ARAM, 15 (2003), 185-196 185

THE CHRISTIAN COINAGE OF EARLY MUSLIM SYRIA?

ANDREW ODDY

At the ARAM conference in Oxford in 1993 I divided the coinage struck in

Greater Syria in the seventh century into seven classes:1

COINS STRUCK IN SYRIA IN THE 7C AD

1. Official Byzantine issues struck at Antioch until the mint closed in AD 610
2. Large pseudo-Byzantine folles struck in the names of Justin II, Maurice
Tiberius, Phocas and Heraclius at unknown mints in Syria during the Per-
sian occupation of 614 to 629
3. Barbarous folles stylistically derived from the official coinage of Heraclius
and Constans II
4. Coins struck under Arab authority at several cities with the mint names in
Greek
5. Coins struck under Arab authority at several cities with the mint names in
Arabic (and sometimes in Greek as well)
6. Coins stylistically related to 4 and 5 but without mint names
7. Coins with a standing caliph on the obverse which are usually thought to
have been produced in the 690s before the coinage reform of ‘Abd al-Malik
in AH 74.2

The purpose of this paper is to discuss some of the coins of Class 3 which
were described in 1993 as “barbarous folles imitating the coinage of Heraclius
[AD 610-641] and Constans II [AD 641-668]”. These coins were attributed to
“civic minting”3 in a number of towns as their stylistic diversity suggests the
unlikelihood of production by a central authority.
The coins of Class 3 have been neglected by numismatists and are barely
mentioned in two of the three modern catalogues of the Byzantine coinage.4

1
Oddy, A., “The early Umayyad Coinage of Baisan and Jerash”, ARAM, 6 (1994), 405-418
2
Grierson, P., “The monetary reforms of ‘Abd al-Malik”, Journal of the economic and
Social History of the Orient, 3 (1960), 241-264
3
Oddy, “Early Umayyad Coinage …”, p. 6.
4
Morrisson, C., Catalogue des Monnaies Byzantines de la Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris,
1979; Grierson, P., Catalogue of the Byzantine Coins in the Dumbarton Oaks Collection:
Vol.2: Phocas to Theodosius III 602-717, Washington DC, 1968.
186 THE CHRISTIAN COINAGE OF EARLY MUSLIM SYRIA?

Only Hahn5 is slightly more informative and illustrates 19 specimens on plate

29. These are not, however, very typical as half his specimens have an upper
case M on the reverse, rather than a lower case m which is much more com-
mon in the mass of Class 3 coinage as a whole.
A number of these coins was published by Sir Alec Kirkbride in 1947. They
had been collected by him to the east of the River Jordan during his years as a
colonial administrator in the region.6 Kirkbride suggested “that these coins
were … struck in Syria for the Arab conquerors”7 but did not speculate on
when and where they were struck.
In April 1992, a review of Class 3 coins was presented by Goodwin at a
symposium in London and published the following year.8 He concluded that
“it therefore seems likely that the bulk of the coins were produced to supple-
ment an inadequate supply of official Byzantine coins by mints which were
sanctioned by the Arab authorities. These mints were presumably situated in
the towns and, at least initially, staffed by Byzantine personnel.”
Since then work has progressed on identifying coherent groups from among
the mass of Class 3 coinage. The first person to publish such a group was
Mansfield in 1992,9 a rather atypical group with an imperial bust on the
obverse, rather than the more usual standing imperial figure. The reverses have
an upper case M with the date XX, presumably for year 20, to the right. Their
production was attributed to “a Byzantine enclave” in the early years after the
Arab conquest of Syria. Mansfield had assembled a corpus of 24 coins with six
obverse dies, two of which were illustrated, and more coins have come to light
in the past ten years.
Mansfield’s group is atypical as they have no prototype in the regular
Byzantine coinage, and this is also true for another group published by Good-
win in 1993.10 They have an emperor in military dress on the obverse and an
upper case M on the reverse. One of the coins has a legible date of year 20,
which provides a tenuous connection with the Mansfield group.
Neither Mansfield nor Goodwin speculated on the possible meaning of the
year 20. Could it be 20 years after the Arab conquest, thus about AD 660, or
was it 20 years after the establishment of the Caliphate at Damascus, thus
about AD 681? Or was it a “Byzantine enclave”, to quote Mansfield himself,

5
Hahn, W., Moneta Imperii Byzantini von Heraclius bis Leo III (610-720), Wien, 1981
6
Kirkbride, A.S., “Coins of the Byzantine-Arab Transition period”, Quarterly of the Depart-
ment of Antiquities of Palestine, 13 (1947) 59-63.
7
Kirkbride, “Coins of the Byzantine-Arab …”, p. 59.
8
Goodwin, T., “Imitations of the Folles of Constans II”, Oriental Numismatic Society Occa-
sional paper No.28, April 1993.
9
Mansfield, S.J., “A Byzantine irregular issue of ‘year 20’”, Numismatic Circular, 100
(1992), 81-2.
10
Goodwin, T., “Imitative 7th century Byzantine Folles with a single figure in military
dress”, Numismatic Circular, 101 (1993), 112-3.
 A. ODDY 187

producing much needed small change in the 20th year of Constans II, thus
about AD 661? The latter seems unlikely, as in that case the coins might have
been expected to copy the regular coinage of Constans.
As the supply of official Byzantine coinage available in Syria seems to dry
up in or after AD 658,11 it seems possible, if not probable, that year 20 could
indicate 20 years after the conquest and thus be about AD 660, as by that time
there might well be a shortage of small change among a society – that is the
conquered Byzantine Christians – which was very dependent on the use of
coinage.
A third group of these barbarous Constans II imitations, which is more typ-
ical of the great mass of the Syrian imitative coinage in having a standing
imperial figure on the obverse and a lower case m on the reverse, was pub-
lished by Oddy in 1995.12 The reverse has the legend ANA NEOS copied
from the folles of Constans II. However, this legend is often blundered. This
group was presumed to date after AD 661 and to be a local issue “struck to
provide coinage for a particular town in the period before Arab minting got
underway.”
Recently Karukstis has shown that one of the coins in the latter group is die-
linked to others with more varied reverse legends.13 The Karukstis group con-
sists of 15 coins from three obverse and six reverse dies and thus, taken with
the Oddy group, must represent a significant issue, perhaps serving the needs
of more than one town.
Some other groups were discussed at a symposium held in the British
Museum in 199514 but they have not been formally published. One group con-
sists of coins mostly struck on unusually large and circular flans from well-
engraved dies. The obverse has a standing imperial figure wearing a crown
with a cross on top and a long robe, and holding a long cross in the right hand
and a globus cruciger in the left. This copies the regular folles of Constans II.
However, the legend, where visible, consists of four or five Greek letters
spaced regularly round the standing figure. One of the legends appears to
‘read’ LITOIÊ (plate1.1 and 1.2), but the others seem to make no sense (plate
1.3-1.7). The reverse consists of a neatly drawn m surmounted by a cross and
standing on an exergual line. The reverse legends consist of letters and sym-
bols which bear little relation to those on the regular folles of Constans II. Par-

11
Phillips, M. and Goodwin, T., “A seventh-century Syrian hoard of Byzantine and Imitative
copper coins”, Numismatic Chronicle, 157 (1997), 61-87.
12
Oddy, A., “Imitations of Constans II Folles of Class 1 or 4 struck in Syria”, Numismatic
Circular, 103 (4) (1995), 142-3.
13
Karukstis, C.P., “Pseudo-Byzantine coinage in Syria”, Numismatic Circular, 108 (2000)
158.
14
Oddy, A., “Another group of die-linked pseudo Byzantine coins – what do they mean?”,
paper given at Seventh Century Syrian Numismatic Round Table held at The British Museum on
9th December 1995 (unpublished).
188 THE CHRISTIAN COINAGE OF EARLY MUSLIM SYRIA?

ticularly diagnostic are letters and symbols to the left and/or right of the cross
{eg L+V (plate 1.3), T+U (plate 1.4), T+L (plate 1.5)}, and the letters and
symbols in the exergue {eg IOI (plate 1.3), ILI (plate 1.4), IPI (plate 1.5 and
1.7), IIAII (plate 1.6)}.
The legend LITOIÊ is of some interest and may have a meaning. LITOC
translates as ‘not having a function’ ‘plain’, ‘frugal’.15 This may seem a
strange word to put on a coin, but when it is realised that these coins are not
produced by the official Islamic government, it could be plausible – a sort of
joke by the Greek speaking die-makers. Some justification for this view may
be the legend KALON, meaning ‘good’, which subsequently occurs on the
earliest official Islamic coins of Emesa (later called Hims by the Arabs).
However, in the reading LITOIÊ, the T and O occur on either side of the
crown, as they do in the legend ÊNTUTONIKA on the regular coinage of
Constans II. Thus the LITOIÊ legend may only be a meaningless collection
of letters.
The above Group (plate 1), which is for convenience called the LITOIÊ
group, has established a style which can now be traced in a large number of
other coins. The reverses have a neatly drawn m and also one or more of the
following features: A over X to the left of the m (plate 2.1, 2.2, 2.10, 2.11),
retrograde Ê over X to the left of the m (plate 2.4, 2.5), various symbols or let-
ters to the left and right of the + over the m (including T+O), and one of the
following exergual ‘inscriptions’ – IAI (plate 2.1, 2.2, 3.11), IIAII (not illus-
trated), CAO (plate 2.4 - 2.7), TAT (plate 2.8, 2.9), TAO (plate 2.10, 2.11),
III (plate 3.10), IPI (plate 3.1, 3.7, 3.9). The standing imperial figure on the
obverses is often more crudely drawn than on the LITOIÊ group, and the
long robe is usually gathered at the waist as if the figure is wearing a belt.
Occasional Greek letters are visible on the obverse, but some coins preserve
what was clearly an attempt to engrave ÊNTUTONIKA on the die (plate
3.10).
Plate 2 illustrates some pairs of die links from within this coinage, and fur-
ther searching will, undoubtedly, extend these. One such group which has die-
linked three obverses and five reverses16 is illustrated on Plate 3. Coins 3.1 to
3.5 are LITOIÊ-type coins on which the obverse legend ‘reads’ ÊITLIX, but
coins 3.6 and 3.7 have different Greek letters which are partly illegible. On 3.7
it is possible to read X[I]//CI[Ê] (where // indicates the letter is illegible and [
] indicates an uncertain reading). Finally, on Plate 3, there are four coins which
typify the neat reverse style with letters or symbols on either side of the cross.
It has now been demonstrated that among the mass of Constans II imitations
which were undoubtedly struck in Syria in the 7th century AD there is one

15
I am grateful to Dr John Haldon this suggestion.
16
I am very grateful to Tony Goodwin for drawing my attention to this particular grouping.
 A. ODDY 189

large group which can be related to one another by similarities in style or leg-
end or by die links.
However, the crucial questions about this group is where and when was it
struck? In the absence of independently datable hoards, the only possible
source of information is to examine the subsequent Arab issues of classes 4
and 5 to see if there are stylistic similarities, and if the coinage of Hims –
the Emesa of the Byzantines – is examined, stylistic similarities can be
found.
Plate 4 illustrates the four types of coins struck by the Arabs – or at least on
the instruction of the Arab authorities – in Hims. Two of the types (plate 4.1,
4.2) have a standing imperial figure on the obverse, one with KALON (mean-
ing ‘good’ in Greek) around it and the other with KALON to the right and ‘In
the name of Allah’ in arabic to the left. The two other types (plate 4.3, 4.4)
have a facing imperial bust, one with KALON around it and the other with
KALON to the left and Hims in Arabic to the right.
The reverses of those with a standing imperial figure on the obverse have an
upper case M, while those with an imperial bust on the obverse have a lower
case m. It is the reverses of these two coins (plate 4.3 and 4.4) which bear a
remarkable similarity to the reverses of the group of Constans II imitations
which has been described and eight of which are illustrated on Plate 4 (4.5-
4.12). One interesting difference is that above the m on the Constans II imita-
tions is a cross, while there is a star above the m on the Hims coins. On either
side of the star are OO or O· O· . On either side of the cross are Greek letters or
symbols.
There are, of course, differences between these reverses, but the stylistic
similarities are sufficient to suggest that the Constans II imitations of the
LITOIÊ group and its derivatives were struck in Hims in the years just before
the partial ‘Arabisation’ of the Hims coinage by the addition of some words in
Arabic, including the name of the mint. The date of this innovation is still a
matter of considerable debate, but it must have been in about AD 680, give or
take a few years. There is no hard evidence for this date, other than the mass
of the existing coinage with the Hims mint signature and a ‘feeling’ for how
long it would have taken to issue before the introduction of the Standing
Caliph type in the early 690s. Hence the LITOIÊ group was probably struck
in the late 670s.
So, who made the coins of Group 3? It can only have been the Byzantine
Christians who found the need to augment dwindling supplies of regular offi-
cial Byzantine coins in order to facilitate commerce. The initiative must have
been taken by the municipal and/or ecclesiastical authorities in a number of
towns, and, in view if its importance, it is not surprising that Hims was one of
these.
190 THE CHRISTIAN COINAGE OF EARLY MUSLIM SYRIA?

DETAILS OF THE COINS ON THE PLATES

Obverse inscriptions are assumed to start at 7 o’clock, unless otherwise indi-
cated.
Reverse inscriptions are given for above, below, left and right of the m,
unless otherwise indicated.
//////// indicates letter (or letters) illegible or off the flan.
[ ] indicates the letter has been restored form another identical coin or that
the reading is not certain.
All the obverses have a standing facing figure wearing a long robe and a
crown and holding a long cross in the right hand and a globus cruciger in the
left, except for 4.3 and 4.4 which have a crowned facing bust holding a globus
cruciger in the right hand.
All the reverses have an m surrounded by the legend, except for 4.1 and 4.2
which have an M.

Obverse details Reverse details Weight (g) Die axis

1.1 LIT[O]IÊ a: + b: CO[N] 1.84 06.30
l: NmO r: LFA
1.2 [L]ITOIÊ a: + b: CON 3.98 06.30
l: NN r: LFA
1.3 YI L[I(] a: L+V b: IOI 5.50 01.00
l: ////////// r: LFÊ
1.4 YI LI( a: T+∪ b: ILI 3.39 10.30
l: YXI r: LNI
1.5 YI LI( a: T+L b: IPI 3.48 06.00
l: AX) r: NN(
1.6 T // // // // // a: ////////// b: IIAII 2.61 06.30
l: ////////// r: //// I
1.7 // // // // // L a: ∪✶∪ b: IIPII 3.78 04.30
l: AX r: NN
2.1 X I // LIÊ a: T+O b: IAI 2.91 04.30
l: AX) r: IIÊ
2.2 Y // // O // // a: T+O b: IAI 2.77 03.00
l: AX) r: IIÊ
2.317 ÊN///////NIKA a: T+O b: IAI 2.67 08.00
l: AX) r: IIÊ
2.4 // // // LIÊ a: [T+~] b: ICAOI 2.18 04.00
l: Y X r: [L]N
2.5 T I // // // // a: T+~ b: ICAOI 1.84 08.00
l: Y X r: LN

17
This coin belongs to the American Numismatic Society and is published here by kind per-
mission of Dr Michael Bates (Inventory no.91.218).
 A. ODDY 191

Obverse details Reverse details Weight (g) Die axis

2.6 /// NT //// O [N] //// a: ///////// b: ~CAO~ 2.34 07.30
l: NN r: // X
2.7 /// [NT] //// O N //// a: ///////// b: ~CAO~ 2.09 12.00
l: [NN] r: // [X]
2.8 ////////////////////// a: O+O b: TDT 2.70 07.30
l: [L]PX[)] r: NNX
2.9 ///////////////////// a: O+O b: TDT 2.67 06.00
l: LPX r: NNX
2.10 // // // // [I] L a: T+O b: TAO 2.06 12.00
l: AX) r: ANA
2.11 Y L // // // // ( a: T+[O] b: TAO 2.30 10.00
l: AX) r: [A]NA
3.1 YITLIX a: // +~ b: IIPII 3.72 09.00
l: // r: LC
3.2 Y I [T] L I X a: O+[O] b: –A– 4.16 12.00
l: ) L Y r: /////////
3.3 Y I [T] L I [X] a: L+∪ b: IAI 4.73 06.00
l: ANY r: NNÊ
3.4 [Y I] T L[ I] X a:) + V b: –///// 2.19 12.00
l: AX r: ///////
3.5 [Y] I [T] L I X a: ~+~ b: ~IPI~ 2.59 11.00
l: [NT] r: LK
3.6 // I // // // Ê a: ~+~ b: ~IPI~ 2.48 08.00
l: NT r: LK
3.7 X // // C I [Ê] a: ~+~ b: ~IPI~ 2.76 09.00
l: NT r: LK
3.8 ÊNT// // TON//// a: v+∪ b: ~·N·~ 3.11 11.00
l: NX r: LÊ
3.9 Ê I // C I T a: T+[O] b: IP 3.12 10.30
l: N~ r: LÊ~
3.10 ÊNUII VTO///// a: ~+∪ b: III 3.74 01.00
l: TX[~] r: LÊ~
3.11 // // I L // // a: ∪+V b: IAI 2.51 11.00
l: AX r: N[N]
4.1 l: downwards KA l: downwards ÊMÊ 4.02 07.30
r: downwards LON r: downwards SIS
a: { ≥ { b: ÍE
4.2 l: downwards ¬∏dG ¬ù°d l: downwards YMN 3.38 06.00
r: downwards [KALON] r: downwards [SIS]
a: /////// b: ÍbI
4.3 l: upwards KA l: downwards ÊMI 3.61 11.00
r: downwards LON r: downwards SHS
l.of crown ∪ a: ~∗~ b: ÍE
r.of crown ✶
192 THE CHRISTIAN COINAGE OF EARLY MUSLIM SYRIA?

Obverse details Reverse details Weight (g) Die axis

4.4 l: downwards KALON l: downwards ÊMI 3.73 06.00
r: downwards ∞ªA r: downwards SHS
a: O∗O b: ÍE
4.5 TI//LÊO a: T+∪ b: ////// 1.94 06.00
l: AX r: NN
4.6 ÊNTITO[N]IKA a: O+O b: //O\\ 1.96 12.30
l: ›A r: LJC
4.7 TI // // // // a: T+O b: IPI 3.11 09.00
l: LXI r: // // //
4.8 ///////////////// a: //O// b: IPI 2.96 06.00
l: YXI r: // // //
4.9 ///////////////// a: O+– b: wavy line 3.00 05.30
l: [NO] r: T // //
4.10 // // // Ê // // a: ~+∪ b: wavy line 2.12 04.00
l: KXI r: [X]Ê
4.11 ////TO///////// a: ///////// b: IIAII 2.73 07.30
l: AX r: /////////
4.12 //////////////// a: L+// b: I I I 2.86 09.30
l: NX r: // T
A. ODDY 193

1 2

3 4 5

6
7

Plate 1
194 THE CHRISTIAN COINAGE OF EARLY MUSLIM SYRIA?

1 2 3

4 5 6 7

8 9 10 11

Plate 2
 A. ODDY 195

1 2 3

4 5 6 7

8 9 10 11

Plate 3
196 THE CHRISTIAN COINAGE OF EARLY MUSLIM SYRIA?

1 2 3 4

5 6 7 8

9 10 11 12

Plate 4