lightning protection may loosen.
h) Acidic conditions at the chimney top may affect any galvanized steel items – which will lose their
protective coating and become corroded.
i) Creep deflections of the support slabs have taken place at all of Eskom’s multi flue chimneys.
These deflections have been large enough to cause complete gap closure at many of the flue
intersections. Thermal expansion takes place when hot flue gasses pass through the flue. The
inclination is for the flue to contract again when the unit is switched off. A closed gap between lifts
will cause friction forces to develop during expansion or contraction of the flue. Gap closure at
other stations has resulted in severely cracked brickwork in the top 3m to 8m of most of the flue
lifts.
8.2.3 Inspections
The aim of this inspection is to locate all possible degradation peculiar to chimney structures and their
operational environmental conditions.
Figure 8-3 Typical cross section of a flue lift at support slab level
The following elements are generally included in the visual inspection:

 the concrete windshield;
 the brick cap;
 the lightning protection system;
 the steel inlet duct into the chimney;
 ash build-up inside the chimney;
 the brick lining.
 Drainage systems
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 Steel platforms, lattices, beams and staircase

Both external and internal inspections are undertaken.
8.2.3.1 External Inspections

An external visual inspection can only be performed to no more than 10m in height; above which a
mechanised inspection is required. For multiple flue chimneys an internal visual inspection can be
carried out from floor to floor.
8.2.3.2 Internal Inspections

Based on the operational philosophy of the chimney structure, internal inspections can only be
performed during an outage.
8.2.4 Testing
If testing is required it shall be carried out by a specialised company. This can comprise the following:
 Chemical testing of Flue Gases.
 Depth of Carbonation
 Concrete Strength on Cored Samples
 Chemical tests on concrete samples
8.2.4.1 Brick Lining

The internal inspection of the brick lining of single flue chimneys is limited in the sense that only the
inside face of the brick lining is usually examined. In most instances, bricks are not removed to check
for damage caused by escaping gases in the area between the brick lining and the windshield. Neither
are samples necessarily taken to evaluate the chemical nature of the deposits.
With regard to the degradation of the brick lining, it is essential that the following be considered:
 The integrity of the lining from a structural stability point of view, and;
 The nature and extent of any chemical attack on the brick material and on the mortar.
The normal operating temperature of chimneys at Eskom power stations is 138°C. Under fault
conditions, the temperature may lower to 120°C and this generally occurs very suddenly. Because of
these flue gas temperature variations, uneven heating and large temperature gradients may result in
the brick lining, particularly where the lining is not insulated. These thermal gradients may cause
excessive stresses and cracking of the brick lining.
There is no simple method for determining loss of brick material due to acid attack because physical
parameters, such as water absorption; porosity; density; as well as the chemical composition of the
material; are difficult to assess. These tests are expensive and are often not reliable. Therefore, it is not
always possible to assess the acid solubility of the bricks, which is defined as the relative loss in mass
expressed as a percentage.
8.3 CONCRETE SILOS
8.3.1 Description
The latest generation of the existing Eskom coal-fired power generation fleet use coal storage silos.
These power stations include Lethabo, Tutuka, Matimba and Majuba. The former three stations have a
six in line arrangement with the overland coal conveyor feeding over the top of each silo whilst Majuba
has three silos with the overland conveyor feeding to the top of the central silo and splitting via two
over-silo conveyors to feed the two flanking silos. The former three stations’ silos have hoppers lined
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with 3CR12 liners whilst the Majuba hoppers are currently being retrofitted with the same with a change
in the slope of the hoppers to improve material flow.
The fleet includes a few stations with ash (Duvha, Matla, Lethabo and Tutuka) and lime (Duvha, Matla
and Majuba) silos. Table 10-1 identifies the location and number of silos at the various stations.
Table 8-1: Number off and Location of Concrete Silos
Station Coal Ash Lime
Duvha - 3 5
Matla - 3 6
Majuba 4 6 -
Matimba 6 - -
Lethabo 6 - 3
Tutuka 6 - 4
Medupi 3 6 -
Kusile 2 6 -
8.3.2 Typical Problems in Concrete Silos

Cracking and spalling of concrete are some of the problems associated with silo cylindrical walls and
are deemed to be caused by structural distress and corrosion of reinforcing steel due to loss of cover.
Steel protection plates at the inclined face of the concrete hoppers have been known to be torn loose
from their anchor bolts.
Deterioration due to attack from chemicals leached out of stored material and due to aggressive
environments are also common.
8.3.3 External Inspections

An external visual inspection can only be performed to no more than 10m in height; above this height a
mechanised inspection is required.

Internal inspections can only be performed during an outage however the requirement for a detailed
internal investigation may be necessitated based on the outcome of detailed external investigations.
8.4 LIQUID CONTAINING STRUCTURES
8.4.1 Description
There are a number of liquid retaining structures in a typical power plant and these include but not
limited to:
 Water treatment plants
 Water storage tanks
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 Auxiliary cooling water ponds

 Sewage treatment plants
 Demineralised water tanks
8.4.2 Typical Problems in Liquid Containing Structures

Degradation of concrete walls and floors, cracks deemed to be caused by structural distress and
corrosion of structural steelwork are some of the problems associated with these structures.
Chemical spills and sulphate attack are one of the major causes of deterioration in the plant including
effluent trenches and dozing areas, and the corrosion of steel.
8.4.3 Inspections
8.4.3.1 External Inspections

An external visual inspection can only be performed to no more than 10m in height; above which a
mechanised inspection is required.

Internal inspections can only be performed during an outage however the requirement for a detailed
internal investigation may be necessitated based on the outcome of detailed external investigations.
8.5 CONVEYOR STRUCTURES
8.5.1 Description
All stations consist of bulk material handling systems in the form of overland and elevated conveyors
for the conveyance of coal from the stockyards to the silos or staithes and from these containment
structures to the boilers as well as ash from the boiler to ash dumps or dams.
8.5.2 Typical Problems in Conveyor Structures

Corrosion of structural steel members is the typical problem associated with conveyors; this as a result
of chemical attack due to prolonged inundation with spillages from the conveyor belts. The structural
supports are sometimes severely damaged by earthmoving equipment at coal stockpiles and abnormal
loading of material. The cladding usually displays some degree of corrosion depending on the age of
the structure. Spillages which are not cleaned up accumulate over time and can impose significant
loads on the structure not normally designed for leading to collapse.
8.5.3 Inspections
Conveyors located at ground level up to a height of no more than 10m could be inspected from ground
level; above which visual external inspections requiring crane lifted man-cages or mechanised visual
inspections in the form of drones will be required. The latter may not be a feasible option to obtain
closer inspection of under gantry members and connections.

Internal inspections can only be performed with the authorisation of the responsible person at each of
the power stations.
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8.6 STEEL STRUCTURES
8.6.1 Description
There are typically many steel structures at a power station such as the boiler house structure; the
turbine house structure; workshops and stores; HV yard structures; conveyor structures; and several
crawl beams.
8.6.2 Typical Problems Associated with Steel Structures
8.6.2.1 Rusting
Steel rusting can be present at different level. A patina of rust indicates lack of maintenance and it
does not compromise the structural stability of the structure, however it is a sign that the corrosion
protection has been compromised and deterioration will be accelerated leading to deep rusting and
pitting seriously compromising the structural stability.
Base plates and holding down bolts can be heavily affected by rust. The water tends to pool around
them causing heaving rusting.
Pipes must be checked for pitting. Pitting can actually create holes in the pipes weakening them. Rust
can also form at the pipe supports reducing the pipe wall thickness thus compromising the pipe
stability.
Bolted connections must be inspected to ensure that there are not missing bolts or heavily rusted bolts
and the connection is not badly rusted.
Welded connections must be inspected for rust and cracks which may be caused by rust.
8.6.2.2 Structural Deficiencies

Structural deficiencies could be the results of poor design or poor manufacturing. These sometime
take a long time to develop.
Failure of elements and large deflections can be caused by deficient design or overload. In this case
the structure needs to be carefully examined to assess the reason of the deficiency. Structural
deficiency can also be caused by abrasion or collision which can weaken the structure leading to
possible failure.
Abnormal loads from improper operations such as the use of elements as hoisting beams or defective
equipment may lead to failure.
Missing bracing members, missing or loosening bolts are common findings in steel structures. Bracing
is usually removed to allow for access but not reinstated.
8.6.2.3 Non-Structural Deficiencies

Non-structural deficiency in steel structure are mainly caused by poor maintenance and mainly seen as
rusting of members.
8.7 BUILDINGS
8.7.1 Description
Buildings at a typical power station, and included in this chapter, would include but not limited to the
following:
 Turbine house and switchgear buildings;
 Main administration building;
 Medical / fire station buildings;
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 Access control buildings;

 Simulator buildings;
 Horticulture buildings;
 Ablution blocks;
 Kitchen;
 Hydrogen Plant Building and;
 Temporary prefabicated buildings.
The main structures at power station are the turbine and the boiler house. This is generally a reinforced
concrete and steel structure framed structure with brick infill and/or metal sheet cladding. The roof is
generally a steel structure with metal roof sheeting.
Other power station buildings are typically steel-framed structures with galvanised steel cladding or
concrete frames with brick infill panels. The roofs are generally also steel cladded although some roofs
may be concrete.
Elements of buildings include:
 Foundations;
 Superstructure (walls, floors etc.);
 Floor covering (tiles, etc.)
 Roofs;
 Stairs;
 Damp proof course and waterproofing.
 Ceilings, partitions etc.;
 Floor covering (carpeting, vinyl tiles, etc.);
 Windows, doors, handrails, ironmongery, etc.;
 Insulation;
 Wall finishes (painting);
 Curtain walling;
 Timber / joinery etc.;
 Gutters and downpipes.
8.7.2 Typical Problems in Buildings
8.7.2.1 Deterioration
Deterioration of buildings occurs due to:
 Weather;
 Vandalism, abuse & theft;
 Differential movements;
 Wear & tear;
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 Condensation;
 Atmospheric pollution;
 Lack of maintenance;
 Defective materials; and
 Pests.
Typically the problems experienced are:
8.7.2.2 Foundation failure

Failure is caused by:
 Soil erosion caused by flowing water / leaking soil pipes;
 Changes in ground water level;
 Structures on made-up ground;
 Movement associated with undermining;
 Movement due to shrinkage or swelling of clay soils;
 Differential movement-induced problem including cracks in concrete structures;
 Uneven bearing capacities of different subsoils;
 Settlements in collapsing sand.
8.7.2.3 Brickwork and partition walling failure

 Bulging and leaning walls;
 Overloading;
 Thermal and moisture movement;
 Defective materials
 Chemical action;
 Defects at junctions;
 Temperature (brick cladding on the northern face of buildings may develop cracks due to
temperature movement due to the sun radiation);
 Cracking of plaster, partitions or of plaster applied to partitions.
8.7.2.4 Damp penetration and condensation

 No damp proof course;
 Saturation of brickwork;
 Decay and breaking up of mortar joints;
 Dry and wet rot in timber;
 Corrosion of iron and steel;
 Stained wall / ceiling surfaces;
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 Rust spots on steel window frames, doorframes, columns and cladding;

 Deterioration of timber due to alternating wet and dry conditions.
 Joints that aren’t sealed well enough to prevent water seepage to critical zones in the structure
 Floors failure
 Failure of screed base, cracking and hollowness;
 Differential shrinkage of screed base leading to cracking in floor tiles;
 Vinyl asbestos tiles – deterioration due to being in contact with oil or grease: failure due to moisture
penetration;
 Lack of expansion joints.
8.7.2.5 Windows and doors failure

 Damage;
 Settlement within frame;
 Deterioration of paint / varnish coating.
8.8 OTHER POWER STATION STRUCTURES
8.8.1 Description
Power station structures included in this chapter include the following:
 Boiler house structures;
 Turbine house structures;
 Coal staithes;
 Blow-down sumps;
 Precipitators & bagfilter plant;
 Auxiliary bays;
 Boiler bottom ash sumps;
 Flue ducts;
 Machine foundations;
 Workshops and stores,
 Pump houses;
 High voltage yards;
 Sub-stations.
8.8.1.1 Boiler house structures

The boiler house consists mostly of a structural steel structure or a combination of reinforced concrete
and structural steel. The boiler is suspended from a grid of steel beams at the top of the boiler house.
Boiler house inspections are to be conducted in accordance to The Boiler Inspection Manual (240-
77801161)
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8.8.1.2 Turbine house structures
The turbine house structure provides protection to the turbine generator and related plant. This building
is usually a combination of reinforced concrete and structural steel elements.
8.8.1.3 Coal staithes

Coal staithes are reinforced concrete structures with large inclined hoppers for providing temporary on-
terrace coal storage. Coal is delivered to the staithes via a conveyor system. The conveyors and the
roof structure are supported on large steel beams at regular intervals along the length of the staithes.
8.8.1.4 Blow-down sumps

These are reinforced concrete sumps that temporarily contains contaminated demineralised water
discharged from the blow down vessel, as the water is recycled back to the station water management
operations via the station drains system or Ash Water Return system.
8.8.1.5 Precipitators & bag filter plant

The precipitators house the electrostatic equipment required for removing the particulates from the flue
gases. These structures are mostly constructed from structural steel, but reinforced concrete has been
used as the construction material at certain of the older power stations.
8.8.1.6 Auxiliary bays

The auxiliary bay is a multi-storey structure with brick infill panels. The building houses the control
rooms; air conditioning; MV and LV switchgear; workshops; and battery room. Most of these facilities
are unitised. The building is approximately 530m long with expansion joints every 25m to 30m.
8.8.1.7 Flue ducts

The ducts are circular or rectangular steel ducts and convey the flue gasses from the gas cleaning
plant to the chimneys. The ducts have thermal insulation on the outside. The thermal insulation is
protected against the weather by cladding.
8.8.1.8 Machine foundations

Typical machine foundations are the Turbine Generator block; FD and ID fan foundations; mill
foundations; etc. These are in all cases reinforced concrete structures and are sometimes piled.
8.8.1.9 Boiler bottom ash sumps

These are reinforced concrete sumps that house the ash crushers and the ash pumps.
8.8.1.10 Workshops and stores

Workshops and stores consist of structural steel structures with cladding and brick infill panels.
8.8.1.11 Pump houses

Pump houses are mostly structural steel structures with cladding and a reinforced concrete basement.
8.8.1.12 High voltage yards

The transmission structures at the HV yard are galvanised steel structures.
8.8.1.13 Sub-stations
Sub-stations are mostly brick structures with timber roof trusses and metal roof sheeting. A reinforced
concrete floor supports the switchgear equipment and slotted openings provide access to the cables in
the sub-station basement.
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8.8.2 Problems
Typically the following problems experienced are:
8.8.2.1 Boiler House Structures

 The boiler house structure is fully cladded and has very little direct exposure to the elements. Poor
drainage at a 0m level might cause some corrosion to the steel support columns.
 Load shifting could result in high stress concentrations at the boiler support grid or at the support
hangers.
 Corrosion of the roof sheeting and the cladding is bound to take place within the first twenty years
after completion of the structure.
 Accumulation of ash is common and can impose significant loads on floors, roofs etc. which were
not designed for.
8.8.2.2 Turbine House Structures

 This structure is fully cladded with no direct exposure to the elements. Corrosion of the roof
sheeting and the cladding is bound to take place within the first twenty years after construction.
 The anchor bolts between the crane rail and the crane support girders tend to vibrate loose or
sometimes shear off.
 Large brick infill panels at some of the older station tend to develop cracks, mainly due to poor
expansion details and poor tie-back details to the steel structure.
8.8.2.3 Coal Staithes

 Wet coal is frequently deposited to fairly high levels inside the staith, causing wet coal to cover part
of the main support steel girders. Severe corrosion has been experienced at the steelwork where
continuously in contact with wet coal.
 Poor concrete cover to the reinforcement in the inclined support columns has led to severe
corrosion and concrete spalling in these locations.
 High levels of sulphate in the groundwater have caused sulphate attack to the buried concrete
elements, such as foundations and retaining walls.
8.8.2.4 Blow down Sumps

 The Blow down Sump is a unitised system which only interconnects at the common blow down
drain line. The Blow down Sump reinforced concrete structure and internal drainage pipelines
(steel and reinforced concrete) should be able to resist the thermal shock and chemical attacked
induced from quenching water discharged from the blow down vessel. The blow-down water is
very soft and tends to dissolve the cement matrix at all areas in contact with this water. Many of the
blow-down sumps at Eskom’s power stations were not in fact designed for the high water
temperatures in the sump (up to 95°C). Water leaks from the sumps into the surrounding backfill
material and into nearby mill foundation sumps.
 Intensive visual movement of steam resurfacing on the basement level as it flows to condensate
through the blow down sump and drainage manholes.
 Vibration and dislocation of the manhole covers as it accommodates the flow of steam.
 The root cause for the inefficient quenching process and minimum drainage facilitating inside the
blow down sump drainage system is the ash blockages incurred on the common blow down drain
line. The water flow restriction induces ash slurry to backflow onto the blow down sump, thus
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resulting in the internal steel pipework to be corroded, concrete wall to be deteriorated, and the
concrete discharge pipe to be blocked with ash and aggregate rubble
 No lining of sump to protect concrete surface from deteriorating due to thermal shock and chemical
attack from contaminated demineralised water.
 The overflow line at the blow down sump sometimes drains into the boiler bottom ash sump from
where the overflow water gets pumped to the ash dams. The overflow pipeline becomes blocked
with ash, resulting in unacceptable pressures building up in the blow-down sump.
 Temperature cracks; corrosion; spalling; and exposure of aggregates in the concrete.
 No lining of sumps where concrete has deteriorated.
 Inadequate drainage capacity of the blow down sumps in the form of misaligned, cracked, and
corroded overflow steel pipelines and concrete drainage pipelines. This induces downstream
blockages resulting in unacceptable backflow pressures building up in the blow-down sump which
may lead to the rupture of the concrete slab within the blow down sump at the basement level.
 Holes in walls to drain the quenching water. This prevents proper quenching of the blow down.
Surplus quenching water should drain via an overflow pipe into the overflow sump.
 The blow down Sump is a critical asset as a unit cannot be on load if the sump is not available to
facilitate the quenching process and drainage requirements. The blow down Drainage System has
no redundancy making it critical to the operation of the units.
8.8.2.5 Precipitators & Bag filter Plant

 Some of the concrete structures have experienced severe thermal cracking. Steel claddings tend
to corrode after fifteen to twenty years.
 Poor designs have led to severe distortion of the steelwork for the bag filter plant at certain of the
power stations.
8.8.2.6 Auxiliary Bays

 Most problems in the auxiliary bay are related to general business maintenance. Doors are often
damaged. The fixtures in the ablution facilities become damaged. Wall and floor finishes are also
often damaged.
8.8.2.7 Flue Ducts

 Loose cladding results in rainwater entering the thermal insulation space between the steel duct
and the cladding. The thermal insulation absorbs the water and causes ideal conditions for
corrosion to take place.
 Poor gas flow can result in substantial amounts of ash being deposited inside the ducts. The ducts
are not designed for these conditions and can distort or even fail. (The crossover ducts at Matimba
failed as a result of ash build-up inside the ducts.)
 The deflector plates and support struts inside the ducts tend to experience some ash erosion at
areas of high gas flow.
8.8.2.8 Machine/Equipment Foundations

 Oil contamination into the concrete matrix results in some loss of strength.
 Inadequate restraining reinforcement at the anchor bolts results in cracks developing at the
foundation edge at these locations.
 Grout failure at the base plate and concrete interface is fairly common.
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 Transformer rails often get water and debris trapped in grooves depending on its design. This may
aggravate and increase corrosion.
8.8.2.9 Boiler Bottom Ash Sumps

 The exposed concrete surfaces typically suffer a degree of deterioration; especially at some of the
older plants, but very little civil-related maintenance to the sumps have thus far been required.
8.8.2.10 Workshops and Stores

 Poor expansion joint details or lack of expansion joints have resulted in cracks in some of the
brickwork at the older stations.
 Corrosion of the cladding and roof sheeting at buildings in operation for more than 15 years is fairly
common.
 Rail fixings at the crane rails tend to vibrate loose or shear off in some instances.
8.8.2.11 Pump houses

 Pump houses are generally more remote from the station and birds therefore tend to build nests
inside these buildings. The bird droppings cause corrosion to the steelwork and other plant
equipment.
 Roof leaks due to rainy conditions also cause corrosion
 Sub-basements are sometimes located well below ground level and a high water table will result in
seepage through the concrete walls that in turn causes corrosion to the reinforcement.
8.8.2.12 High Voltage Yards

 The steelwork tends to corrode at the older stations due to lack of maintenance or the design life of
protective coatings being reached.
 Some of the concrete supports have cracked due to inadequate concrete cover to the
reinforcement.
8.8.2.13 Sub-stations
 The sub-stations do not always provide adequate dust-proof protection to sensitive electrical
equipment.
 Sub-stations are currently not designed to withstand large internal pressures caused by an
explosion that could result from a short circuit in the switchgear.
 Poor expansion joint details have resulted in cracks developing in the brickwork.
 Fire sealing in buildings also to be inspected and maintained as the lifespan is limited.
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9. ROADS
9.1 DESCRIPTION
The information covered in this manual gives an overview of the activities involved in the inspection of
surfaced and unsurfaced roads (also referred to as sealed or unsealed roads). Road pavement types
can classified into surfaced and unsurfaced in accordance to the type of materials used to construct the
upper layer of the road as indicated in Figure 9-1below.
Figure 9-1 Classification of Pavement Types based on Materials [16]
Roads typically found on power station properties include:

a) General Roads
o Access roads (including intersections)
o Internal roads
o Parking and walkways
b) Service Roads
o Maintenance roads e.g. along pipeline
o Patrol routes e.g. security fence road
o General offloading platforms
c) Coal Delivery
o Coal access route and traffic impact
o Inspection and weigh bridge process and infrastructure
o Staging area
Typically the roads are required to be passable by all vehicular traffic under all conditions up to a 1:50
year flood. Provision is usually made for loads caused by abnormal traffic on the access roads and
other surfaced roads on the power station terrace.
The roads are required to withstand heavy repetitive loads for the duration of the life of a power station.
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The roads are generally shaped and provided with stormwater drains and culverts, where necessary, to
convey runoff water.
9.2 INSPECTIONS
Road inspections broadly fall into two categories, visual survey and instrument survey as indicated in
Figure 9-2 below.
Figure 9-2: Types of Road Condition Assessments
The visual assessment is the most common and cost effective method for road condition assessment;
whereas instrument assessments are conducted to supplement the visual assessment information.
Inspections are conducted to determine:
 Road condition indices;
 Maintenance and rehabilitation needs;
 Prioritisation
9.2.1 Visual Assessment

Visual assessments are typically undertaken along the guidelines prescribed in the following guidelines.
Table 9-1: Visual inspection standards
Pavement Type Standard

Flexible pavements TMH9: Standard visual assessment manual for flexible
pavements
Rigid pavements SANRAL M3-1: Visual assessment for concrete pavements
Unsurfaced roads TMH12: Standard visual assessment manual for unsealed
roads
This manual seeks to develop inspection sheets to be used for visual assessment, as well as guide
users in their application to ensure consistent, reliable and less subjective information. The accuracy of
the visual assessment data depends heavily on the knowledge, experience and commitment of the
Inspectors. To minimise the element of subjectivity and to ensure good knowledge of the assessment
procedures, it is essential to train all Inspectors before visual assessments are carried out.
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9.2.1.1 Assessment procedure
For inspection and reporting purposes, roads should be labelled; preferable in accordance with the
official names found on the power station drawings. In the absence of such information, relevant power
station layout drawings should be marked up with the naming convention adopted for the respective
roads. It is advisable to adopt naming conventions in consultation with the client to ensure alignment.
The naming convention used in previous inspections should be adopted in subsequent inspections for
continuity.
Where the length of the road is more than 5km; it is recommended that the road be divided into 5 km
segments, and an assessment sheet completed for each segment. Segments can also be adopted
where the road consists of different material types. It is recommended that previously used segments
should be adopted for subsequent inspections.
Where inspections are carried out via driving, these should be carried out at speeds less than 20km/h,
with stops at least once per kilometre. Inspections should be carried out by two inspectors to allow one
inspector to focus driving and the second inspector to conduct the visual inspection.
For accurate results it is recommended that visual assessments be carried out in dry conditions, as it
becomes difficult to observe distresses on a wet road. It is further recommended that subsequent visual
assessments are carried out in the same period each year.
9.2.1.2 Distresses
Problems in roads are termed as distresses and these are as a result of deterioration of the strength of
the pavement structure caused by poor surfacing, ingress of water, traffic, climate, quality of material in
pavement layers and the age of the pavement. Visible distresses are an important input in determining
the condition of a pavement.
During the visual assessment distresses are recorded by the following attributes:
 Type;
 degree; and
 extent
Distress types which manifest in the pavement with time are dependent on the road pavement type.
These are discussed in detail in the relevant guidelines, and discussed briefly in the subsequent
section. The information in the guidelines is not repeated in this manual, but reference to it is made
where necessary.
The degree of a particular type of distress is a measure of its severity. The degree of a distress is
usually expressed as a number, e.g. in TMH 9 degree 1 termed “slight” indicates first evidence of a
particular type of distress, degree 3 is termed “warning” and degree 5 termed “severe” which indicates
the worst degree of a particular distress type. It should be noted the degree of a distress is applied
differently for the different pavement types and distresses. TMH9 and TMH 12 include detailed
descriptions of degree of distress including photographic plates illustrating condition for each of the
distress types.
The extent of a distress type is a measure of how widespread the distress occurs over the length of a
segment/road under consideration. Figure 9-3 below adopted from TMH 9 is a diagrammatic illustration
of the extent of a distress and the associated classification.
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Figure 9-3: Diagrammatical illustration of extent [14]
Attention should be paid to section A2.5 of TMH9 which provides the following examples for the
combined use of degree and extent.
 “ If longitudinal cracking of degree 5 occurs seldom (i.e. extent 1) and longitudinal cracking of
degree 3 occurs extensively (i.e. extent 5), the degree 3/extent 5 cracking is recorded as the best
average indication of the severity of longitudinal cracking over the specific pavement segment in
terms of possible rehabilitation/reseal action. In such a case the degree 5 cracking will be viewed
as an area of localised distress requiring routine attention.
 If longitudinal cracking of degree 5 and extent 2, and longitudinal cracking of degree 1 and extent 4
occurs, degree 5/extent 2 is recorded as the average indication of the problem that is most
significant in terms of possible action. (Cracking of degree 1 is not considered significant in terms
of possible action.)”
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9.2.1.3 Visual Assessment of Surfaced and Unsurfaced Roads
9.2.1.3.1 Flexible Pavements (Asphalt Roads)
Visual inspection of flexible pavements is carried out in accordance with TMH9. During a visual
assessment the following elements of a flexible pavement are assessed:
Figure 9-4: Visual Assessment Elements for Flexible Pavements
Below is a brief description of some of the distress types, failure mechanisms and root causes.
a) Deformation
This is a development or change in the profile of the surface of the road surface. A typical example is
the formation of depressions. Deformations are assessed via rutting and undulations/settlement.
b) Cracking
This refers to the cracks that appear on the surface of the road pavement. Examples associated with
this mode of distress include transverse cracks, longitudinal cracks and crocodile cracks.
 Transverse cracks – line cracks across the road surface;
 Longitudinal cracks – line cracks running longitudinally along the road surface. Often located near
the edge of the pavement.
 Crocodile cracks – cracking in a polygon pattern where the average diameter of the polygons is
less than 300mm.
 Block cracks – the cracks have a definite block pattern. They are caused by the shrinkage of
treated (stabilised) pavement layers.
The mechanism of failure can be caused by shrinkage of the bituminous surfacing as a result of
decreased binder volume. This is caused when the binder ages, losing its lighter oils and aromatics.
The initial cracking usually consists of short longitudinal and transverse cracks randomly spaced over
the full road width. The severity of the cracking increases with ageing to form a diamond pattern. In
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this state secondary traffic induced cracking around the shrinkage cracks is often evident. If
maintenance is poor the condition can deteriorate so that the basic patterns of shrinkage cracks are not
obvious.
c) Disintegration of surfacing
This is the break-up and loss of the surfacing as manifested in potholes and patches.
 Potholes are the cylindrical holes found in pavements.
 Patches are areas from which surfacing material has been lost and reinstated by patching.
d) Smoothing of surface texture
Smoothing of the surface texture involves the loss of the macro texture and/or micro texture of the
surface with a resultant loss in skid resistance. The most common manifestation of this mode of
distress is bleeding. Bleeding occurs when the binder moves upward relative to the aggregate at the
surface of the pavement thus reducing surface texture depth. Bleeding is usually due to the
embedding or punching of the aggregate into the underlying base layer.
e) Construction related problems
Construction related problems include lack of quality control exercised during the manufacture and
construction of the surface; and poor reinstatement of service crossings.
The inspection sheet (Appendix B) provides a useful checklist for inspections of flexible pavements and
should be completed for each road segment. The grading sheets (Table 9-2 and Table 9-3) that follow
will assist to determine the degree of distress. Limits of the "sound", "warning" and "severe" categories
are provided for.
Table 9-2 : Summary of definitions of degrees of distress
DEGREE MODE OF DISTRESS

OF DEFORM- CRACKING DISINTEGRATION SMOOTHING OF
DISTRESS ATION OF SURFACING SURFACE
Potholes Patches Texture Appearance
depth
1 Less than Not visibly No clear < 2.0m² > 1mm Stones well proud
5mm cracked develop- of binder >4mm
ment of depth between
potholes stones
2 5 to l0mm Faint cracks Widths- > 2.0m² 0.6 to Rough texture but
< 50mm 1mm with shallow
depths
(2-4mm) between
stones
3 10 to Distinct Width 50 Any size 0.3 to Smooth
20mm cracks to first signs 0.6mm appearance with
150mm of distress protrusions >2mm
4 20 to Open width Any size 0.0 to Smooth
40mm cracks 150 to clear 0.3mm appearance with
width < 300mm signs of no protrusions but
3mm distress stones visible in
the binder
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DEGREE MODE OF DISTRESS

OF DEFORM- CRACKING DISINTEGRATION SMOOTHING OF
DISTRESS ATION OF SURFACING SURFACE
Potholes Patches Texture Appearance
depth
5 Greater Open Width Any size 0.0 mm Film of binder
than cracks >300mm severely covering all
40mm width > distress- stones
3mm ed
Table 9-3: Sound, warning and severe categories for roads
X = % OF UNIT LENGTH
MODE OF DISTRESS REMARKS SOUND WARNING SEVERE
Crocodile cracks Degree C3-C5 considered x < 10 10 < x < 20 x > 20
Longitudinal cracks Degree C3-C5 considered x < 50 50 < x < 80 x > 80
Potholes Degree C3-C5 considered x < 10 10 < x < 20 x > 20
Depressions Degree C3-C5 considered x < 10 10 < x < 20 x > 20
9.2.1.3.2 Rigid Pavements (Concrete Roads)

Visual assessment of concrete roads is carried out in accordance with the SANRAL M3-1 manual, the
manual covers jointed concrete pavements as well as continuously reinforced concrete pavements.
Figure 9-5: Visual Assessment Elements for Rigid Pavements
As noted in the figure above, concrete pavements have similar distresses as for flexible pavements
with additional distresses unique to concrete pavements, such as spalling, scaling, and map-cracking of
the concrete surfaces.
a) Map-cracking
Map cracking is distinguished by irregular cracking over the pavement surface.
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b) Spalling
Spalling is a chipping or splintering of sound pavement and usually occurs along the joints or cracks in
the pavement.
c) Scaling
Scaling is caused by the deterioration or disintegration of the concrete and may occur anywhere on the
pavement surface.
The inspection sheet (Appendix B) provides a useful checklist for inspections of concrete pavements
and should be completed for each road segment.
9.2.1.3.3 Unsurfaced Pavements (Gravel Roads)

Visual assessment of gravel roads is carried out in accordance with TMH12.
Typical problems that occur on gravel roads are:
 Dust;
 Rutting, hollowing and potholes on road surface;
 Ineffective drainage alongside roads;
 Slippery conditions created by coal dust on road surface;
 Pioneers and invader plants alongside roads.
The consequences of these typical problems would include:

 Air pollution;
 Safety hazard;
 Polluted water runoff into veld and vlei;
 Erosion and gullies;
 Spreading of invaders and pioneers into roads.
Parameters to be assessed
TMH12 lists the following road characteristics to be assessed:
 General performance
 Moisture condition
 Gravel quantity/layer thickness
 Gravel profile/shape as an assessment of water shedding capacity
 Road drainage in terms of removal of water form roadside
 Riding quality and influencing factors
 Dust
 Trafficability
 Potholes
 Rutting
 Erosion
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 Corrugation
 Loose material
 Stoniness
 Cracks
 Slipperiness and skid resistance
 Isolated problems (above localised distresses)
Below is a brief description of some of the distress types, failure mechanisms and root causes.
a) General performance of the road / riding quality
The riding quality of the road is a major performance parameter affecting driver and passenger comfort
and safety. The road roughness will be influenced by the maintenance frequency, quality of grader
maintenance and material properties.
b) Moisture condition
Disturbance of windrows or loose material will usually indicate whether the material is wet. The
assessment of the condition is limited to a subjective rating of “wet” (damp) or “dry”
c) Gravel quantity/ layer thickness
This actually requires actual measurements of the layer thickness, or judgement by the Inspector taking
into account the material quality, traffic and any evidence of subgrade exposure.
Adequate cover of material over pipe drains and culverts can be a good indicator, bearing in mind that
all culverts/pipes should have sufficient cover to protect the structures from traffic loads.
d) Gravel quality and influencing factors
The properties contributing to good gravel are particle size distribution and cohesion. The gravel should
have a range of particles sizes ranging from very fines up to about 40mm stone in order to provide a
strong framework of stones interlocked by a tight matrix of fines. Rating should be classified as
excessive clay/silt, sandy, oversize stones and/or loose gravel.
e) Road profile/ shape as an assessment of water shedding capacity
The road with good profile tends to shed water rapidly avoiding the development of potholes. Where
the profile is flat, water tends to pond.
The inspection sheet (see Appendix B-3) provides a useful checklist for inspections of unpaved
pavements and should be completed for each road segment.
9.2.2 Instrument Assessment

Instrument assessments are conducted to supplement the visual assessment information; these involve
use of mechanical and electronic devices to detect problems in a more objective manner. They provide
objective measurements of the pavement’s structural and functional condition (see figure below). The
need for either of the following tests is to be determined by the Professional Engineer or Technologist.
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Figure 9-6: Types of Instrument Assessments
The following guidelines provide information on the planning, devices, procedure and data
interpretation:
 COTO guidelines for Network Level Measurement of Road Roughness
 COTO guidelines for Network Level Measurement of Skid Resistance and Texture
 COTO guidelines for Network Level Measurement of Pavement Deflection
 COTO guidelines for Network Level Measurement of Rutting
 COTO guidelines for Network Level Imaging and GPS Technologies
Below is a brief description of some of the test types.
9.2.2.1 Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP) Analysis

Dynamic Cone Penetrometer tests are done to verify the structural capacity of the road foundation.
Limited sampling of the base and sub-base material for further laboratory testing may also be required.
DCP tests are carried out at test pits and selected positions along surfaced roads. The results of these
tests should be graphed as depth versus penetration/blow. From these graphs the consistency of the
various material layers can be determined as well as equivalent California Bearing Ratio (C.B.R)
values.
The hierarchy of the road network on a power station, with the assumed design traffic class, should be
tabulated as shown in the table below. Roads not listed are treated as access ways with an EO traffic
class. The DCP test results are grouped together and analysed accordingly.
Table 9-4: Street hierarchy and traffic class (after TMH9)
DESIGN CUMULATIVE
FUNCTIONAL
TRAFFIC EQUIVALENT DESCRIPTION
CLASS
CLASS E80 / LANE
Major arterial E3 1.2 x 106 High volume and/ or any
heavy vehicles
Minor arterial E2 0.8 x 106 Medium volume of traffic,
few heavy vehicles
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9.2.2.2 Structural adequacy
The required structural capacity number (DSN800 = the number of blows necessary to penetrate
800mm of pavement) for the short- and long- term design periods is 70 and 105 respectively. The
DSN800 of each road is then determined.
However, the pavement depth should not just have the required total DSN800 value, but the strength
should also be distributed throughout the pavement in a balanced way. Most of the strength should be
vested in the top layers where stress caused by tyre contact pressure is highest.
The adequacies are further determined by comparing the in situ DCP profiles with the required TRH12
pavement design curves for light, medium and heavy traffic classes. Generally, points lying to the right
of the DCP design curve represent material of inadequate quality for that position. Any inadequate
zones are determined for the various traffic classes. Light traffic comprises mainly cars as well as a
very few heavy vehicles (E0 = < 0.2 x 106 E80 / lane). Light traffic comprising mainly cars, light
delivery and agricultural vehicles as well as a very few heavy vehicles has a value of E1 = 0.2 – 0.6
x 106 E80 / lane). Medium and high traffic classes have medium or high volumes of traffic and many
heavy vehicles with values of E2 – E3 = 0.8 – 12 x 106 E80 / lane).
9.2.2.3 California Bearing Ratio (CBR)-Trial Pits

Base, sub-base and subgrade material from test pits are sampled for further laboratory testing to give
an indication of the quality of material used in constructing the layerworks. These tests will determine
whether the base, subbase and subgrade comply with technical specification for road works (KBA 09
A1C02079).
 Materials used in the base at 98% of modified A.A.S.H.T.O. density must have a California Bearing
Ratio (C.B.R) of at least 80%.
 Materials used in the subbase at 95% of modified A.A.S.H.T.O. density must have a C.B.R. of at
least 45%, and
 Materials used in subgrade at 100% of modified A.A.S.H.T.O. to density must have a C.B.R. of at
least 10%.
The Atterberg Constant and Jennings Classification (SG = sandy gravel; and GS = gravelly sand) are
also to be determined.
9.3 PAVEMENT CONDITION INDICES

The following TMH 9 and SANRAL’s M-3 guideline criteria used for determining the overall condition of
the road/road segment will be adopted.
Table 9-5: Pavement Condition Indices
Degree Description
1 Very few or no structural defects.
Very Good
2 Few structural structural defects.
Good
3 General occurrence of which most are only local occurrences if
degree is severe.
Fair
4 General occurrence of which a large number is severe.
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Degree Description
Poor
5 Many structural defects of which the majority is severe.
Very Poor
9.4 INSPECTION FREQUENCY

The main inspection periods are reflected in the table below.
Table 9-6: Frequency of inspections for roads
ACTION FREQUENCY
ROADS
a) Perform a visual assessment of all roads. Annually
b) Analyse information and produce a report with photographic record. Annually
c) Give maintenance guidelines. Annually
9.4.1 Monitoring
In addition to inspections, the inspector would usually undertake to regularly monitor the roads. The
following is provided as a guide:
a) Weekly: Check if dust from gravel roads is a safety hazard (only on frequently used gravel roads).
b) Monthly during rainy season: Check all road surfaces for low spots where puddles form.
c) Monthly during rainy season: Check all road surfaces for water seepages.
d) Annually: Check roads for deformations; cracking; disintegration of surfacing; smoothing of
surface texture; construction problems; lack of drainage etc.
e) Summer: Check spread of invader/pioneer plants.
9.5 REMEDIAL ACTIONS

As part of the visual assessment and/or instrument assessment; road sections in need of repair need to
be identified and probable types of maintenance and rehabilitation remedial actions proposed. The
remedial measures for roads can be divided into maintenance activities referred to as short- term
holding actions and rehabilitation long term actions. The short-term action will essentially be a holding
action to preserve the pavement in its present condition until funds are available for a rehabilitation
option. Rehabilitation or upgrading will include reconstruction activities and is aimed at restoring the
pavement to its original or newly determined capacity.
Remedial actions for the different pavement types are discussed in more detail in the 240-142483465
in Guidelines on Maintenance and Rehabilitation of Roads, and briefly below.
9.5.1 Flexible Pavements

In most cases the actions described are routine maintenance functions.
The following short term holding activities are recommended and can be carried out by a power
station’s maintenance team:
 Pothole repairs;
 Crack sealing;
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The following activities are considered to be long-term rehabilitation measures and must be undertaken
by a specialist contractor:
 Structural repair; and
 Fog spraying or resurfacing.
Weaknesses develop in these surfaces due to weathering, the action of alternate cold and hot
conditions or failure of the base or subgrade. The maintenance of these surfaces may be divided into
four distinct operations:
 Patching;
 fog spraying;
 scarifying;
 Resealing.
Before maintenance repairs are made to the surface, it is important to make the usual investigation for
the cause of failure. If failure indicates poor drainage, this should be corrected before any repairs are
made on the surface.
Patching may consist simply of an application of a thin coat of bituminous material to an area where
cracking or ravelling appears and spreading a course mineral aggregate over the affected area. Care
should be taken in the application of the proper amount of bituminous material in order to prevent
bleeding with the resulting slipperiness of the repaired surface.
In areas where the surface shows ravelling and disintegration, a bituminous mixture may be placed
over the weakened area and then compacted. Both hot and cold bituminous mixtures are used, with
asphaltic concrete and sheet asphalt being the most common. Where the surface has disintegrated to
a depth of 50 or 75mm, the failed area should be cut out, all loose material removed, the base course
made true and firm, and the bituminous patching material placed in the hole. The edge of the hole
should be cut vertically and should receive a coat of bituminous material to seal out any moisture that
may enter the subgrade. The final patch should conform to the grade and contour of the existing
surface.
Patches may also be made by a penetration method that consists of filling the hole with aggregate,
compacting the aggregate, and then applying the bituminous material. Crushed stone is then applied
and the patch is rolled. Many different patching methods are used with good results. The method used
will depend on the type of bituminous surface and current practice prevailing in the particular locality.
Fog spraying is essentially a preventive maintenance operation. Its purpose is to seal the surface to
prevent penetration of water and to strengthen the wearing surface. The work consists of applying a
thin coating of bitumen over the surface and placing fine stone chips, peastone, or coarse sand over
the patched area. The patch is then broomed and rolled with a light roller.
Seal coats and surface treatments are widely used to rejuvenate old bituminous surfaces or to correct a
slippery condition. Slipperiness is usually caused by an excess of bitumen on the road surface. This
may be due to the application of too much bituminous material or an improper gradation of aggregate,
or it may be caused by the kneading action of heavy traffic pushing the asphalt binder to the surface.
Skid-proofing may be achieved by application of a surface treatment using sharp, angular aggregate
such as blast furnace slag or by disking the surface. Slurry seal coats are widely used for this purpose.
In severe cases the complete surface may have to be reworked in order to correct slipperiness.
When maintenance operations become excessively expensive, it is difficult to maintain an adequately
smooth surface, the pavement has to be widened or for other reasons, the old pavement may be
resurfaced. Before undertaking a resurfacing project, a careful study of its economic justification
should be made. A general rule of thumb is that resurfacing will probably be economical when from 2 -
3% of the total pavement area requires patching each year. Both the availability of money and the
priority of the project will influence the decision. A comprehensive study of the condition of the existing
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surface and related factors is desirable before undertaking a resurfacing project. Included among the
factors that must be given detailed consideration are the following:
 History of pavement.
 Existing physical condition.
 Character of existing and anticipated traffic.
 Relation of geometric design to safe and efficient operation of anticipated traffic.
Corrective measures that may be required in the preparation of an old surface for resurfacing may be
very considerable in extent or some-what minor, depending on the type and condition of the existing
surface and its adequacy to serve its new function as a base course. For example, major
reconstruction measures may be required when substantial changes in grade, profile, or crown are
called for in the new surface. Recommended reductions in grade and crown may be accomplished by
scarifying and re-compacting old surfaces such as water-bound macadam or stabilized soils, higher
types of surfaces may require removal and reconstruction to the desired grade and section. Changes
in width are generally accomplished by duplicating the original construction as closely as possible, with
particular attention being paid to the development of adequate supporting power in the widened section
so that this section will not subside under service to a lower elevation than exists in the original
pavement.
The old surface, regardless of its type, may be rough, with waves and bumps that are too considerable
in magnitude to be compensated for by a relatively thin wearing surface. These bumps and waves may
be removed by scarifying and re-compacting certain surface types. When old bituminous wearing
surfaces have these defects and are to be resurfaced, the bumps and waves may be removed by
cutting or burning away the old surface with a healer planer. Burners in a big, insulated furnace heat
and soften the surface, which is then scarified and remixed if desired, with additional bituminous
material added as needed. Sometimes it may be more desirable to correct existing surface
irregularities by the construction of a special levelling course, which may be the same bituminous
mixture used in the original construction or a new mix. The construction of a levelling course is a major
operation that usually is quite similar to the placing of a bituminous wearing surface. The course will
have a variable thickness and will be constructed to the desired section and grade. The levelling
course will have lower bitumen content than the wearing course. Holes and depressions that occur in
the existing surface must also be corrected before resurfacing (or the placing of a levelling course) may
begin. The holes are filled with the same mixture used in the original construction or with a special
patching mixture.
In many cases the preparation of the surface may consist simply of the removal of loose material on the
surface by the use of rotary brooms or power blowers. If excessively dusty or unconsolidated areas
remain after this treatment, they may have to be primed before construction may proceed. When
preparations are complete, the new surface is constructed.
9.5.2 Rigid pavements (Concrete Roads)

The repair of spalled, scaled, and map-cracked surfaces is a common maintenance problem for this
type of pavement. The maintenance of concrete pavements consists for the most part of:
 filling and sealing joints and cracks in the pavement surface;
 repairing spalled, scaled, and map-cracked areas;
 patching areas where failure has occurred;
 repairing areas damaged by settlement or pumping; and
 Treating buckled pavements.
The purpose of filling and sealing joints and cracks is to prevent the seepage of moisture to the
subgrade and to preserve the original joint space. At the time the joint is sealed, the concrete must be
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dry and the joint space thoroughly cleaned of all scale, dirt, dust, and other foreign matter, including old
joint sealer. Power cutters are used to cut and groove the joints prior to resealing; a mechanically
driven wire brush is used to thoroughly clean the joint. Immediately before sealing, the joint is blown
out by the use of a jet of compressed air. Hot-applied rubber asphalt sealing compounds are often
used; they are generally heated and melted in a portable (rubber-tired) melting kettle of the double-
boiler, indirect heating type which utilizes oil or other suitable material as a heat-transfer medium. The
recommended type of equipment for applying the sealer is a mechanical pressure-type applicator.
Mechanical applicators of the gravity type are also used, as are hand pouring pots. Cold-applied, two-
component elastomeric polymers also are used as joint sealers. This maintenance operation is carried
on throughout the year. The most favourable time, however, is during the warm summer months, when
working temperatures are higher and better results can be obtained.
Minor cracks in a Portland-cement concrete surface are usually repaired by filling with a joint sealing
compound. It is recommended that cracks larger than 3mm in width be filled with a material that will
allow for expansion and contraction of the concrete. A concrete or epoxy repair should be made when
cracked, chipped, or splintered areas are too large to control by routine joint sealing methods.
When only fine cracks are present linseed oil had been used with apparent success as a preventive
maintenance measure for scaling of Portland-cement concrete. When a considerable area has been
affected by scaling or excessive wear, a surface treatment of hot plant mix or slurry seal is
recommended.
Failed areas in concrete pavement should be repaired with cement concrete. The failed areas are
marked out by a man qualified for this type of work. A crew then follows with jack hammers or other
mechanical equipment, breaks and removes the broken concrete, and prepares the area for the new
surface. At the edges of the patch the old slab of concrete should be undercut. High early strength
cement should be used in the new concrete. The thickness of the patch should never be less than that
of the existing slab and the use of reinforcing steel is very often desirable. When patches are made
adjacent to expansion joints, the expansion joint should be replaced. Contraction or construction joints
may be omitted, however, if the patch extends across the entire width of pavement.
Surfacing irregularities can be removed from concrete pavements by grinding or cutting the surface
with a special machine known as a "bumpcutter." Such machines have a cutting head with diamond
blades that produce a series of shallow, parallel grooves in the surface, giving it a non-skid texture.
One of the major problems in the maintenance of concrete surfaces is correcting settlement of the slab
caused by pumping. Pumping is usually indicated by:
 spalling of the pavement near the centerline and a transverse joint or crack;
 the ejection of water from joints and cracks;
 discoloration of pavement surface by subgrade soil;
 the presence of mud boils at the pavement edge; and
 Breakage of the pavement.
Pumping of concrete pavements may be prevented by maintaining adequate drainage, correcting faulty
drainage, and sealing joints and cracks. Where pumping has progressed to an appreciable degree,
this condition is corrected by mud-jacking or sub-sealing. This procedure consists of drilling holes into
the slab and forcing in suitable slurry to fill the voids between the subgrade and the slab.
The usual method involves the drilling of one hole in the lowest portion of the settled pavement. This
hole is about 40mm in diameter and usually placed about 300mm from the point. If needed, an
additional hole is drilled about 750mm from the edge. Water and sand are blown out of the area
through the drilled hole by the use of compressed air. This is necessary to avoid dilution of the slurry to
be forced under the pavement. As the slurry is forced into the drilled hole, pumping is continued until
all voids are filled and the settled slab is raised to its proper position. The holes are then plugged.
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The slurry mixtures used vary a great deal, but for the most part they consist of a combination of loam,
cement, and water, or of asphaltic materials. Two widely used mixtures are as follows:
 Soil 60 to 84 percent, cement 40 to 16 percent.
 Soil 77 percent, cement 16 percent, and cut-back asphalt (SC-250), (MC-70), (RC-250), 7 percent.
The mix used should be fluid enough to spread rapidly and flow into small cavities.
The buckling or blow-up of old concrete pavements is a continuing problem; it is usually caused by
longitudinal expansion and the failure of transverse expansion joints to function properly. When this
occurs, it is often necessary to remove the damaged portion of the pavement and replace it with a
patch of concrete or bituminous material. Suckling or blow-ups may be prevented, when evidence of
extreme compression is noted in the pavement, by cutting a wider expansion joint if one already exists
or providing a new joint across the pavement.
9.5.3 Unsurfaced pavements (Gravel Roads)

The following remedial measures are proposed:
 Regular cleaning of coal and ash spillages on roads in the coal stockyard or ash dam / dump
areas.
 Whenever dust from dry roads is considered a safety hazard, use a water cart to spray roads.
 If excessive puddles occur on the road surface after rain, rip the area to a minimum depth of
200mm, re-grade and re-compact at the optimum moisture content. Any imported material must
be well graded. Compaction would normally be to a minimum of 90% mod A.A.S.H.T.O. density.
 If seepage occurs on road surface, contact Technologist/Engineer for drainage and check runoff.
 If hollowing or pot-holing occurs, then road should be re-graded and/or resurfaced. This must be
done under the supervision of a suitably qualified Technologist/Engineer.
 Remove invader/pioneer plants; rehabilitate eroded areas; and re-vegetate.
Contingency Measures
If invasive species occur, then they should be eradicated.
9.5.4 Drainage and Drainage Structures

All drainage structures and appurtenances have to be kept in good working condition as to provide free
and unobstructed flow. Generally, maintenance operations include those relating to:
 surface drainage;
 catch pits; and
 Pipes.
Observation of conditions at times of heavy rains and high water will give the best indications of the
ability of the drainage system to perform its function properly without erosion or damage. The entire
system must be so maintained as to handle heavy rainfalls and to function properly under all
conditions.
The first objective of surface drainage is to remove the water quickly so that it will not interfere with the
use of the roads. To accomplish this, the roads are crowned and elevated.
All pipes should be checked regularly to see that they are free from obstructions. Inlets and outlets
should be kept open and free from refuse, and pipes should be cleaned and repaired when necessary.
Drainage problems such as blocked side drains, lack of drain facilities and standing water next to the
road should be recorded as severe on the visual inspection forms.
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10. CULVERTS
Culverts provide vehicular access over watercourses and open stormwater drains; they typically
comprise precast box sections on an in-situ cast base slab or pipes.
Culverts are generally designed to take the full volume of water from a 1:50 year flood. They must also
be able to withstand the loads caused by large plant normally used on power station properties. In
some cases provision is also made for loads caused by abnormal traffic.
10.1 PROBLEMS
In polluted areas, possible blockages could result in overflow of contaminated water into adjacent
unpolluted vlei and veld areas.
The consequences of these typical problems would include potential contamination for grazers,
browsers, birds etc. and changes in floral species.
Common problems associated with culvert deterioration are:
 Open or separated joints
 Pipe settlement and shape deformation
 High debris load causing sedimentation and blockage
 Loss of material due to corrosion and/or abrasion
 Cracking, spalling, scaling, exposed rebar
 Evidence of fill material inside the culvert through an open joint
10.2 INSPECTION FREQUENCIES

a) Monthly during rainy season: Check culverts and security grids for debris.
10.3.1 Vegetation Management and Control

This class of maintenance includes mowing, weed eradication and control, seeding, sodding and the
planting of vegetation and care of trees and shrubs.
The mowing of roadsides is done to provide better sight distances, improve drainage, reduce fire
hazards and improve the appearance of the roadway. Mowing should be started as soon as the grass
or weeds are high enough to be cut and it should be continued at periodic intervals when necessary,
throughout the growing season. Mowing can be accomplished by machines or by hand. Cleaning of
roadsides after mowing can be accomplished by the use of hand or power rakes. Grass cuttings can
be left as mulch, but brush cuttings should be removed.
Chemicals may be used on roadside areas to retard vegetation growth and lessen the frequency of
mowing, especially in areas that are difficult to mow. Chemicals are also used to control weeds
(herbicides), insects (insecticides), and fungi (fungicides). The spraying of chemicals along roadsides
should be done by qualified personnel following the manufacturer's recommendations and guidelines of
the Environmental Management.
Seeding, sodding and the planting of vegetation are important maintenance operations for the
prevention of erosion. Seeding may be done in relatively flat areas.
If debris occurs in culverts and security grids, clean as required. All debris to be removed from the site;
ash or coal silt to be returned to ash dam / dump.
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11. RAILWAY LINES AND SIDING

This Chapter is only applicable to the Power Stations who have a mainline rail and/or a rail siding for
the purpose of offloading coal and/or limestone.
The Manual for Track Maintenance (2000), compiled by Transnet and 240-142484987 Inspection
Guidelines for Railway Maintenance and Rehabilitation; will be the guiding documents for all the
inspections required. The following Chapters of the Manual for Track Maintenance will be applicable,
namely;
 Chapter 3: Earthworks, the Formation, Drainage, Tunnels, Bridges, Culverts, and Temporary Track
Supports
 Chapter 4: Inspections and Track Geometry
 Chapter 5: Turnouts, slips and Diamond Crossings
 Chapter 6: Rails
 Chapter 7: Sleepers and Ballast
 Chapter 8: Clearances and Dimensions
 Chapter 9: Associated Works
This Chapter will only deal with the visual inspections and any other inspections/test (specialised) will
be outsourced.
A typical railway line and/or siding consist out of the following, namely;
 Earthworks
 Formation
 Ballast
 Sleepers
 Rails
 Turnouts
 Drainage Structures
 Bridges
 Signage
11.1 EARTHWORKS
A visual inspection must be carried out on all embankments, cuttings and the formation to ensure that
there are no cracks, landslides and/or rock falls present.
It must also be observed that the formation is dry because this is pre-requisite for a stable track
structure.
Regarding the drainage all drains must be kept clean to allow water to flow freely.
The frequency of inspections is at least once a year.
11.2 BRIDGES AND CULVERTS

During the visual inspection, the following must be observed;
 Scour under piers or abutments and at inlets and outlets of culverts,
 Structural damage, cracks, loose rivets or bolts, corrosion and movement of bedplates,
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 Loose or ineffective handrails and/or walkways and where bridge or culvert openings are
inadequate.
11.3 BALLAST
During the visual inspection of the ballast, attention to the following must be given, namely:
 The ballast profile according to the classification of the Railway line and/or siding.
 The condition of the ballast – To what percentage is the ballast foaled with other material.
11.4 RAILS
Visually observe for any wear and tear on the crown of the rail. Inspect the rails for visual cracks,
misalignment and measure the gauge of the track i.e. between the two rails usually 1065mm from
centre to centre.
Where the rails have been welded to form a continuous rail, these welds must be inspected for cracks
visually.
11.5 SLEEPERS
The sleeper, after rail, is the most important component of track superstructure in conventional railway
lines and sidings. Keeping track geometry, bearing loads acted from rails and transferring to the ballast
is the main duty of the sleepers.
Visual inspection of the sleepers is looking for the following;
 Bending cracks – this happens in the centre of the sleeper transversal and/or diagonal.
 Sleeper breakage due to derailment.
 Cutting cracks – This usually appears in the rail seating area and in a distance between plug holes
transversally along rail longitudinal axis.
 Sleeper instability in the fastening area – Ballast is not supporting the sleeper properly.
 Overall condition of the sleeper.
During this inspection attention must also be given to the condition of the fastenings and the pads used
to seat the rails. The frequency of inspections is at least once a year.
11.6 TURNOUTS
Turnouts, slips and diamond crossings (collectively called ‘sets’) are expensive to replace, costly to
maintain and are the weak links in the track structure. These items need to be visually inspection
regarding their condition and reported on. The frequency for these inspections is at least once a month
11.7 RAIL FURNITURE

The rail and service road furniture is as lists below, namely;
 Fencing
 Grade posts
 Kilometre posts
 Signs indicating crossing loops and level crossings
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 Clearance markers
 Road signage like stop signs, speed signs etc.
The rail furniture will be visually inspected to determine the condition of said items.
The frequency of inspections is on a three monthly basis.
11.8 OVERALL
The visual assessment reports as describe above will be used to determine if any further tests,
assessments, etc. is required. Based on this then these specialised test and/or assessments will be
outsourced.
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12. SURFACE DRAINS
12.1 DESCRIPTION
The elements included are:
 stormwater drains;
 clean water drains and diversion canals,
 dirty water drains and central drains;
 dissipator structures;
 silt traps;
 low flow sluice gates.
Drains are typically designed for a 1:25 year flood. However, depending on the specific circumstances
prevailing at a particular power station, this allowance may, in some cases, be increased up to a 1:100
year flood capability.
12.1.1 Stormwater drains, Clean water drains and Diversion canals

In order to divert clean water run-off around “polluted” areas – which include coal stockyards, ash dams
and ash dumps – clean water drains or diversion canals are used. Clean water is channelled around
the polluted water systems and this arrangement usually ensures that only the most highly polluted
water enters pollution control dams. Such an arrangement is generally in accordance with the
Department of Water and Sanitation management requirements.
Diversion canals are typically grass-lined canals. The canals, and the associated side berms, are
usually constructed from in-situ clayey material. Embankments generally have a maximum slope of 1:3
for stability purposes and are well compacted and grassed to prevent erosion.The canals are, however,
designed to accommodate the specific hydrological conditions found at a specific power station.
Canals must typically be able to accommodate the following water:
 natural watercourse flow;
 clean water from unpolluted areas; and
 diluted dirty water from polluted areas.
Clean water canals may flow through an energy dissipater into natural watercourses.
12.1.2 Dirty water drains and central drains

Coal stockyards, ash dams, ash dumps and other “polluted” areas are generally surrounded by
concrete lined, parabolic-section dirty water canals. Dirty water is contained within the polluted water
systems and this arrangement usually ensures that only the most highly polluted water enters pollution
control dams.
In order to accommodate the volumes of water collected by the respective catchment areas of the
drains, a parabolic section is generally the most suitable for maximising flow for a moderate increase in
construction cost. A concrete lining may be inserted in order to prevent scour, from high velocities, and
to prevent groundwater pollution.
The concrete lining may typically comprise a 120mm thick layer of concrete, reinforced with one layer
of mesh reinforcement. For water polluted by coal, sulphate-resistant concrete is used. In order to
prevent the ingress of runoff water under the lining, a polyethelene sheet may be attached to the
concrete and buried next to the canal.
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In areas of low soil permeability, ground water pressures are contained by seepage through open
construction joints. In other areas, a system of subsoil drains may be used to ensure no excessive
buoyancy forces are exerted on the lining. Joints in these areas may be sealed with a hot-poured
bitumen sealant.
The dirty water canals preferably flow through an energy dissipater; silt traps and then into the pollution
control dam (for polluted flows) or into a by-pass canal (for diluted flows).
A central drain at a coal stockyard, for example, comprises a shallow-dished drain, as opposed to a
canal, running centrally along the length of the area to be drained. Some drains are lined with
interlocking concrete paving blocks (e.g. at Majuba power station coal stockyard).
In certain cases a central drain may also serve as a vehicle access route through an area under wet
conditions. Such drains may be designed as a flat, broad drain to cater for the anticipated quantity of
water and also to provide a rideable surface, with side slopes being negotiable for light and heavy-duty
vehicles. The drain should typically be lined, for example with concrete blocks, to prevent scour and for
use as a road-wearing course. The foundation layers would then be designed for light traffic over the
life of the power station.
12.1.3 Dissipater structures

Both clean and dirty water canals ideally exit the area being drained through dissipater structures. A
dissipater structure typically comprises an ogee surface with splitter blocks and ramp used to induce a
hydraulic jump under high-flow conditions. Clean water dissipaters may exit into rip-rap protected
channels; while dirty water dissipaters may exit into concrete channel widenings with dissipater blocks.
Low flows may be catered for by means of "V notches" in the ramp.
The function of a clean water dissipater is to reduce the energy (velocity) of the water to levels in order
to prevent scouring of a natural watercourse.
The dirty water dissipater serves to reduce the velocity of the water so that silt may settle in the silt
traps.
Generally the design is such that low flows pass through the dissipators without substantial ponding.
Three methods of reducing energy levels of the water may typically be employed:
 hydraulic jumps;
 channel roughening; and
 channel geometry change.
During low flows, silt may deposit in the structure of the clean water outlet. This is normal and the silt
will be removed naturally during high flows. This also allows a natural silting of the watercourse to
occur.
12.1.4 Silt traps

Silt traps typically comprise concrete-lined settlement basins that also accommodate access for
cleaning (e.g. by a front-end loader). So, for example, where front-end loaders are used, access to
remove silt is via a ramp. A road with turning area may also be provided for access to the plant for
cleaning.
The water velocity is such that, during low and medium flows, silt is deposited in the basins. During
high flows (when the water is highly diluted) carry-over of silt may occur.
Silt traps are typically constructed so that the water velocities in the traps are lower than the settling
velocity of the coal silt during low-flow conditions.
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12.1.5 Low flow Sluice gates
Low sluice gates may be situated in a diversion box at the exit to the silt traps. Sluice gates are
typically of stainless steel construction. Water enters the diversion box through "V" notches in the silt
trap walls. The sluice gates operate in such a way that, during low flows, all polluted water enters the
pollution control dam. Higher flows (when the pollution load is reduced by dilution) pass over the canal
walls and into a diversion canal. Since the pollution load varies during the life of a power station, the
setting of the sluices is continuously monitored. The primary sluice settings and diversion box wall
levels are constructed to cater for the expected pollutant load. As this may vary because of various
other influences during a power station’s life-cycle, these levels are then adjusted to obtain optimal
operation.
12.2 PROBLEMS
12.2.1 Drains and canals

 Failure or cracking of concrete linings;
 Silt accumulation in canals;
 Erosion of sides of canals;
 Denudation and growth of pioneer plants on earth banks or over top and bottom of canals;
 No separation of dirty and clean water e.g. at silt trap area;
 Potential accumulation of silt in drains, which may cause blockages of drain, backflow of water and
drain failure.
The consequences of these typical problems could be:
 Pollution of clean water, eventually leading to natural watercourses or vlei areas downstream.
 Potential overflowing of contaminated water into adjacent areas and environmentally sensitive
areas, thus resulting in environmental contravention.
 Change in floral and faunal species diversity in vlei area (due to acidic water and increasing
concentrations of heavy metals).
 Canal side berms structure: Loss of stability and malfunctioning resulting in potential breaches of
berm and possible unauthorised overflowing of pollution control dams.
 Plant growth can result in blockage of canals or drains, resulting in overloading of silt traps.
12.2.2 Silt traps

 The diversion canal at exit of the silt trap does not operate effectively due to silt not being regularly
removed from the silt trap.
 There is an overflow of silt on both sides of the diversion canal, and thus the separation of clean
and dirty water is not taking place over the first 20m from the silt trap.
 From the silt trap there is runoff of silt directly into the veld or natural water course or vlei area.
 Silt is banking up in the silt trap and is not removed on a regular basis.
 Increased sedimentation levels are resulting in a decreased holding capacity for water in the silt
trap.
 Cattle and birds are drinking from the water in the silt trap and any overflowing water courses.
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 The ash or coal silt removed from the silt trap is not disposed to either the ash dam / dump or
stockpile disposal facility. The heaps of silt are being washed into the surrounding veld or into a
pollution control dam thereby reducing the holding capacity of the dam.
 Serious pollution of the clean surface water diversion canal can occur as well as downstream into a
natural watercourse or vlei area.
 A health hazard to grazers, browsers, small mammals and birds exists, if contaminated water is
being used for drinking purposes.
 The aquatic ecosystem could be adversely affected resulting in species change (fauna/flora). The
downstream natural watercourses or vlei areas could also be adversely affected. (Vlei areas are
regarded as sensitive ecosystems).

Table 12-1: Frequency of inspections
Action Frequency Standards

Surface Drainage
a) Station area
 Perform a visual inspection on surface drainage. This can form part of Every year
the visual assessment of the roads.)
 Produce a report with photographic record.
 Give maintenance guidelines (O&M manuals to be consulted).
b) Security fence area
 Perform visual inspection (after rainfall season). Every year
 Identify erosion areas.
 Produce a report with photographic record
 Give maintenance guidelines.
12.3.1 Monitoring
In addition to inspections, the artisan or assistant would usually undertake to regularly monitor the
drains and canals. The following is provided as a guide:
a) Drains & Canals
 After rain: Check canals for silt deposition of more than 150mm.
 After rain: Check for erosion on sides of canal.
 Weekly: Check diversion canals for bare patches and any washed-out areas.
 Quarterly: Check competency of joint sealant.
 Annually: Check canal concrete lining for cracking or spalling:
 5-Yearly: Check overall functioning of joints.
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b) Silt Traps
 After rain: Check silt level in silt traps (±50mm maximum).
 After rain: Check for silt in dissipater structure.
 After rain: Check for debris in diversion box and sluice gate.
 Weekly: Check silt level in silt traps (±50mm maximum).
 Weekly: Check for silt in dissipater structure.
 Weekly: Check for debris in diversion box and sluice gate.
 Quarterly: Check competency of joint sealant.
 5-Yearly: Check overall functioning joints.

Typically the remedial actions are as follows. In most cases the actions described are general
maintenance functions.
12.4.1 Drains and Canals

a) For cracking and spalling of concrete, refer to 240-144332407: Guideline for Eskom Power Stations
Concrete Remedial Work [5].
b) Remove pioneers and invader plants from top edges and bottom of cement trenches.
c) Where silt deposition of more than 150mm occurs, clean canals using an excavator with a
toothless bucket to prevent damage to the joint sealant. Load spreaders must be used under all
outriggers to reduce the contact pressure over the subsoil drains. Ash deposits to be returned to
ash dam / dump whilst other deposits should be disposed in a licenced waste disposal facility.
d) Where erosion of sides of canal occurs, repair plastic, if damaged. Re-compact soil over plastic
using suitable material. Minimum compaction 90% mod AASHTO.
e) If joint sealant is damaged, remove damaged areas, clean joints to required depth, prime and seal
joints to manufacturer's instructions. Joint sealant to be "Hot poured bitumen".
f) Where silt deposition to a depth of more than 150mm occurs, remove.
g) If bare patches and washed-out areas appear, replace soil and compact to 90% modified AASHTO.
Reinstate grass cover.
Contingency Measures
a) Silting up of the concrete dirty water canals:

These canals should not silt up under normal conditions if proper construction and maintenance
procedures are followed. In the event of a rain storm causing excessive erosion and the subsequent
filling of the canals with silt, the canals must then be cleaned as soon as possible to avoid damage due
to overtopping of the canals after further rains.
If the canals are more than half-filled with silt and water is dammed up on one side (behind the silt),
then the water must first be pumped out slowly before the silt is removed as the sudden pressure
caused by the water suddenly draining away upon removing a blockage may lead to the uplift and
floating of the concrete panels and expensive repairs.
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12.4.2 Silt traps
a) Silt heaps must be removed and the silt returned either to the ash dam / dump or a licenced
disposal facility. Silt removed from the silt trap must also be returned. Correct operation of the silt
trap and sluice gates must be undertaken so that minimal pollution of the natural stream takes
place.
b) Any silt in the veld or watercourses must be removed and returned. Where the veld is damaged
adjacent to the silt trap, the ground must be ripped, rehabilitated and revegetated.
c) The silt trap area must be fenced to prevent grazers and browsers from drinking contaminated
water.
d) If silt level in silt trap is 50mm or more, clean silt trap.
e) If silt in dissipater structure, clean dissipater by hand to prevent damage to blocks
f) If any debris in diversion box and sluice gates, clean. All debris to be removed from silt trap area.
g) If joint sealant damaged, remove damaged areas, clean joints to required depth, prime and seal
joints to manufacturer's instructions.
Contingency Measure
If silt is dumped along the side of an open drain, trench or canal, this silt should be immediately cleared
away. If the dumped silt has the potential to create an environmental hazard, then an incident report
should be filed and it should be determined who was responsible for the dumping incident.
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13. SUB-SURFACE DRAINS
13.1 DESCRIPTION
A power station terrace and associated facilities, in addition to being drained by surface clean and dirty
water canals, is also drained by sub-surface drains.
The drains under consideration mainly relate to sub-surface drains on a power station terrace. At some
older power stations there is no separation between clean and dirty water drainage systems. Typically
drains can cope with the runoff occurring during a 1:10 year storm.
On newer power stations, clean water generally drains into a natural watercourse or a wetland. Dirty
water drains may drain into:
 natural watercourses during high flows, usually through a dissipater
 or, during low flows, into a pollution control dam through silt traps.
One of the primary functions of a pollution control works is to provide a facility to manage clean and
dirty water run off and groundwater in an environmentally responsible as well as a cost-effective
manner while meeting the requirements of the Water Act.
A pollution control system is designed to retain only polluted water. Clean water is designed to be
released into natural watercourses. Owing to the high dilution achieved during high flow periods
(rainstorms), polluted water may then be diverted past the pollution control systems. This results in
minimising the total volume of highly polluted water on any given Eskom property. Such an approach is
adopted only with the agreement of the Department of Water and Sanitation.
Sources of chemical pollutants entering into the station drains and stormwater drainage system are
from the following sources:
a) Ammonia plant: Gaseous ammonia after being dissolved in mixing tank becomes liquid ammonia.
b) Chemical laboratories and stores (bulk storage): All water treatment chemicals (acids, alkalis,
resins).
c) Contractors' yards: Herbicides and pesticides
d) Workshops: Acid baths dosed with lime.
e) Nursery: Herbicides, pesticides and fungicides.
f) Fire Training Area: Mono-ammonium phosphate; fluorinated protein foam.
g) Hydrogen Plant: Potassium hydroxide (KOH) in boiling cells.
Certain of these pollutants (notably acids) are corrosive to concrete and steel piping.
13.2 PROBLEMS
The typical problems are as follows:
 Corrosion and deterioration of both steel and concrete pipes. On a power station terrace, this is
often caused by the unauthorised flushing of acid used at the water treatment plant down the
drains;
 Oil-contaminated water entering the drains;
 Potential blockages of drains may occur, for instance with silt/ash; which may cause backflow of
water and pipe failure.
 Potential seepage of contaminated water into groundwater aquifers.
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 Leakages;
 Potential pollution to ground water;
 Overflow from blocked drains into surface and groundwater resources;
 Environmental damage downstream;
Overflowing from cooling tower ponds occurs. The risk of overflow is exacerbated when the cooling
tower inlet screens block up causing an increase in make-up water flow that eventually overflows.
(Cooling tower ponds contain water that has a high pH and high salinity levels, especially sulphates).
There are generally no procedures for draining cooling tower ponds or ducts, nor maintaining
stormwater trenches to minimise the risk of-polluting natural water courses through dirty water
discharges.

Typical remedial actions are as follows. In certain cases these remedies are general maintenance
functions.
a) For cracking and spalling of concrete, refer to 240-144332407: Guideline for Eskom Power Stations
Concrete Remedial Work [5].
b) If drain outlets are blocked, clean as required.
c) Where relevant, investigations should be undertaken to determine whether the clean stormwater
can be separated from the dirty water system to reduce the risk of the two mixing and causing a
discharge of contaminated water into the environment.
d) Management plans should be formulated for the routine operation of the station drains and
stormwater reticulation system. Contingency plans for any environmental incidents which may
result from abnormal conditions (arising from natural or station related activities) should be
prepared.
e) All possible sources of liquid effluent from the station should be reviewed and a water pollution
control programme should be prepared which details the pollution sources, action plans to
eliminate pollution, a proposed monitoring programme, and contingency plans. This programme
should include containment of all chemical and oil spills at the source (a recovery system should be
in place before these pollutants enter the stormwater drainage system).
f) The cooling water system should be reviewed to prevent any overflow from the cooling towers (or
ensure that the overflow can be recycled. The cooling water system should be drained on a
regular basis and the cooling tower screens should be inspected daily.
13.4 MAINTANENCE LIMITATIONS

The risk of executing maintenance to clean the storm water network is the unavailability of isolations,
and high active station drains inflow induced by operation and maintenance activities from the plant i.e.
water treatment plant, cooling towers, and blowdown system. The storm water network has no
redundancy. Therefore, the function of station drainage system conveying storm water to be recovered
and recycled back to the relevant water systems is a critical requirement which assists the station in
sustaining an effective water consumption which minimizes the consequence of problems noted above.
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14. ASH DAMS
14.1 DESCRIPTION
A Maintenance and Operations (O&M) Manual is generally available for all Eskom’s ash dams. These
O&M Manuals typically address the various elements of a typical ash dam and include:
14.1.1 Wall Building

This procedure ensures that there is always sufficient capacity for slurry operations and allows
adequate access onto the ash dam.
The number of walls built to control and guide ash flow are generally kept to a minimum as the cost of
operating the ash dam is almost directly proportional to the cost of wall building.
Roadways are provided that generally slope inwards with a drainage channel or take down chute
leading runoff water down to the next roadway. This arrangement reduces the amount of water running
down the slopes and thereby minimises soil erosion.
14.1.2 Daywall, Night-wall and Innerwall sections

Typically ash is pumped onto ash dams or is slurried at a high point on the ash dam. The ash slurry
will then gravitate along the daywall to a final deposition point. Diluted slurry is required to prevent
excessive beaching of the ash along the channel route. Only fine ash from daytime ashing is
transported along the daywall. The nightwall channels accommodate all ash from coarse ash cycles
and the night-time fine ashing. The nightwall runs between the daywall and the inside of the ash dam.
Typically the daywall transports 40%; and the nightwall 60% of the station’s total ash production. The
rate of rise will be the same for both walls provided that the nightwall has a width equal to about 1.5
times that of the daywall. The daywall should always be above the nightwall to reduce further the risk
of an ash spillage during night hours.
It is usual for the floors of both the daywall and the nightwall to be constructed to slope towards the
inside of the dam. This forces the rainwater to drain along the inner berm thus avoiding any risk of
erosion of the outer berm during a major storm.
The ash slurry further gravitates along the day/night or innerwall sections to the deposition point from
where the ash is allowed to flow into the dam and to beach towards the penstock intake structure.
14.1.3 Pool on top of the ash dam

Legislation (the Water Act - Act 36 of 1998 and Government Notice No. 704 requires the minimum
storage capacity of any system to be based on the normal operating water; plus the average monthly
rainfall; less the gross mean monthly evaporation; plus 1:100 year 24hr storm capacity plus 0,8 meter
dry freeboard. Daywalls are thus constructed in such a way that an ash dam will always have sufficient
capacity for normal ash disposal operations; plus the average monthly rainfall; less the gross mean
monthly evaporation; plus a 1:100 year 24hr storm; plus at least 0.5m of dry freeboard at the lowest
point on the daywall.
A minimum freeboard of the maximum level of the water after a 1:100yr 24hr storm plus at least 0.8m is
maintained at all times. During severe rainfall periods the size of a pool could increase considerably
but is usually reduced as quickly as the penstocks and return water dams will allow. The excess
stormwater is managed in such a way as to maximise the evaporation from the ash dam and to reduce
the amount of surplus water in the ash water return dam.
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14.1.4 Filter Drains
The filter drains are a very important part of the ash dam. Goosenecks are usually provided in the filter
drain outlet pipes to reduce the formation of calcium carbonate in the filter drains. Rodding eyes are
also provided to facilitate the cleaning of sediments or other blockages.
14.1.5 Penstocks
Penstock systems on ash dams drain off ash water – and usually discharge into ash water return dams.
Typically the vertical decant tower of a penstock comprises precast concrete rings or steel rings. Steel
rings carry larger frictional shear forces i.e. from a much higher ash dam height.
Penstock rings are placed one on top of one another to form the decant tower as the level of the ash
rises. The rings are also used to control the amount of water being drawn off the ash dam. Before the
end of each day additional penstock rings are placed on the decant tower to prevent water and ash
being drawn into the decant tower during the night. In the morning the rings are removed in order to
enable water to be drawn off the ash dam.
14.1.6 Stormwater Management

Management of stormwater on the ash dams is a critical part of the operation of the ash dam facility.
Poor management of water on the ash dam could result in the failure of the impoundment. The volume
of stormwater retained on the ash dam is kept to a minimum at all times and excess stormwater is
drained from the ash dam within 3 to 4 days.
14.1.7 Solution Trenches

Water draining from the base or sides of an ash dam is diverted into an ash water return dam via a
solution trench.
14.1.8 Stormwater Diversion Canals

The stormwater diversion canal diverts clean water around an ash dam complex.
14.1.9 Walkways to Penstocks

These are typically timber structures capable of bearing the load of several people carrying penstock
rings.
14.1.10 Piezometers
Piezometers monitor the position of the water table within the wall of the dam so that the phreatic
surface may be compared with the maximum permissible levels.
14.2 PROBLEMS
Problems generally occur as a consequence of not following the requirements laid down in the
applicable Maintenance and Operations (O&M) Manual. Such problems include:
 Problems as a consequence of incorrect wall building procedures;
 Not maintaining the minimum freeboard of the maximum level of the water after a 1:100yr 24hr
storm plus at least 0.8m at all times;
 The development of cracks in the ash at the transitions between insitu materials below the ash;
 Inadequate compaction of berms;
 Erosion of berms;
 Ash slurry incorrectly channelled (e.g. a low point in a channel coinciding with a high point on an
ash dam);
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 Not covering the main and toe filter drains with a layer of coarse ash as soon as possible after the
commencement of ashing resulting in ingress of dust into the drains and vegetation growing in the
filter material;
 Uncontrolled driving of vehicles on an ash dam (e.g. the wheel load from a truck could break a filter
drain pipe causing an early failure of a filter drain);
 No goosenecks provided in the filter drain outlet pipes causing a build up in the formation of
calcium carbonate in the drains. Also rodents could make nests in the drain pipes thereby causing
blocking of the pipes;
 Additional penstock rings not placed on the decant tower before the end of each day allowing
water and ash to be drawn into the decant tower during the night;
 Additional penstock rings not removed in the morning resulting in a build up of water on the ash
dam;
 The water level over the penstock ring rising to more than 160mm causing pressure surges in the
pipe that could dislodge the penstock rings;
 Excess stormwater not decanted from the ash dam within 3 to 4 days resulting in a build up of
water on the ash dam;
 Mismanagement of stormwater (e.g. poor management of water on the ash dam could result in the
failure of the impoundment);
 Erosion of the solution trench or stormwater diversion canals;
 Malfunctioning of the filter drains;
 Clogging of the solution trench and stormwater diversion canals with vegetation;
 Timber used for the penstock walkway not being kept in good repair at all times resulting in a
dangerous situation being created for workers;
 The penstock walkway platform not being regularly raised so that the platform is less than 0.5m
above the pool resulting in a dangerous situation being created for workers;
 Ash pipe bursts resulting in slurry collecting in the solution trench, which in turn causes
sedimentation of the solution trench and return water dams with a consequent decrease in the
holding capacity;
In addition to non-compliance with the requirements of an O&M manual, failure of wet ash dams may
also be due to:
 Poor drainage;
 Poor founding material (e.g. if on a rehabilitated opencast mine);
 High rate of rise (above 4m per annum);
 Effluents on daywalls;
 High phreatic surface;
 Inadequate stormwater storage capacity;
 Poor compaction of daywall berms;
 Poor cementing of the ash.

Page: 70 of 113

Ash dam
a) Check condition of outer slopes, toe & filter drain discharges. Every month
b) Read piezometers and check penstock. Every month
c) Check freeboard and extent of pool. Every week
d) Undertake a topographical survey Every 2 years
e) Undertake a stability check. Every 2 years
f) Visual inspection by a Profession Civil Engineer. Every year
Condition monitoring must generally comply with the following:

 Inspections in accordance with the Operations & Maintenance Manual;
 Material testing – 3 yearly;
 Risk assessment – 3 yearly.
The anticipated maintenance programme generally takes into account the following:
 Annual operation and maintenance;
 Annual engineering fees;
 Material strength assessment – every 3 years.
The following maintenance activities are generally provided for in the applicable Operations &
Maintenance Manual:
 Ash dam monitoring;
 Piezometer monitoring;
 Ash water return dam monitoring;
 Groundwater monitoring;
 Ash dam contour survey;
 Coordination meetings;
 Legal and safety requirements;
 Groundwater monitoring;
 Settlement monitoring.
Page: 71 of 113
14.3.1 Ash Dam Monitoring
14.3.1.1 Monthly monitoring

On a monthly basis the following items are checked and reported on:
Pool
 Closest position of the pool to the daywall.
 The area of the pool.
Penstocks
 Verticality of the rings forming the decant tower.
 Presence of the geofabric wrapping, if installed, around the decant towers.
 Flow depth at the crest of the decant tower.
Catwalk
 Availability and use of safety harnesses.
 Minimum height of the platform above the pool level.
 Structural integrity of the platform and handrails.
Daywall
 Age of the ash that is being used in daywall construction.
 Days of daywall ashing currently available.
 Total freeboard between daywall and the pool level.
 External and internal slope.
 Presence of any wet spots on the outer slope.
 Slope alignment maintained?
Road at step-ins.
 Is the road sloping inward?
 Is adequate drainage provided on the side slopes?
Ash dam perimeter access road

 Properly graded to the required cross fall gradient?
 All water drained off the road surface after a rain storm?
 Road surface wearing course still intact?
 Structural layers still intact?
Filter drain outlets

 Are the drains still functioning?
 Is the water from the drains clear or is ash silt present?
 Is chemical scaling occurring at the outlets?
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 Is there any damage to the pipe or drainage system?

 Rodding shall be carried out once every 3 months, or more often if any drains appear to be
blocked.
 The seepage flow at every drain outlet shall be measured and recorded at three monthly intervals.
Trending of this data will provide earlier warning of filter deterioration.
Solution & cut off trenches

 Is the trench clear of any obstacles?
 Are the trench bottom and sides well maintained?
 Is all growth between expansion joints removed?
 Has all vegetation between the trench and the ash dam toe been removed during the growing
season?
Stormwater / stream diversion canals

 Is the canal clear of any obstacles?
 Are the canal bottom and sides well maintained?
 Are all growth between expansion joints removed?
 Has the canal been checked fortnightly during the rainy season or after severe storms?
Piezometers
 Have they been installed in the areas required?
 Are those already installed, in good working order?
 Have the water table levels been recorded?
 Is the current phreatic surface within acceptable safety limits?
Barrier fence
 Is the fence still intact?
 Is unauthorised entrance prevented?
Firebreaks
 Check general condition.
Boreholes
 Are any boreholes blocked?
Discharge points
 Station responsible for closing and locking.
14.3.1.2 Weekly monitoring

a) On a weekly basis the following items are checked and reported on:
 Oil traps & diversion box
 Are there ash blockages?
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 What is the oil quantity? Oil to be skimmed if necessary.
14.3.1.3 Daily monitoring

a) Where excess water is of concern, daily checks and reports must be made on the following items:
 Chemical dosing;
 Pumping of excess water;
 Water levels.
14.3.2 Piezometer Monitoring

Piezometers are generally required to monitor the position of the water table in the ash dam. It is more
economical to install piezometers in the early stages of the ash dam, extending them as the dam rises,
than to drill holes and install them at a later stage. The piezometers tend to be far more reliable if
installed in the early stages of the ash dam.
Readings should be taken at monthly intervals. Weekly readings are to be taken when the phreatic
surface has risen to a level that represents a high risk situation. In the early stages readings are
usually taken quarterly.
A pool less than 200 metres from the outer crest of the daywall, is to be considered as a high risk
situation and weekly readings will be applicable in this instance.
14.3.3 Ash Water Return Dam Monitoring
14.3.3.1 Monthly monitoring

On a monthly basis the following items are checked and reported on:
Water storage capacity

 The current water level.
 Check that all the pumps are operational.
 Silt levels in the dam (annually).
 Is adequate storage capacity available for the maximum anticipated rainfall?
Dam wall
 Any wet spots on the downstream slope?
 Any sign of erosion on the internal or external slopes?
 Any cracks along the crest?
 Any signs of settlement or movement.
 Are any shrubs or trees growing on the wall?
Downstream pollution
 Has any polluted water spilled into the environment?
 If so, was the Environmental Manager notified immediately thereafter of the volume and the reason
for the spill?
14.3.3.2 Daily monitoring

Where excess water is serious, daily checks and reports must be made on the following items:
Page: 74 of 113
Dam levels
 What are the dam levels?
14.3.4 Ash Dam Contour Survey

An aerial LIDAR survey (Horizontal Accuracy 10 cm, Vertical Accuracy 8cm) with 10 cm pixel digital
colour orthophoto of the ash dam area shall be carried out every 24 months. A contour plan with
contours at 2m intervals and a digital file with the X, Y and Z co-ordinates of every survey point are to
be produced after every aerial survey. In addition to the aerial survey, a representative number of spot
levels are to be taken every six months to assess the rate of rise of the various wall areas. A number
of survey beacons are to be constructed at strategic positions to serve as benchmark levels from where
the relevant dam wall levels can be surveyed. An accuracy of approximately 20mm will be required for
the six monthly surveys.
14.3.5 Legal and Safety Requirements

Ash dams are hazardous areas and unauthorised people shall not be allowed on to them for the
following reasons:
 The area around the pool of the ash dam is expected to behave like quicksand under certain
conditions. "Sinkholes" may also occur in older dams.
 The ash will cause blistering of the skin after prolonged contact.
 Ash water is poisonous. It is therefore essential to erect clearly visible warning signs and to keep
the gates to the ash dam locked when there are no ash dam personnel on site.
Preventing public access to the ash dam is the legal responsibility of the Ash Dam Owner.
Unauthorised access to the ash dam site must be prevented. Safety on the ash dam must be
constantly reviewed and upgraded where necessary. Where work is being carried out on the surface of
the ash dam, or off the beaten track, personnel must work in pairs. Established routes across the ash
paddocks should be used wherever possible, even if this means having to walk further. Personnel
must be informed of the dangers of working on an ash dam.
14.3.6 Groundwater Monitoring

In most cases a system of groundwater monitoring points will have been installed. This is usually an
ongoing activity. All aspects of any applicable groundwater monitoring programme must be followed
closely. The responsibility for the monitoring of the water quality will usually remain with the
environmental section of the power station. The monitoring frequency may be quarterly but would be
increased to monthly if any deterioration in the pollution levels is detected.
The monitoring frequency for the piezometers, the filter drain outlets and the freeboard on the ash dam
is increased to a weekly interval whenever the rainfall exceeds 100 mm per week. The responsible
professional engineer is to be notified immediately of every high rainfall incident.
The responsible professional engineer will visit the facility within three days from the date of notification
and will advise the power station of any additional actions that may be required.
14.3.7 Settlement Monitoring

Settlement monitoring is to be performed at all settlement monitoring points. The monitoring frequency
shall be every six months. The survey tolerance shall not exceed 20mm.
14.3.8 Rainfall Monitoring

Measurement of rainfall at the ash dam is an essential component of any monitoring programme, as
there often appears to be local differences in rainfall between the power station terrace and ash dam
area.
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Typically the remedial actions are found in the applicable Maintenance and Operations Manual.
14.4.1 Compliance with O&M Manual Requirements

Repairs are to be effected as soon as possible. No ash should be transported along any channel
where the crest width of any berms has been eroded by more than 30% of the original width.
Any damage to any element of an ash dam facility should be repaired as soon as possible. All
blockages; as well as vegetation growing in solution trenches or storm water diversion canals should be
removed as soon as possible.
A Professional Engineer should be called upon to advise on any of the following:
 Poor drainage;
 Poor founding material;
 High rate of rise (above 4m per annum);
 Effluents on daywalls;
 High phreatic surface;
 Inadequate stormwater storage capacity;
 Poor compaction of daywall berms;
14.4.2 Emergency Situations and Procedures

All ash dams must comply with the requirements of new regulations under the Occupational Health and
Safety Act 85 of 1993 and SANS 10286 pertaining to Major Hazard Installations. Certain of Eskom’s
ash dams are classified as major hazard facilities.
A major hazard facility is any facility, which could pose a catastrophic risk to either the public or the
environment. In terms of the current legislation, a “High” risk classification would equate to the facility
being regarded as a “Major Hazard Installation”.
For every ash dam it is necessary to:
 Identify possible failure modes.
 Identify the maximum zone of influence for every failure mode.
 Identify impacts in the zone of influence.
 Compare impacts with the definition for a major hazard facility.
 Produce report with the findings.
The following points outline an emergency situation and the various procedures that should be followed
when an emergency situation arises at any dam.
When any of the following emergency situations arise, the corresponding actions should be taken,
depending on the gravity of the situation:
14.4.2.1 Emergency situation: Evacuation

The warning system to evacuate the downstream area of the dam is set into operation.
Indicators:
 The ash dam wall has failed and water and ash is flowing downstream;
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 The ash dam is overflowing during heavy rains and ash water is flowing over the non-overspill
crest of the wall or will do so shortly;
 There has been an earthquake and the ash dam wall is damaged;
Actions to be taken:
 Warning system should be put into action. Authorities / persons threatened by the ash dam break
should be warned (by telephone, radio, car, etc.) to evacuate immediately. Tick off systematically
as each person is warned.
 Guards with red flag and/or warning signals should be placed at road and rail crossings
downstream of the ash dam until authorities can take over.
 Place an observer at the dam. Provide him with a means of immediate communication.
 Provide lighting to the problem area if at night.
 Implement a monitoring program so that changes in the situation could be noted and measured.
14.4.2.2 Emergency situation: Preparedness

Persons involved are alerted to prepare for possible evacuation.
 Put warning system into action. Authorities/persons threatened by the ash dam break should be
warned to prepare for evacuation.
 Further actions are the same as for emergency situation.
14.4.2.3 Emergency situation: Uncertainty

Should the observer be unsure of the degree of gravity, professional advice should be obtained.
 During this situation (should the individual in charge doubt the gravity of the situation), professional
advice should be obtained. Furthermore, the situation should be continuously monitored as
mentioned in the last point of emergency situation.
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15. ASH DUMPS
15.1 DESCRIPTION
A Maintenance and Operations (O&M) Manual is generally available for all Eskom’s ash dumps. These
O&M Manuals typically address the various elements of a typical ash dump:
15.1.1 Mechanical Components
15.1.1.1 Conveyors
Extendible and shiftable conveyors are used. These run along a platform. Initially the platforms are
built of earth but as the dumps progress they are placed on the ash surface. The actual positions of the
shiftable conveyor are dictated by the operational capabilities of the spreader / stacker machine stability
constraints.
15.1.1.2 Spreader machines

The spreader’s method of operation is relatively simple. Only two different operations are required in
each position to obtain the maximum volume of undozed "free" ash.
The spreader must start operation from a position such that a cone of ash may be placed on the edge
of the dump thus requiring only the minimum of dozing to push it over the edge and down the
advancing face. The spreader must then move towards the head end of the conveyor placing a row of
cones as it progresses, to form a windrow. The peaks of the cones that protrude above the final dump
levels are dozed forwards and over the edge.
In the initial power station construction stage, when ash volumes are relatively small, dry ashing may
be undertaken by using a spreader as the main component of an ashing system. An extendible
conveyor may then be utilised as a temporary stand-by ashing system to be used only when the
spreader is unavailable. Ashing operations would then be carried out from the spreader machine to
advance the frontstack of the dump within reasonable limits of the spreader and dozers.
15.1.1.3 Stacker machines

Although a costly capital item, a stacker is, however, required for effective ash dump construction for a
fully operational power station. This is used in conjunction with shiftable conveyors.
The stacker is more articulated than the spreader and therefore many methods of operation can be
investigated before the optimum method of stacking is decided on.
15.1.2 Drainage Systems

Clean water runoff from the ash dump should be allowed to flow into natural watercourses.
Dirty water runoff from the ash dump should be minimised and contained within the dump site or linked
to the station water balance and prevented from entering natural watercourses or any clean water dam.
Drainage generally comprises a perimeter canal along the toe of the ash dump to collect run-off water
from the dump surface and side slopes. This trench is diverted around the sides of the dump. While
run-off water is dirty water it cannot be allowed to enter a public watercourse. To conform to this
requirement, dirty water is discharged into containment areas – typically formed by earth berms –
where ash settling and some evaporation occurs. The ash silt remains after evaporation. These berms
are generally positioned so that they will be covered in due course by ash sometime in the future. If so,
the containment areas do not require cleaning. Water run-off from the advancing ash face is similarly
collected by temporary cut-off drains and led to the containment dams.
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15.1.3 Erosion Protection
Measures are taken to prevent erosion of the ash dump. This is done to prevent instability of the dump
side slopes and advancing face as well as prevent pollution of the environment.
15.1.4 Emergency Ashing System

In the event of the stacker being unavailable due to breakdown, maintenance etc., ashing can be
accomplished by using the spreader. Should the spreader also be out of operation, a limited volume of
ash may be stored within the power station. Otherwise an emergency ashing facility is provided where
the ash can be temporarily dumped and later picked up and returned to the ashing system for final
disposal.
15.1.5 Dust Suppression System

The following methods, used on their own or combined, are considered for dust control on the
unrehabilitated areas of an ash dump:
 Smooth drum roller compaction;
 Water via mobile sprinkler machines or water bowsers;
 Water via moveable sprinkler system;
 Polymers;
 Soil cover.
Additional methods of reducing dust blow include landscaping, planting windbreaks etc.
15.1.5.1 Smooth drum roller compaction

Nominal compaction will increase the possibility of a crust being formed due to the pozzolanic action of
the ash. A smooth drum roller towed by a dozer or a self-propelled roller may be used for this
operation.
It should be noted that this method can only be used on the top surfaces.
15.1.5.2 Water
Water applied via a sprinkler system; mobile sprinkler machine; or using a water bowser may prove
effective in controlling dust. It is applied at a sufficient rate to achieve a hard surface crust, resistant to
dust blow.
15.1.5.3 Polymers
Various polymers are available that may be used for dust control. The polymer is diluted with water
and is sprayed at a specific application rate over the compacted ash surface. These have been found
to be expensive and difficult to apply.
15.1.5.4 Soil cover

A thin layer of soil cover spread over the ash surface (~50mm) may prove successful in controlling dust
blow problems and limiting the amount of water required for dust suppression.
Similar measures to those stated above must also be taken to prevent dust blow from access roads,
haul roads, borrow areas, and other bare soil areas from which dust may be generated.
15.1.6 Topsoiling and Rehabilitation

When a portion of an ash dump reaches its final height (generally in the order of 25-50m depending on
the stability of the underlying geology), the finished portion is then shaped to its final geometry, after
Page: 79 of 113
which topsoiling and rehabilitation takes place on both the side slopes and the final backstack top
surface.
Topsoiling and rehabilitation of completed portions of the ash dump is carried out to ensure that:
 Water running from the dump's rehabilitated surface is clean and uncontaminated by the ash.
 The site may be used for other purposes once the dump is decommissioned (e.g. grazing). The
area should, therefore, be accessible and capable of sustaining future plant growth.
 The completed ash dump will have as small a negative visual impact on the environment as
possible. Final grading of side slopes and crests should be such that the ground profiles are
curved, smooth and flowing rather than with sharp changes in line and gradient. Stormwater
management should, however, not be compromised in the process.
In accordance with the above, the ash dump is progressively rehabilitated. Areas where final shaping
and leveling of the ash has been completed are topsoiled and rehabilitated.
Care is taken to recover the topsoil from positions in front of the advancing ash face for use in the
topsoiling operations before it is covered by ash.
15.1.7 Road Network (see Chapter 15);

Gravel roads are provided for access into ash dump sites and around the toe of ash dumps. These
roads are extended as and when necessary. Inspection and maintenance access roads are provided
along the conveyors on the dump and on final backstack surface and sideslopes.
15.2 PROBLEMS
Problems generally occur as a consequence of not following the requirements laid down in the
applicable Maintenance and Operations (O&M) Manual. Such problems include:
Deterioration due to:
 Poor surface drainage;
 Poor sub-soil conditions;
 High groundwater table phreatic surface;
 Poor dump height and layout geometry and construction control;
Typical problems include:
15.2.1 Dust Problems

The dry ashing system has the potential to create severe dust blow problems, detrimentally affecting
the efficiency of the operating staff and equipment and creating visual and airborne pollution of the
surrounding area. Readily identifiable effects due to dust blow conditions are:
 Reduced visibility and hence reduced safety on the dump and environs;
 Unpleasant working conditions leading to potential health problems;
 Detrimental effects on mobile plant and ash stacking equipment
 Soiling of vegetation and adjacent areas;
 Detrimental visual impact.
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15.2.2 Slope Stability Problems
15.2.2.1 Poor underlying ground conditions

The majority of Eskom’s ash dumps have been constructed with an advancing face having a slope
equal to the angle of repose of the ash (approximately 40°). In certain instances, this could result in
stability problems at some stage, because of poor underlying ground conditions (e.g. the presence of
clays).
15.2.2.2 Safe edge distance (S.E.D.) not achieved

To ensure that the strategic stacking plant (stacker, spreader & conveyors) is not exposed to
unacceptable risk, all plant is required to remain at a safe distance from the edge of the dump. Where
this distance is not achieved, the risk of failure increases unacceptably.
15.2.2.3 Inadequate pozzolanic cementing action

The stability of the ash dump is also a function of the pozzolanic cementing action of the ash. Under
normal circumstances, it is considered reasonable that a degree of this pozzolanic cementing strength
can be relied on, in order to raise the frontstack height within acceptable risk levels. However, this
assumed strength parameter may not be sufficiently present at a particular site or time due to the
possibility of some process being present that inhibits the cementation reaction and so exposes the
dump to an unacceptable stability risk.
In addition, the frontstack area immediately in front of a stacker is still subject to settlement and stress
relief, evidenced by the usual tension cracks in the ash occurring in this area. These are expected to
occur in front of the stacker. Cracks appearing at or behind the stacker should be monitored and the
stacker moved away if the risk of failure appears high.
15.2.2.4 Inadequate drainage

One of the critical frontstack slope stability assumptions is that the dumped ash is not saturated and
remains in front of the stacker/spreader as a buttress with a minimum safe edge distance on which the
stacker/spreader will then stand to place further ash. Poor drainage practice on the dump will create an
unacceptable stability risk.
Where the cutoff stormwater drains behind the shiftable conveyor platform are inadequate, large
volumes of stormwater runoff could concentrate and flow through the conveyor platform into the
operating ashing areas of the stacker/spreader. In addition to erosion of the shiftable conveyor
platform, concentrated stormwater could also flow into the frontstack operating ashing area, possibly
causing large erosion gullies, or slope stability failures, of the ash platform on which the
stacker/spreader must stand, due to large amounts of stormwater entering tension cracks in the
frontstack surface. Large consequential damage cost may then be incurred.
15.2.3 Checklists
Various aspects of the ash dump facility must be checked on a regular basis to ascertain whether any
remedial works are necessary. Such checking must be marked on a checklist so that variances can
easily be spotted. Below is an example of such a checklist. Additional items may be added to this
checklist.
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ITEM TO BE CHECKED ANSWER
ACCESS ROADS
Access road from main road Y/N
Perimeter & site office roads Y/N
Backstack rehabilitation access road Y/N
Temporary topsoil haul ramps Y/N
EXTENDIBLE CONVEYOR PLATFORM / RAMP
Is stormwater control being done? Y/N
Is there erosion under conveyor bases? Y/N
Is conveyor position & alignment Y/N

satisfactory?
Is platform area clean? Y/N
Are roads in good condition? Y/N
SPREADER STANDBY SYSTEM
Condition of conveyor platform Describe
Condition of access roads Describe
Conveyor alignment (as specified) Y/N
Civil and mechanical interface Describe
Progress – dump development Describe
Progress – percentage use Describe
Final front stack slope (as surveyed) Describe
Dust suppression facilities – percentage Describe

use
Dust suppression facilities – effectiveness Describe
Cleanliness of platform area Describe
Stormwater & erosion control Describe
Page: 82 of 113
STACKER / MAIN SYSTEM
Condition of conveyor platform Describe
Condition of access roads Describe
Conveyor alignment (as specified) Y/N
Civil and mechanical interface Describe
Progress – dump development Describe
Progress – percentage use Describe
Final slopes – backstack (as surveyed) Describe
Final slopes – frontstack (as surveyed) Describe
Final slopes – side slopes(as surveyed) Describe
Dust suppression – facilities Describe
Dust suppression – effectiveness Describe
Cleanliness of platform area Describe
Stormwater & erosion control Describe
DUMP GEOMETRY
Biannual audit aerial survey Describe
Survey beacons on dump Y/N
Accuracy of final levels & slopes in Describe

accordance with design (as surveyed)
Slope stabilities – front slopes Describe
Slope stabilities – side slopes Describe
Slope stabilities – access ramps Describe
EMERGENCY ON / OFF LOADING
Serviceability of mechanical equipment Describe
Percentage use of emergency ashing Describe

facility
Page: 83 of 113
Stormwater control & erosion Describe
Dust suppression – facilities Describe
Dust suppression – effectiveness Describe
Water to the emergency area – pressure Describe
Water to the emergency area – supply Describe
Cleanliness Describe
REHABILITATION
Is a topsoil management plan being Y/N

implemented?
Is topsoil being used as recommended? Y/N
Is soil being stockpiled? Y/N
Should soil be stockpiled? Y/N
Is rehabilitation being done as per O&M Y/N

Manual?
Are erosion berms – as designed? Y/N
Are erosion berms – effective? Y/N
DUST SUPPRESSION
Is dust suppression being done on:
– top of dump? Y/N
– sides of dump? Y/N
– backstack advancing face? Y/N
– frontstack top & advancing face? Y/N
Are methods being used as described in

the O&M Manual:
– soil cover? Y/N
– water? Y/N
– chemicals? Y/N
Page: 84 of 113
EVAPORATION POND
Condition of – ponds: Describe
Condition of – inlet & outlet spillways: Describe
Condition of – embankments (erosion / Describe

vegetation):
Condition of – channels to ponds: Describe
Is dredging necessary? Y/N
MOBILE EQUIPMENT
Availability (review equipment records) Describe
Serviceability (review equipment records) Describe
CLEAN WATER DAM
What is the condition of – channels to Describe

dam:
What is the condition of – spillway: Describe
What is the condition of – embankment – Describe

erosion:
What is the condition of – embankment - Describe
vegetation:
Are groundwater & dust sampler results:
– available?: Describe
– satisfactory?: Comment
General
ADVANCING ASH FACE
Are stormwater control berms in place? Y/N
Are containment areas in place? Y/N
Are containment areas capacities Y/N

adequate?
Is dust suppression satisfactory? Y/N
Is refuse being dumped at advancing Y/N

face?
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OPERATIONS PHILOSOPHY
Is O&M Manual up to date? Y/N
Ash percentage – stacker: Figure %
Ash percentage – spreader: Figure %
Ash percentage – emergency system: Figure %
Are changes to dump & operation Comment

required?
Predicted ash volumes (next 3 – 6 Comment
months)
General
ENVIRONMENT & LAND MANAGEMENT
Monitor area for snares and traps Comment
Figure 15-1: Ash dump checklist


Dry ash dumps
1. Life/capacity
Ensure dump development is according to design program and that the remaining volume of the ash
dump is sufficient to meet the remaining required station life plus Lifex.
a) Geometric survey Every main
system shift
 Tachy
 Aerial (overall record).
Every 2 years
Calculate volume since last survey.
b) Coal burn tonnages (from STEP report). Every survey

 Calculate ash make since last survey.
c) Dump dry density at final finishing. Calculate from a) and b) Every survey
above.
Page: 86 of 113
d) Shiftable conveyor shifts. Mark up on coaxial plot. Every shift
e) Correlate b), c) and d) above and project to end of dump life and Every year
check that dump is not ahead of programme.
f) Check dump as-built slopes and heights vs. design requirements Every survey
2. Stability
Refer to operating manual for identification of high-risk (clayey) areas.
a) Check for cracks. Daily
b) Check for sloughing/bulging of the toe. Daily
c) Monitor stacking equipment safe edge distance. Daily
d) Check founding material strength (high-risk areas). Implement Twice yearly

remedial measures minimum of 1 year prior to ashing and
monitor.
e) Monitor drainage/ponding of water at toe of ash dump. (Due to After every heavy
poor topsoil stripping sequence.) rainstorm
3. Dirty water areas
Ensure these stormwater catchment areas do not grow bigger than the designed areas due to
operating problems and the stacker/spreader systems going out of phase.
a) Monitor dirty water runoff area and the drainage facilities (berms Every shift
etc).
Quarterly
b) Freeboard on hydraulic controls and dams:
 Do a visual inspection; Every storm
 Perform level survey. Every year
c) Measure dirty water dam levels: perform water balance (runoff vs. Annually before
dust suppression). Check freeboard and remaining capacity vs. rains
minimum requirements.
d) Monitor dirty water quality Monthly and
before releasing
e) Measure rainfall (continuous monitoring system). Every storm
f) Civil audit as per operating manual. Annually
Condition monitoring must generally comply with the following:

 Inspections in accordance with the Operations & Maintenance Manual;
 Material testing – 3 yearly;
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 Risk assessment – 3 yearly.

The anticipated maintenance programme generally takes into account the following:
 Annual operation and maintenance;
 Annual engineering fees;
 Material strength assessment – every 3 years;
 Risk assessment – every 3 years.
The following maintenance activities are generally provided for in the applicable Operations &
Maintenance Manual:
15.3.1 Dust Suppression Monitoring

Because a dry ashing system has the potential to create severe dust blow problems that can
detrimentally affect both the efficiency of the operating staff and equipment; and because a visual and
airborne pollution of the surrounding area may result as a consequence; it is imperative that dust
suppression monitoring be undertaken, in accordance with an appropriate O&M Manual.
15.3.2 Slope Stability Monitoring
15.3.2.1 Underlying ground conditions

A geotechical report on the underlying ground conditions and associated slope stability should be
available, checked and adhered to. Changes in Environmental Legislation now require a composite
plastic-clay liner to be placed under the dry ash dumps to prevent ground water pollution. The leachate
from the ash dump is removed by leachate collection drains on top of the liner and the ground water is
drained by subsoil drains under the liner. The stability of the ash dump with the composite liner is
checked during the liner design stage and so the dump should be stable. Stability should still however
be monitored by visual inspections to check for cracks/slips on the front stack, especially if extending
up to the stacking equipment.
15.3.2.2 Safe edge distance (S.E.D.) for strategic stacking plant

Previously as a rule of thumb the S.E.D. was 1m back for each meter increase in height i.e. at a height
of 25m the mechanical plant would not stand closer than 25m to the edge.
This rule is now recognised as conservative under certain circumstances and for this reason
investigations can be undertaken by a Professional Engineering specialist to determine the
circumstances in which the S.E.D. may be relaxed. Such an investigation would then be incorporated
into the Operations and Maintenance (O&M) Manual for the applicable ash dump. Such an approach
minimises risks while greatly recovering costs.
This S.E.D. obviously does not apply to mobile plant such as dozers since they must be allowed to run
up to the edge of the dump to carry out their operations.
It is necessary to monitor the S.E.D. in practice due to the strategic nature of the stacking equipment to
the continuous operation of the power station.
15.3.2.3 Pozzolanic cementing action

As the stability of an ash dump is also a function of the pozzolanic cementing action, it is necessary to
monitor this action in practice.
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15.3.2.4 Drainage systems
While a dump may now possibly be constructed much higher than previously allowed, the integrity of
the assumed strength parameters, must be maintained by good drainage practice on the dump.
Drainage systems must therefore be monitored.
Due to the importance of stormwater drainage, a competent person should inspect the system regularly
in the rainy season. Any failure of the serviceability of the drainage system, both due to erosion or
siltation, should be rectified as soon as possible, as catastrophic failures generally happen during an
extreme storm event, often at night or over the weekend when little or no staff are present to detect the
initial warning signs of such a failure and timeously move the stacker/spreader out of harms way. The
operators of such equipment should be made aware of the importance of not allowing such situations to
worsen, since any design storm event could conceivably be exceeded. Being aware of the potential
critical failure mechanisms, due to stormwater drainage failure, would allow operators to identify critical
situations and raise the alarm and even move the stacker/spreader out of harm’s way as soon as
possible if such a situation commences in the vicinity of any strategic stacking plant.
Evaporation Ponds
It is not the intention to clean out the containment areas or small berms in front of the advancing ash
face as they are continually ashed over and new ones constructed in their place.
However, the evaporation ponds should be regularly inspected. These ponds are provided to prevent
dirty water from flowing into natural watercourses. Water flowing from a dump during storms is
collected in the ponds and the silt is allowed to settle out. The water then evaporates leaving the silt
behind. The level of the silt gradually rises with each subsequent storm resulting in a reduction in the
capacity of the pond. After each rainy season, or more frequently if the occasion demands, either new
dams must be timeously provided, or the silt must be removed from the evaporation ponds and the
original capacity restored. The recovered silt should be returned to the ash dump in an area where
ashing activities are being carried out.
Where it is undertaken to desilt ponds, access may prove difficult when the silt is still wet, and it is for
that reason that the ponds should be built in pairs, one next to the other, so dirty water can be diverted
into the second pond while the first pond is allowed to dry out. This is done by constructing a channel,
which discharges into either pond. Offtakes from this channel can be closed or opened by the use of
earth bunds e.g. when cleaning has been completed, the channel can be opened and water allowed to
flow into the first pond while the second is then closed off, dried out and cleaned.
Clean and Dirty Water Dams
Long grass promotes rodent life, which in turn can cause problems to a dam wall because of the
formation of burrows. It is, therefore, important that grassing on the downstream slope of dam walls is
mowed at regular intervals.
Bare patches are to be re-seeded and erosion gullies repaired and grassed.
It is very important that contaminated water and sludge should not be deposited in a clean water dam.
Grass Lined Trenches
Long grass and uncontrolled reed growth within trenches will hinder flow thus rendering the trench
inadequate during periods of high rainfall. The grassed slopes must, therefore, be mowed and reed
growth and other obstructions removed at regular intervals.
Bare patches must be re-seeded or grassed and erosion gullies must be repaired and regrassed.
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Reno Mattress Stone / Pitching Lined Trenches
Vegetation and reed growth through rocks and between mattresses is to be controlled and the wire
cages regularly inspected and repaired if necessary.
Erosion Control Structures
The purpose of these structures is to slow down the velocity of the water carried by the drainage
systems. They are, therefore, susceptible to siltation and will require periodic cleaning to maintain their
efficiency.
15.3.2.5 Legal and Safety aspects

An ash dump can be an unsafe place and unauthorised persons should not be allowed onto it.
Preventing public access will reduce much of the legal risk associated with any ash dump.
Safety on the ash dump should be constantly addressed and dangerous working situations should be
avoided. Personnel should be kept informed as to safe working practices and all regulations pertaining
to the ash disposal site must be adhered to.
Compliance with the above measures should ensure that a good safety record is maintained at the ash
disposal facility.
The statutory requirements, regulations and standards, which are reflected in the O&M Manual must be
maintained. In addition, all Eskom regulations must be adhered to.
The applicable SABS 1200 standards apply to civil works carried out at an ash disposal facility.
The offices and workshops made available to an ash dump operator must be maintained in good order
and kept clean at all times. The regulations laid down in the MOS Act of 1983 must also be adhered to.
15.3.3 Survey and Setting out
15.3.3.1 Control beacons and bench marks

Details and drawings of the positions of control beacons and bench marks that will be necessary to
build a dump should be available in the applicable O&M Manual.
15.3.3.2 Audit surveys

To keep close control of the geometry of a developing ash dump, it is necessary to carry out audit
surveys at strategic intervals during construction. Such surveys provide a means of checking that the
dump is being built within the required tolerances. It has been found that undertaking audit surveys at
the time of the main system shifts, gives the most meaningful information in terms of ash dump growth,
to enable comparison with the relevant growth plan.
It is proposed that new aerial surveys of an ash dump area be undertaken every two years. Such
surveys act as an independent audit to the contractors surveys and serve as a permanent photo record
of the status of the dump; and other environmental factors such as land and pollution management.
The aerial survey provides a new base for ground survey work and prevents any possible errors being
carried through to successive surveys.

It is of no use to carry out and establish records (see the checklists in Section 15.3) if remedial action is
not taken to rectify any problem identified. The maintenance cost over the life of the ash dump could
be very high and, therefore, remedial work should be well planned and cost effective. The advantages
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of a cheap, short life span remedy should be weighed against the advantages of a more expensive but
durable remedy.
Typically the remedial actions, not specifically provided for in an O&M Manual, would require specialist
input from a Professional Engineer.
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16. COAL STOCKYARDS
16.1 DESCRIPTION
A coal stockyard terrace, on which a coal stockpile is established, generally comprises an area
constructed of suitable base material – preferably in-situ material.
The terrace is required to provide a hard surface to facilitate the placing and compaction of a base layer
of coal. The terrace provides
 a hard surface that limits the amount of mixing / contamination of coal at the interface during
compaction; and
 a relatively impervious layer to limit the amount of stockpile pollutants entering the ground water.
Clay deposits are often associated with coal-bearing formations and thus are usually available
within the immediate vicinity of an Eskom power station.
 New Coal Stockyards are now required to have a composite plastic-clay liner under the coal to
prevent ground water pollution. This may also have a concrete slab on top to prevent damage to
the liner by mobile plant and to prevent tearing of the liner as a result of horizontal forces from
settlement of the coal stockpiles.
16.2 PROBLEMS
The following typical problems occur:
 The potential exists for spontaneous combustion;
 Water ponding occurs;
 Coal dust impacts;
 Large volumes of coal silt in runoff water.
 Invaders/pioneer plants occur in open, disturbed areas;
 Denuded areas with evidence of erosion.
 Deterioration of drainage infrastructure due to lack of maintenance i.e. earth and/or concrete
channels
 Spontaneous combustion results in air pollution and constitutes a safety hazard;
 Ponding results in larger volumes of contaminated water;
 Ponding at low levels can lead to serious erosion problems;
 Dust is a health hazard/nuisance;
 Increased silt load in runoff water;
 Visual intrusion of the coal stockpile.
 Spreading of invader/pioneer plants to adjacent areas resulting in difficulties in management.
 Loss of topsoil. Formation of gullies and sheet erosion.
16.3 EROSION & SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION CONTROL

Erosion of the stockpile poses serious problems because of loss of coal; pollution problems; and
clogging of the canals. Prevention of erosion is best achieved by:
 correct stockpile geometry; and
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 correct coal compaction.
The following represent minimal requirements for successful control of erosion and spontaneous
combustion.
16.3.1 Stockpile Construction Geometry

Cross wall berms should preferably be constructed across each terrace side typically at 25m centres to
prevent excessive runoff velocities along the individual terraces. The use of terraces and berms will
help to prevent the runoff water from reaching a critical velocity that will cause erosion, washouts and
the subsequent silting up of the concrete perimeter canals.
The terraces should be constructed as level as possible to prevent water from damming up at low
points. The advantage of a horizontal surface is that it maximises water evaporation from the surface.
The damming-up of water at low points should be avoided because this can lead to serious erosion
problems in the event of a berm or wall break failure. If damming-up occurs, the water should be
pumped or syphoned out into the dirty water canal and the low spot brought to level as soon as the
area is dry enough to allow compaction.
It is recommended that construction of the horizontal terrace layers be commenced from the lowest
point to assist in preventing possible damage during construction.
The surface of each finished terrace of the stockpile should be basin-shaped. This will assist in water
retention after a rainstorm from where the accumulated water may easily evaporate or be pumped out.
After the construction of the final layer (i.e. at the top of the stockpile), a method to control the water
level on the stockpile should be installed. This could be achieved by shaping the top area to create a
sump so that drainage can take place to certain positions. From these positions, water could then be
pumped or syphoned out to the dirty water canals. All water should be pumped directly to the dirty
water canal since erosion of the stockpile sides will occur if the water is allowed to run freely across the
surface. Extreme care should be taken in these areas to ensure that the berms are well constructed so
that no erosion takes place, thus preventing possible wall break failure.
16.3.2 Compaction
Compaction is required to improve side-slope erosion resistance and, in addition, to inhibit the entry of
air into the sides of the stockpile. It is important to note that the emphasis is on uniformity in bulk
density, which helps prevent soft spot formation.
In a well-compacted stockpile, not all the water in the stockpile will drain from the coal, but will be
retained by surface tension among the coal particles. This increases the average humidity, which helps
maintain acceptable temperatures in the stockpile.
Compaction may be done with two types of rollers:
16.3.2.1 Vibrating rollers:

Compaction of the base layer and final side slopes should be done with a vibrating roller. The
maximum layer thickness of the loose coal is 200mm.
It is important that the coal on the sides slopes receives special attention and upon testing must be
inside the permissible limit (required dry bulk density of 1400 - 1500 kg/M³). For the best results and
safest operation the sides must be compacted by driving the roller vertically up and down the sides.
16.3.2.2 Impact rollers:

The impact roller is used for compacting the successive layers of the strategic stockpiles. The
maximum layer thickness is 400mm of loose coal. It is important to note that the impact roller does not
compact the top 300mm of each layer but that this layer will be compacted with the next layer.
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16.3.3 Reclamation of a Stockpile
Reclamation of the strategic stockpile should only go to the top of the initial base layer (300mm above
the earth terrace) with a maximum depth of 150mm from the bottom of the base layer during normal
reclamation operations.
Reclamation should proceed in such a way that the minimum rebuilding of the terrace is required. Also
due consideration must be given to water erosion in the wet season, so that excessive silting and
resultant clogging of canals, culverts and settling basins is prevented.
After reclamation operations are completed, the terraces are to be built up again as soon as possible,
especially in the wet season, to minimise consequential erosion damage. If this is not possible,
temporary measures must be installed to minimise the risk of erosion damage.
16.3.4 Quality Control

The following density tests are required on the side slopes and on the successive coal layers:
16.3.4.1 Dynamic Cone Penetrometer test - side slopes:

The DCP tests can easily be performed on-site and should be used for compaction spot checks on all
layers. For accurate measurements, all tests should be done in a grid on the side slope of the
stockpile. A typical grid consists of one test for every layer at every 75m but this should be halved
where failures occur, until the badly compacted areas can be identified.
The DCP results must be correlated with the Sand Replacement test results. For complete testing
procedures see Testing Procedure for Highways (TMHI).
16.3.4.2 Dynamic Cone Penetrometer test - terrace layers:

The requirements and grid size for these tests are to be determined by experience gained during the
construction of the stockpile. Note that Sand Replacement tests cannot normally be performed on
these layers because the top 300mm of each layer is not compacted by the impact roller. This layer
may, however, be scraped away and the test done on the compacted layers.
16.3.4.3 Sand Replacement test - side slopes and base layer:

The test is performed by digging a hole in the compacted material (coal); determining the mass of the
excavated material when dry; and determining the volume of the hole. For complete testing procedures
see Testing Procedures for Highways (TMH1).
16.3.4.4 Other tests:

Other tests such as gas tests; temperature measurements; and plate tests should be performed on the
stockpiled coal to ensure satisfactory stockpile management. No details of these tests are included as
they do not directly affect the functioning of the earth terrace and pollution control works.

Table 13.5.1 provides the recommended inspection intervals.
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Coal Stockyards
1. Spontaneous combustion
a) Determine construction density. When re-instating
b) Measure gas / heat. Every 6 months
2. Stormwater / erosion control facilities
a) Monitor side slope berms Every storm
b) Monitor perimeter canals Every storm
c) Check silt traps Every storm
d) Check security fence culvert grid Every storm
3. Groundwater pollution
e) Monitor borehole water level and Every 3 months

quality
16.4.1 Monitoring
1. Regular monitoring for spontaneous reactions and compaction density is essential.
2. After rain: Check the coal terraces for any signs of rutting due to stormwater erosion.
3. After rain: Check the coal stockpile top surface for any ponding deeper than 100mm.
4. Monitor dust generation on an on-going basis
5. Spring: Check growth of windbreak.
6. Summer: Remove and replace any dead trees from the windbreak.
7. Summer: Check the spread of invader/pioneer plants
8. After rain: Check the exposed earth terrace for any signs of rutting due to stormwater erosion or
vehicle traffic.
9. During wet or very wet conditions: No vehicles are allowed to drive on the earth terrace. Vehicles
and construction equipment are to drive on the existing coal layer or access roads only. If this is
not possible, all construction work should be stopped to prevent damage to terrace.

1. Compacting the coal at or near optimum water content reduces chances of spontaneous
combustion. This also reduces the possibility of water erosion.
2. Regular monitoring for spontaneous reactions and compaction density is essential.
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3. All erosion gullies, wash-aways, ruts etc. must be repaired immediately by cutting back the sides of
the ruts to a 45° slope and re-compacting in layers of maximum thickness of 150mm. Compaction
is best done using a smooth wheeled vibrating roller. The compaction of the affected area must be
tested for compliance to specification.
4. Where ponding occurs on the stockpile top surface deeper than 100mm; pump out or siphon water
into the dirty water canals. Import coal and re-compact to eliminate the low spot.
5. Suppression dust on the coal stockpile by spraying water onto the coal stockpile surface.
6. If no existing windbreak, consider planting a windbreak comprising 2-3 rows of trees all around the
coal stockyard. The following types of trees have been successfully used for windbreaks at various
Eskom power stations: Eucalyptus Camaldilesis, Eupressus Glabra and Pinus sp. (i.e. Bluegum,
Cypress and Pine).
7. Remove invader/pioneer plants
8. Compact and rehabilitate eroded areas and revegetate.
9. All erosion marks or rutting of the earth terrace should be rectified by importing suitable backfill
material which must be compacted to 90% modified AASHTO. Before filling all loose material
should firstly be removed to a minimum depth of 150mm and the imported material compacted in
150mm layers. Repairs should only be carried out under dry terrace conditions.
16.5.1 Contingency Measures

If spontaneous combustion takes place, emergency fire fighting procedures should be followed. File an
incident report; determine cause of the spontaneous combustion; and draw up preventative action
plans.
If invasive species occur they should be eradicated and replaced with indigenous species.
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17. DAMS
17.1 DESCRIPTION
Dams at power stations are designed for the hydrological conditions found at the power station and
typically consist of an earth wall with a spillway.
The capacity of a dam should be sufficient to contain a 1:50 year rainfall event.
The elements included are:
 Raw water reservoirs;
 Clean water dams;
 Dirty water (or pollution control) dams; and
 Ash water return dams.
A pollution control dam is required to contain polluted runoff water from a power station’s polluted areas
during a 1:50 year rainfall event. The polluted water is recovered and reused by the power station in
order to reduce the total amount of polluted water being held on any Eskom's property. Such a dam
should preferably be able to withstand a 1:100 year flood, since failure of any diversion canals – usually
designed to contain a smaller flood – could result in a full flood entering the pollution control dam.
Elements of typical earthfill dams include:
 Dam walls;
 Spillways;
 Upstream and downstream areas;
 Inlet & outlet works.
17.1.1 Dam Walls

The walls are generally founded on in-situ material with the overburden removed. Ideally the founding
material is sufficiently impervious so that no other measures are necessary to control seepage. The
walls are also generally constructed from selected clayey material, usually in-situ, protected on the
upstream-side by rip-rap and on the downstream-side by grassing.
17.1.2 Spillways
Spillways are typically centrally-placed and have a concrete lining with weepholes for pressure release.
Baffles on spillways can dissipate energy on the downstream-face. Spillways are typically capable of
passing a 1:100 year flood.
Access to the spillway is typically provided by a wide enough crest, which also serves as a road.
17.1.3 Upstream and Downstream areas

The natural watercourses downstream of dam walls are generally lined with rip-rap for erosion
protection. Stability of the downstream-face is maintained by controlling the phreatic surface (water
table) by means of chimney and finger drains. Erosion protection of the upstream-face is generally
achieved by rip-rap and protection of the downstream-face by grassing. Channels immediately
downstream of spillways are commonly also protected by rip-rap.
17.1.4 Inlet and Outlet works

Pipes, with stop valves, typically pass through the dam wall. These pipes are either outlets or used for
level monitoring.
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Most new dams provide for a series of chimney and finger drains to control the phreatic surface within
the downstream face of the earth wall.
An outlet valve from a dam could be situated in a small dissipation structure on the downstream-face of
the dam wall. The valve is typically a butterfly type, which is operated manually by a handwheel. The
valve is situated before any other take off points in order that the dam may be isolated in future.
The sluice gates typically comprise stainless steel plates with frames cast into the concrete.
a) The purpose of the installed equipment is either:
 to contain clean water for storage and subsequent use, in conformity with the Water Act; or
 to divert water, not conforming to DWS standards, into a pollution control dam. All water
conforming to these standards (such as diluted runoff during a thunderstorm) can then be released
into the natural watercourse. This can be achieved by correct calibration of the sluice gates.
A clean water dam is often kept fairly full while a pollution control dam should be kept as empty as
possible to minimise the total volume of polluted water on Eskom's property. During normal operating
conditions this will be achieved by using the polluted water elsewhere on the station. During the
deferment period, water will probably need to be released from the dam (preferably during periods of
high flow) if the necessary permit can be obtained. Failing this, the installation of plant specifically
designed to spray polluted water for evaporation purposes, may be necessary.
17.1.5 Environmental Requirements

Under normal conditions no overflow will be allowed from a pollution control dam without a permit from
the Department of Water and Sanitation as the water pollutants will be highly concentrated and will
most likely not fulfil the requirements imposed by the Water Act. Effluent into the upper Vaal
Catchment must also comply with the "Special Phosphate Standards" as set by the Department of
Water and Sanitation. For this reason, it is essential that an effective water quality monitoring system is
implemented at a power station.
17.2 PROBLEMS
The following typical problems occur:
17.2.1 All Dams:

 Ant and rodents (moles, mice, meercats, lizards, etc.) nests on dam walls;
 low spots on the non-overspill crest on dam walls;
 trees; shrubs; undergrowth; and weeds on or adjacent to dam walls;
 open cracks, sinkholes and pipe tunnels evident on the crest or the upper half of the dam wall.
 Integrity of wall comprised leading to possible instability of walls;
 Freeboard of dam not maintained;
17.2.2 Dirty Water Dams:

 High silt loading into dams with resulting high turbidity in dirty water dams;
 Poor water quality (low pH, high heavy metal concentration) in dirty water dams;
 Potential overflow of polluted water, or seepage downstream from dirty water dams.
 No sampling of ground water in the immediate vicinity of dirty water dams because of lack of
sampling equipment or because no suitable boreholes exists.
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 Aquatic, ecosystem (especially birds) adversely affected resulting in species change (fauna/flora).
Upstream and downstream natural watercourses or vlei areas could also be adversely affected.
(Vlei areas are regarded as sensitive ecosystems);
 Potential seepage of sulphates, acids, heavy metals. Low pH water into underlying groundwater
aquifer.
It is good practice to reserve a month each year to carry out maintenance work on dams. Serious
problems should, however, receive immediate attention. Work that is of a critical nature should be
carried out under the supervision of a Professional Engineer or in accordance with his instructions.
Routine inspections should be carried out quarterly by power station personnel or a competent
consultant. The required qualifications of such persons are that they should be well acquainted with
the contents the dams’ operations and maintenance manuals. Furthermore, such persons should be
alert and endowed with sound judgement in order to know when to call for assistance.
An emergency plan (Section 17.4.6) should be consulted for a description of emergency situations and
the preparation of suitable emergency procedures. Any sign or circumstances that may threaten the
safety of a dam should be reported to the Director-General as required in Regulations 11.2 and 11.5 of
the Water Act.
An inspection form, which should be completed during each routine inspection, based on the example
in Section 17.2.8. Such a procedure should then be reflected in the appropriate Operations and
Maintenance Manual. All developments noted should be recorded, monitored and rectified, where
necessary. The inspector and the power station manager, or the person in control of the dam, should
sign the inspection form before it is filed in a suitable place for future reference.
The inspection route to be followed should include the following:
 the full length of the wall crest and toe;
 observations of the upstream and downstream slopes;
 the spillway crest and channel;
 the inlet and outlet works; and
 the area downstream of the dam walls.
A routine inspection form may be used. An example of such a form is included in Section17.2.8.
The different components of the dam to be inspected are discussed in more detail below:
17.2.3 Dam Wall

The downstream slopes of the dam wall embankments should be inspected for any sign of seepage,
cracks, movement, erosion, nests and animal / bird / reptile burrows. Plant growth on embankment
slopes should be kept short in order to carry out a meaningful inspection.
The extent of wet patches, which appear on the downstream slope of the embankment, should be
marked with about 700mm deep pegs in order to observe and note any changes that may occur. The
presence of seepage water should be closely watched and the clarity observed for the presence of soil
particles. The position of the seepage area relative to the crest level and the distance along the crest
should be recorded. It is recommended that fixed reference beacons be installed along embankment
crests for inspection purposes.
The position; width; and length of significant cracks at any place on the dam wall embankment should
be marked and recorded. Longitudinal cracks (parallel to the centreline of the wall) less than 0.3m in
length, and not wider than 5mm, are usually not of a serious nature. Transverse or diagonal cracks
running from upstream to downstream, or any rapidly-changing cracks, should always be viewed with
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suspicion. The appearance, location and extent of any movement; erosion; and caving should be
observed and recorded. If survey beacons are disturbed in any way, this should be mentioned in the
inspection report.
17.2.4 Spillways
Spillway structures, spillway channels and sides up to where they discharges into the natural
watercourses should be inspected. Undesirable plant growth, such as trees and shrubs, should be
recorded and removed as soon as possible. Erosion of the stone pitching at the inlet/outlet of spillway
channels; and undercutting of the concrete channel; should be recorded and reported if of a serious
nature.
17.2.5 Downstream Areas

Strips at least 10m wide, as measured from the toe of the dams, should be inspected all around the
dams. The presence of seepage water; swamps; pools; cracks; or any displacements and their
positions; should be observed and recorded. Where excessive seepage (more than 1 litre/second from
a single flow path) is noted, the seepage water should be channelled to be gauged and monitored.
The presence of trees and shrubs within the 10m wide strip should be recorded for future reference.
17.2.6 Inlet and Outlet works

The condition of the inlet and outlet pipes and valves should be inspected for signs of leakage and
corrosion. Leakage within or outside the outlet works should be measured when the valves have been
shut for at least a week, if no rain has fallen within the previous week. Valves should be opened and
shut with each routine inspection to determine whether they function correctly.
17.2.7 Sluice Gate Calibration (For Dirty water dams)

The positioning of the sluice gate is a critical calibration in order to ensure that only the water that is
polluted beyond DWA&F's standards enters a pollution control dam.
This calibration is a complex operation and it is recommended that a Hydrological Engineer assist with
this calibration. As the pollution loads can only be guessed at the time of design (they are affected by
the management practices of ash dams / dumps and coal stockpiles) it may also be necessary to
change the height of the diversion box wall.
During the change from low to high flow conditions, the sluice gates need to be re-calibrated quarterly
as follows:
 Measure the flow from the stockyard at a suitable point such as a weir;
 Measure the pollution load in the water;
 Repeat the above at 5 minute intervals during the high flow conditions until the flow returns to low
flow conditions;
 Plot the curve of "pollutant load" against "flow" and determine what flow represents the cutoff point
between "polluted" and "clean" water; and
 Set up the sluice gates so that all flows lower than this level pass into the dam.
Page: 100 of 113
17.2.8 EXAMPLE OF A ROUTINE INSPECTION FORM
When last rained and how much?
Water level in dam?
Earthfill embankments of dam Wall Up- Down- Down-

crest stream stream stream
slope slope area at
toe
Hollow or low points?
Settlement or subsidence?
Bulges/wall movement?
Undercutting / hollowing in?
Cracks?
Holes (ants, animals, other?)
Trees or shrubs?
Grass in good condition?
Lining in good condition?
Any erosion?
Wet patches?
Amount of seepage water?
Seepage water dirty/turbid?
Any swamps?
Spillway structures
Do reeds, shrubs, trees or anything else block the spillway channel?
Is there any undercutting of concrete at spillway outlet or chute?
Is concrete of spillway structure in a good condition?
Inlet / outlet works
Are there any leakages in or outside the inlet/outlet works?
Are pipes, valves, all equipment and paintwork in a good condition?
Are all valves in smooth working condition?
Are there any signs of corrosion at the inlet / outlet works?
Is the concrete in a good condition?
Recommendations
Which above-mentioned points or any other should urgently be rectified?
Page: 101 of 113
SIGNATURE OF INSPECTOR: DATE
HIGHEST QUALIFICATION
SIGNATURE OF DAM OWNER: DATE
17.2.9 Completion of the Routine Inspection Form

A competent person, who should be well acquainted with the contents of the relevant dam operations &
maintenance manual, should be appointed to carry out the routine inspections on a quarterly basis. A
supply of blank routine inspection forms should always be available at the dam site. The forms should
be filled in “yes”; “no”; “slightly", “none”, “n/a”; “unchanged”; etc. where applicable. Do not leave blank
spaces.
Where unfavourable conditions exist, more particulars should be furnished on the reverse side of the
form or on separate pages, for example:
 Cracks: state crack width; length; and position;
 Hollows, subsidence and erosion: record extent; depth; and position; and
 Wet patches: record size and position.
The position should be indicated in chainage / distance with the aid of reference beacons or as the
distance from a fixed point such as a concrete wan or spillway. The distance upstream or downstream
from the centreline of the wall should also be indicated. The description should be clear enough to
determine the degree of change between subsequent inspections. Specific problems can be
photographed.
The inspection route should cover the full crest length of the wall; spillway area; and slopes.
Inspections should not merely be made from a distance. The downstream area includes the 10m wide
strip starting from the toe of the wall. Valves should physically be opened and closed to see if they are
in good working condition.
Completed inspection forms should be kept for record purposes and be shown (together with the record
book) to the appointed Professional Engineer during the five-yearly dam safety inspections.

Table 17-1 gives the recommended inspection intervals.
Table 17-1: Frequency of inspections for Dams
ACTION FREQUENCY STANDARDS

DAMS
a) Inspection by an Approved Professional Engineer. Every 5 years
b) Comprehensive visual inspection Annually
c) Routine inspections by a competent person acquainted with the Quarterly

O&M Manual.
Page: 102 of 113
ACTION FREQUENCY STANDARDS

DAMS
d) Read piezometers (where applicable). Monthly
Maintenance work is required on the dam walls; concrete and masonry structures; spillways;
downstream toe; and the inlet / outlet works.
It is good practice to reserve a month each year to carry out maintenance work on dams. Serious
problems should, however, receive immediate attention. Work that is of a critical nature should be
carried out under the supervision of a Professional Engineer or in accordance with his instructions.
A record book should also be kept for recording the item listed in the following table at the suggested
frequencies.
Item Frequency
Rainfall Daily
Water level in dam compartments Daily
Leakage or seepage (flow rate) Weekly
Flow released by outlet works Daily
Repair work Ad hoc
Details of important repair work, including the date repaired, should be recorded in the record book.
An emergency plan (Section 17.4.6) describing the emergency situations and emergency procedures
must be regularly updated.
17.3.1 Monitoring
a) After rain: Check if any erosion has occurred around concrete spillway.
b) After rain: Check dam wall for surface erosion.
c) After rain: Check water level in pollution control dams. No overflow of a pollution control dam is
permitted without a DWA&F permit.
d) Quarterly: Check if any cracking has occurred on the concrete works.
e) Quarterly: Check if any deterioration of joint sealant has occurred.
f) Quarterly: Check that any toe drain outlets are open and free of vegetation.
g) Quarterly: Check if the water draining from the toe drain is coloured with clay particles.
h) Quarterly: Check if there are any settlement or bulging on downstream side of wall. Maintain
records.
i) Quarterly: Check if there is any longitudinal cracking on the dam wall. Maintain survey records.
j) Quarterly: Check dam wall for animal burrows.
k) Quarterly: Check dam wall for vegetation (other than grassing).
l) Quarterly: Check dam rip rap cover.
m) Quarterly: Check dam wall for any settlement and maintain survey records.
Page: 103 of 113
n) The capacity of the dam should be determined as well as the rate of sedimentation for monitoring
of silt loading. Maintain records.
o) Base line water tests should be undertaken in any natural watercourses or vlei areas downstream
of the pollution control dam to determine water quality for future reference. Monitoring of the
outflow from the dam is required for compliance to DWA&F standards and the Water Act.
p) Ground water sampling equipment for existing boreholes must be available before ground water
monitoring can be commenced with. Boreholes must exist. The implementation of a ground water
monitoring system is then required.
17.4.1 Earthfill Dam Walls

a) It may be necessary to moderately raise and fill in low spots on the non-overspill crest from time to
time, so as to maintain the freeboard of the dam. Low points should also be filled to prevent
rainwater from accumulating in pools or in vehicle tracks on the wall crest. Filling should be carried
out using suitable material compacted in layers not exceeding 150mm.
b) Dam walls as well as a 10m wide strips downstream of each toe, should be cleared of trees;
shrubs; undergrowth; and weeds. Trees with a trunk diameter of more than 100mm should only be
removed under supervision of a Professional Engineer.
c) During the maintenance period the dam wall should be cleared of all ant nests and rodents (moles,
mice, meercats, lizards, etc.). Where animal burrows occur on dam wall, animals should be
relocated and burrow filled in to prevent reoccupation.
d) If open cracks, sinkholes and pipe tunnels become evident on the crest and the upper half of the
reservoir wall then they should be filled with a liquid bentonite mixture under the supervision of a
Professional Engineer. If holes and pipe tunnels are found on the lower half of the downstream
slope, then they should be filled with a sand/gravel mixture. However, if there is a presence of
flowing water (strong seepage) from any holes, a filter and drainage system should be installed
under the supervision of a Professional Engineer.
e) Slope protection must be maintained at all times. It may be necessary to establish additional grass
on the downstream slope and to cut, fertilise and irrigate frequently. Runner type grass, like couch
or kikuyu, is better than tuft for slope protection purposes. Erosion should be repaired as soon as
possible before it becomes a major problem.
f) On the upstream slope it may from time to time be necessary to fix or replace damaged sections of
the HDPE lining. A person skilled in this repair work should only carry out such repair work.
Where excessive air bubbles have developed under the fining, the trapped air should be released
through holes made in the lining and then sealed off again. Folds in the lining should not be
tampered with unless done under the supervision of a Professional Engineer.
g) Pollution control dams should be kept as empty as possible to minimise the total volume of polluted
water on Eskom's property.
h) If seepage occurs downstream of wall; or if any settlement or bulging of 25mm or more occurs on
or downstream of the dam wall; or if longitudinal cracking on the wall occurs; consult Engineer for
repair procedure.
i) Where surface erosion of the dam wall occurs, replace soil and compact to 90% mod AASHTO.
Reinstate grass cover.
Page: 104 of 113
17.4.2 Concrete and Masonry Structures
a) Undercutting or erosion, caused by damaged lining at the base and edges of inlet/outlet structures,
should be repaired before the stability of the structures are impaired. The lining should be repaired
and properly fixed to the concrete structures before sods are washed out through open cuts.
Damaged concrete should be repaired by using good quality concrete.
b) Any damage to the drainage manholes and concrete channels at the top of the dams should be
repaired before serious blockages occur which may reduce the stability of an earthfill wall.
c) Where leakage occurs through cracks or joints in the concrete inlet/outlet structures a suitable
sealant should be used to prevent ingress of water behind the structures.
d) The interface between earthfill and concrete structures needs particular mention. Gaps should be
filled with a suitable material, under the supervision of a Professional Engineer.
e) If cracking of the concrete occurs; or if the joint sealant deteriorates; consult Professional Engineer
for repair procedure.
17.4.3 Spillways
a) Plant growth such as trees, shrubs, grass and reeds, which obstruct and decrease the spillway
capacity should be cleared from spillway channels. Undercutting and/or erosion along spillway
channels should be repaired as soon as possible with a suitable earthfill material concrete or rip-
rap depending on circumstances. A Professional Engineer should be consulted if the damage is
serious.
b) Under no circumstances should any of the spillways be blocked off to increase storage capacity.
c) If erosion takes place around the spillway consult Professional Engineer for repair procedure.
17.4.4 Downstream Toe

a) Plant growth should be kept short in a strip with a minimum width of 10m downstream of the toe of
the wall to allow for access as well as to enable observation of any leakage or unusual conditions
such as soil movements.
b) Excessive water at the toe of the reservoirs may be an indication of blocked toe drains. The flow of
water inside the drains should be monitored and accurately measured in such a case. If it is found
that the drains are blocked, then they should be cleaned out with a high pressure water hose. If
broken, the pipes should be repaired.
c) If rip-rap cover damaged, reinstate to original specification.
17.4.5 Inlet/ Outlet Works

a) Valves should be opened and shut at least quarterly (during routine inspections). Maintenance
work such as painting of pipes; servicing and lubrication of valves; should be done regularly, as per
the manufacturers specifications. These simple measures will prevent expensive repairs at a later
stage. When the dam is empty and the inlet/outlet structures and trashscreens are exposed, they
should be cleaned and repaired, if necessary.
b) Consult Professional Engineer for repair procedure if water drain is coloured with clay particles.
c) Clean and keep toe drain outlets open and free of vegetation if blockage occurs.
17.4.6 Contingency Measures

The following dam failure warning signs must be noted:
Page: 105 of 113
17.4.6.1 Seepage and piping
While some seepage is to be expected the most critical factor is piping (i.e. the erosion or washout of
the clay or sand particles from the inside of the dam wall by the flow of water through the wall along a
fault line or plane between two different layers of material and the subsequent formation of a flow path).
Piping can be identified by the presence of clay or sand particles in the seepage water (i.e.
discolouration of the leaking water).
The area next to the spillway should be checked more carefully as two different types of material
typically meet here and the risk of failure between the contact zones of two different materials is higher.
Any piping should be reported immediately to a Professional Dam Engineer for further investigation.
17.4.6.2 Cracking
Cracking along the wall (longitudinally) can imply that a slip failure is about to occur. These cracks are
normally continuous along their length.
Cracking across the wall (transversely) normally indicates that settlement and/or shrinkage is occurring.
While this is not serious unless excessive, it can be serious if accompanied by longitudinal cracks and
could lead to piping failure.
17.4.6.3 Sliding failure on embankment

If part of the embankment has shifted, notify a Professional Dam Engineer and DWA&F immediately. If
leakage is occurring at this point, and especially if the water has begun flowing over the wall, close the
roads downstream; evacuate downstream farmers; contact the local military or police authorities; and
warn DWA&F of the pollution risk. (See 17.4.7.1 below.)
17.4.6.4 Cracks on spillway

Any cracking should be reported immediately to a Professional Dam Engineer for further investigation.
17.4.7 Emergency Situations and Procedures

The following points outline an emergency situation and the various procedures that should be followed
when an emergency situation arises at any dam.
Emergency situations and actions:
When any of the following emergency situations arise, the corresponding actions should be taken,
depending on the gravity of the situation:
17.4.7.1 Emergency situation: Evacuation

The warning system to evacuate the downstream area of the dam is set into operation.
a) Indicators:
b) The dam wall has failed and water is flowing downstream;
c) The dam is overflowing during heavy rains and water is flowing over the non-overspill crest of the
wall or will do so shortly;
d) There is heavy rainfall and the spillway channel of the reservoir is seriously damaged, so much so
that a breach can occur through the spillway;
e) There has been an earthquake and the dam wall is damaged;
f) The dam wall is going to fail or is showing signs of serious damage as listed below:
 Large cracks have appeared and they are still growing. Crack widths which for instance increases
by more than 50mm per day at the earth walls are regarded as very serious;
Page: 106 of 113
 Movement has taken place (sink holes, displacement sliding, slipping, subsidence, holes, etc.)
Relative movement of 200mm at earth walls since the previous inspection is for instance regarded
as very serious;
 Earth wall is unusually damp or boggy and appears unstable;
 Erosion tunnels appear on the downstream slope and flowing mud is visible.
 Warning system should be put into action. Authorities / persons threatened by the dambreak flood
should be warned (by telephone, radio, car, etc.) to evacuate immediately. Tick off systematically
as each person is warned.
 Guards with red flag and/or warning signals should be placed at road and rail crossings
downstream of the dam until authorities can take over.
 Place an observer at the dam. Provide him with a means of immediate communication.
 Open the outlet valves fully to draw down the water level of the reservoir.
 Provide lighting to the problem area if at night.
 Implement a monitoring program so that changes in the situation could be noted and measured.
Mark cracks with pegs or paint and take readings of crack length, crack width or any relative
movement on a six-hourly basis.
17.4.7.2 Emergency situation: Preparedness

Persons involved are alerted to prepare for possible evacuation.
Indicators:
a) The presence of turbid or dirty seepage water with soil particles and leaking of more than 1.0
litre/second.
b) The water level of the reservoir is unusually high, i.e. near non-overspill crest and it is still raining
heavily.
c) Situations mentioned in 3 to 5 above with a lesser degree of seriousness;
d) A blockage of the spillway during heavy rainfall, which cannot be immediately corrected.
 Put warning system into action. Authorities/persons threatened by the dambreak flood should be
warned to prepare for evacuation.
 Further actions are the same as for emergency situation.
17.4.7.3 Emergency situation: Uncertainty
Indicators:
Should the observer be unsure of the degree of gravity, professional advice should be obtained.
a) Turbid or dirty seepage water is leaking at less than 1.0 litre/second.
b) Unusual increase in leakage of seepage water without it having rained or that the water level of the
reservoir has risen significantly.
c) Development of wet patches on the downstream slope.
Page: 107 of 113
d) Deep erosion of downstream or upstream slopes.
e) Deep erosion along the spillway channel after overflowing.
f) Person in charge is unsure of the gravity of the situation.
 During this situation (should the individual in charge doubt the gravity of the situation), professional
advice should be obtained. Furthermore, the situation should be continuously monitored as
mentioned in the last point of emergency situation.
Page: 108 of 113
18. AUTHORISATION
This document has been seen and accepted by:
Name Designation
Galia Dudenska Senior Manager: Civil & Structural Engineering
Maanea Mabannda Manager (Acting): Roads and Rail CoE
Gareth MacIntosh Manager (Acting): Structural Design CoE
Terrance Mavunda Manager (Acting): Geotechnical Engineering CoE
Funeka Grootboom Manager (Acting): Dams, Waterways and Hydro CoE
Qingbo Cai Chief Engineer: Structural Design CoE
Andre Kreuiter Chief Engineer: Geotechnical Engineering CoE
Riaan Venter Chief Engineer: Roads and Rail CoE
19. REVISIONS
Date Rev. Compiler Remarks
July 2015 0.1 L. Xulu First Draft prepared from 474-196 for Comments
Review Process
August 2015 0.2 L. Xulu Updated Final Draft after Comments Review Process
August 2015 1 L. Xulu Final Document for Authorisation and Publication
January 2019 1.1 N. Moodley Draft for comments review process
March 2019 1.2 N Moodley Updated Final Draft after Comments Review Process
March 2019 2 N Moodley Final Document for Authorisation and Publication
20. DEVELOPMENT TEAM

The following people were involved in the development of this document:
 Andre Kreuiter
 Denise Naidoo
 Gareth MacIntosh
 Justin Padiachy
 Kerissa Munsamy
 Lelo Dlamini
 Lucia Pale
 Qingbo Cai
 Riaan Venter
Page: 109 of 113
APPENDIX A: CIVIL WORKS INSPECTION CHECKLIST TEMPLATE

Refer to the separate document 240-99611535 Civil Works Inspection Checklist Template, the link
to document on the EDMS is https://hyperwave.eskom.co.za/240-99611535
Page: 110 of 113
APPENDIX B: ROADS VISUAL INSPECTION SHEETS
Page: 111 of 113
Page: 112 of 113
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240-99527377 Inspection Manual For Civil Works at Eskom's Power Stations

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Title: Inspection Manual for Civil Unique Identifier: 240-99527377

Area of Applicability: Engineering

Total Pages: 113

Next Review Date: March 2024

Compiled by Approved by Authorised by

………………………………….. ………………………………….. …………………………………..

Date: …………………………… Date: …………………………… Date: ……………………………

PCM Reference : 240-53573086

1.2 NORMATIVE/INFORMATIVE REFERENCES

1.2.2 Informative References

1.5 ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES

2. MOTIVATION AND OBJECTIVES

2.1 SAFETY AND LEGISLATION

2.2 TRAINING AND EXPERIENCE

2.3 INSPECTIONS OBJECTIVES

3. OVERVIEW OF INSPECTION MANUAL REQUIREMENTS

A civil engineering maintenance policy must cover the following;

5. GENERAL INSPECTION AND MONITORING REQUIREMENTS

5.1 CONDITION CATEGORIES

The plant assets have some deterioration, to an Repaint, tighten

The plant assets show deterioration, to an

The plant assets show severe deterioration, to

5.2 VISUAL INSPECTIONS SAFETY

5.2.1 Accompanying Person

5.2.3 Risk Assessment

5.2.4 Access and Lighting

5.3 INSPECTION PLANNING

6.1 SCHEDULING INSPECTIONS

6.2 FREQUENCY OF ENGINEERING VISUAL INSPECTIONS

7. REPORTING AND FOLLOW-UP

8.1 COOLING TOWERS

8.1.2 Typical Problems in Cooling Tower Structures

8.2 CHIMNEY STRUCTURES

8.2.1.1 Single Flue Chimneys:

8.2.1.2 Multiple flue chimneys:

Figure 8-1 Typical multiple flue chimney

c) Concrete support slabs;

8.2.2 Typical Problems in Chimney Structures

The following elements are generally included in the visual inspection:

 Steel platforms, lattices, beams and staircase

8.2.3.1 External Inspections

8.2.3.2 Internal Inspections

8.2.4.1 Brick Lining

8.3 CONCRETE SILOS

Station Coal Ash Lime

8.3.2 Typical Problems in Concrete Silos

8.3.3 External Inspections

8.3.3.1 Internal Inspections

8.4 LIQUID CONTAINING STRUCTURES

 Auxiliary cooling water ponds

8.4.2 Typical Problems in Liquid Containing Structures

8.4.3.1 External Inspections

8.4.3.2 Internal Inspections

8.5 CONVEYOR STRUCTURES

8.5.2 Typical Problems in Conveyor Structures

8.5.3.1 Internal Inspections

8.6.2 Typical Problems Associated with Steel Structures

8.6.2.2 Structural Deficiencies

8.6.2.3 Non-Structural Deficiencies

 Access control buildings;

8.7.2 Typical Problems in Buildings

8.7.2.2 Foundation failure