599

The Canadian Mineralogist

Vol. 44, pp. 599-623 (2006)

THE TANCO PEGMATITE AT BERNIC LAKE, MANITOBA.

XVI. ZONAL AND BULK COMPOSITIONS AND THEIR PETROGENETIC SIGNIFICANCE

Andrew STILLING§ and Petr ČERN Ý

Department of Geological Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba R3T 2N2, Canada

Peter J. VANSTONE
Tantalum Mining Corporation of Canada Ltd., Box 2000, Lac du Bonnet, Manitoba R0E 1A0, Canada

Abstract

The Tanco pegmatite deposit at Bernic Lake, in southeastern Manitoba, is a virtually completely hidden, essentially unde-
formed, subhorizontal, bilobate, saddle-shaped body ~1520 m long, 1060 m wide and up to ~100 m thick. The highly fractionated
pegmatite of the LCT family, rare-element class, petalite subtype, consists of nine internal zones. The outer zones are concentric,
whereas the layered inner zones are segmented and locally complex in shape. A 3D computer model representation of the pegma-
tite assisted in calculation of volumes and compositions of individual zones and of the whole pegmatite, based on 102 km of 1355
drill-hole intersections, underground observations, measured and estimated mineral modes of the zones, zone-specific composi-
tions and densities of minerals, and ore grades. The early outer zones tend to show granitic modes, but the inner zones strongly
deviate in proportions of feldspars, or by high enrichment in lithium minerals, and some of the zones are virtually monomineralic.
The bulk mode of Tanco is granitic, except ~9 vol.% petalite (including spodumene + quartz pseudomorphs). Despite also being
economically significant for Cs, Ta and Li, the pegmatite contains less than 1 vol.% of any other non-micaceous minerals, and
less than 0.1% of most of them. The bulk chemical composition closely reflects the modal relationships: it is peraluminous, and
granitic, with prominent enrichment in Li, Rb, Cs and F, moderate contents of Tl, Be, B, Ga, Sn, Nb and Ta, and remarkable
depletion in Fe, Mn, Mg, Ca, Ba, Sc, Ti and Zr. A very high degree of fractionation is shown for the bulk pegmatite by the values
K/Rb 4.7, K/Cs 9.3, Rb/Cs 2.0, Rb/Tl 137, Fe/Mn 0.63, Mg/Li 0.02, Al/Ga 917, Zr/Hf 2.6, Zr/Sn 0.21 and Nb/Ta 0.19. Zonal
and bulk chemical composition is in rough agreement with the experimental thermal trough in the system Ab + Qtz + Ecr at 2
kbar P(H2O), but shifted toward the Ab apex by elevated B, P and F, and by the voluminous wall-zone. The composition of the
wall zone (20) is remarkably similar to that of bulk Tanco, except for the elevated contents of rare elements in the latter that are
concentrated in the intermediate and inner zones. In turn, zone (20) is very close to the composition of nearby, somewhat less
fractionated peraluminous leucogranites that are parental to local genetically related pegmatite groups. The wall zone (20), which
composes 44 vol.% of Tanco, represents by analogy a petrogenetic link between an undisclosed parent leucogranite and the Tanco
deposit. These relationships document derivation of the Tanco pegmatite and its analogues elsewhere by igneous differentiation
from a fertile leucogranitic magma.

Keywords: granitic pegmatite, modal analysis, mineral chemistry, 3D computer model, bulk composition, petrology, Tanco,
Manitoba.

Sommaire

Le gisement pegmatitique de Tanco, situé au lac Bernic dans le sud-est du Manitoba, est quasiment complètement caché,
essentiellement non déformé, subhorizontal, bilobé, en forme de selle, environ 1520 m de long, 1060 m de large, et atteignant
une épaisseur d’environ 100 m. La pegmatite fortement fractionnée, membre de la famille des pegmatites LCT enrichie en
éléments rares et de sous-type de la pétalite, contient neuf zones internes. Les zones externes sont concentriques, tandis que les
zones internes sont segmentées et de forme localement complexe. Un modèle tri-dimensionnel généré avec un logiciel a permis
de calculer les volumes et les compositions des diverses zones et de la pegmatite en entier, à la lumière de 102 km de carottes
et de 1355 intersections, d’observations souterraines, des estimés et des mesures de la proportion des minéraux dans les zones,
la composition de zones individuelles, la densité des minéraux, et la teneur du minerai. Les zones précoces externes tendent
à montrer une composition modale granitique, mais les zones internes dévient fortement en termes de la proportion des feld­
spaths, ou par un fort enrichissement en minéraux du lithium, de sorte que certaines zones sont presque monominéraliques. La
composition globale de la pegmatite de Tanco est granitique, sauf pour environ 9% en volume de pétalite (y inclus l’assemblage
spodumène + quartz pseudomorphique). Malgré son importance économique des points de vues Cs, Ta et Li, la pegmatite contient

§
E-mail address: astilling@shoregold.com
600 the canadian mineralogist

moins de 1% par volume de tout autre minéral sauf les micas, et moins de 0.1% de la plupart d’entre eux. La composition
chimique reflète étroitement les relations modales: il s’agit d’une pegmatite hyperalumineuse, avec enrichissement marqué en
Li, Rb, Cs et F, des teneurs modérées en Tl, Be, B, Ga, Sn, Nb et Ta, et un remarquable déficit en Fe, Mn, Mg, Ca, Ba, Sc, Ti et
Zr. Un taux de fractionnement très élevé se voit par les valeurs suivantes pour la pegmatite globale: K/Rb 4.7, K/Cs 9.3, Rb/Cs
2.0, Rb/Tl 137, Fe/Mn 0.63, Mg/Li 0.02, Al/Ga 917, Zr/Hf 2.6, Zr/Sn 0.21 et Nb/Ta 0.19. La composition chimique des zones
individuelles et la composition globale concordent à peu près avec le creux thermique déterminé expérimentalement dans le
système Ab + Qtz + Ecr à 2 kbar P(H2O), mais déplacé vers le pôle Ab à cause des teneurs élevées en B, P et F, et par l’effet de la
zone de paroi, très volumineuse. La composition de cette zone, dénommée (20), est remarquablement semblable à la composition
globale de la pegmatite de Tanco, sauf pour les teneurs élevées en éléments rares dans cette dernière, concentrés dans les zones
intermédiaires et les zones internes. En revanche, la zone (20) ressemble beaucoup à la composition un peu moins fractionnée
de leucogranites hyperalumineux avoisinants, qui seraient parentaux de groupes de pegmatites. La zone de la paroi, (20), qui
constitue 44% du volume de Tanco, représente par analogie un lien pétrogénétique entre une masse leucogranitique méconnue
et le gisement de Tanco. Ces relations documentent donc une dérivation de la pegmatite de Tanco et de ses analogues ailleurs
par une différenciation ignée d’un magma leucogranitique fertile.

(Traduit par la Rédaction)

Mots-clés: pegmatite granitique, analyse modale, composition des minéraux, modèle 3D sur ordinateur, composition globale,
pétrologie, Tanco, Manitoba.

Introduction Ovchinnikov & Kuzmenko 1976). Similar distortions

Understanding the bulk composition of granitic
pegmatites is a multifaceted problem as old as the
history of pegmatite studies (Fersman 1940, Schnei-
derhöhn 1961). First and foremost, textural and parage-
netic diversity of internal zoning of individual bodies,
broadly variable grain-size, and incomplete exposure
hinder collecting of reliable starting data. Second, the
composition is routinely calculated only for the main
rock-forming oxide components, and no information is
provided on minor and trace elements. Third, but not
least, the sampling and analytical methods, the database
and methods of data processing are rarely specified
in the literature, so the quality of the data cannot be
assessed.
The lack of data on bulk composition is particularly
conspicuous in the category of highly evolved rare-
element pegmatites, which are especially difficult to
deal with because of extreme internal diversity. Even
the most reliable data available in the literature are only
concerned with major oxide components. Also, the data
almost invariably involve extrapolations into eroded
parts of pegmatite bodies above the erosion surface
(e.g., Jahns 1953, Norton 1970, 1994, Gallagher 1975,
Stewart 1978), or cannot account for hidden parts of the
bodies undisclosed by drilling or underground work-
ings (Gallagher 1962, Sundelius 1963), or both. For
these reasons, data on individual zones are occasionally
presented, but bulk compositions of the whole pegmatite
are not attempted (e.g., Jolliff et al. 1986).
Numerous bulk-compositions of rare-element
pegmatites were published in the Soviet literature of the
nineteen sixties and seventies; however, no background
and locality information were provided, and Li2O was
commonly not given (or lumped together with Na2O),
even for pegmatites explicitly defined as spodumene-,
petalite- or lepidolite-bearing (e.g., Solodov 1962,
that mar otherwise valuable studies are found in the
Chinese literature (e.g., Yang et al. 1988). However,
comprehensive datasets were published recently by
Gordiyenko (1996) and Zagorskyi et al. (1997).
We present here the results of a zonal and bulk
analysis of the highly fractionated Tanco granitic
pegmatite, a thoroughly examined, complex, giant
subsurface body of eminent economic importance, with
notes on its internal compositional evolution and on its
general significance for petrogenesis of rare-element
granitic pegmatites.
Why Tanco?
The Tanco pegmatite poses numerous difficulties in
any attempt at quantitative bulk analysis. The obstacle
course features extreme diversity in grain size (fractions
of mm to at least 13 m), in zoning (nine mappable zones
in a complex 3D pattern), in mineral assemblages (104
mineral species and varieties, with enormously variable
modes in individual zones), and in chemical composi-
tion (five major, six subordinate and 16 minor elements
of geochemical significance, plus a few others which,
to date, lack systematic analysis).
On the other hand, the Tanco pegmatite offers a data-
base that has, to the best of our knowledge, no parallel
at any other locality. The pegmatite body is virtually
totally hidden, obviating any need for significant
extrapolation. Surface as well as underground drilling
generated a dense grid of intersections for determination
of zone volumes. Underground work commenced in
1967 and provided an extensive network of exposures
throughout the most complex parts of the pegmatite,
which facilitated modal analysis of individual zones
of the pegmatite in a manner superior to that based on
drill cores alone. Finally, the chemical composition of
virtually all minerals is available for all of the nine indi-
 the tanco pegmatite at bernic lake, manitoba
vidual zones of the pegmatite, including minor and trace
elements in the rock-forming phases and compositional
variations in the accessory and ore minerals. Combined
with production and assay data, confidential per se but
made available to the authors for hidden application, all
this information gave us a chance to attempt a unique
analysis, which is as complete, unbiased and accurate
as humanly possible at the current state of research
methods.
Location and Geological Setting
The Tanco pegmatite is located about 180 km east–
northeast of Winnipeg, close to the Manitoba–Ontario
boundary (Fig. 1), on the northwestern shore of Bernic
Lake. The pegmatite is located in the southern limb
of the Bird River Greenstone Belt, which flanks the
exposed part of the Archean Bird River Subprovince
of the Superior Province, in the southwestern part of
the Canadian Shield. This Subprovince adjoins the
batholithic Winnipeg River Subprovince in the south
Fig. 1. Location of the Tanco pegmatite in Manitoba (top)
and schematic regional geology and location of Tanco in
the Bird River subprovince (dotted); modified from Čern ý
(2005).
601
and the dominantly gneissic English River Subprovince
in the north.
The Bird River Greenstone Belt (~2750 to 2715 Ma)
is bordered by the Maskwa Lake diapir of (meta)tonalite
(2779 ± 32 Ma) in the north and its Marijane Lake
analog in the east, the latter amply penetrated by biotite
granite, which is dominant in the Lac du Bonnet batho-
lith (2665 ± 20 Ma) in the southwest (cf. Černý 2005 for
references). Numerous small intrusions of peraluminous
leucogranites are located in the southern and central
parts of the greenstone belt; the related Tanco pegmatite
is dated at 2640 ± 7 Ma (Baadsgaard & Černý 1993).
The Tanco pegmatite is emplaced into metagabbroic
to amphibolitic rocks of a subvolcanic intrusion, located
in the synclinorium of metavolcanic and polymictic
conglomerates of the Bernic Lake Formation in the
composite greenstone belt (Fig. 2; cf. Trueman 1980).
The pegmatite is located in gently east- and west-
dipping subhorizontal joints and fractures, in a manner
similar to the emplacement of other members of the
Bernic Lake pegmatite group and the nearby Osis Lake
group (Brisbin & Trueman 1982). Local metamorphic
assemblages correspond to the greenschist to lower
amphibolite facies of a low-pressure, cordierite-bearing,
andalusite–sillimanite sequence (the classic Abukuma
metamorphic facies-series). The metamorphic grade
generally increases to the east–northeast, attaining
eventually granulite-facies conditions over a distance
of ~25 km from Tanco. However, the progression is
not gradual, as the greenstone belt is dissected into
tectonically juxtaposed subvertical slabs with distinctly
different metamorphic imprints (Trueman 1980).
History and Previous Work
The Tanco pegmatite was discovered in 1929,
thoroughly explored for lithium resources in the late
fifties, and developed for tantalum production since
1967. The pegmatite has been, with a few interruptions,
a major global source of tantalum mineral concentrates
and, starting in the mid-eighties, a major exporter of
high-quality refractory spodumene. In 1997, produc-
tion of cesium formate began on a commercial basis.
The pegmatite was subject to extensive mineralogical,
geochemical and petrological studies over the past 40
years [Čern ý et al. (1998), Čern ý (2005), and refer-
ences therein].
The first attempt to quantify the bulk composition of
Tanco was published by Morgan & London (1987) and
London (1990), based on an east–west section across
the pegmatite and limited to major oxide components.
The present study is based on the M.Sc. thesis of Stilling
(1998), corrected for some inadvertent errors in volume
calculations that affected the original compositional
data.
602 the canadian mineralogist

The Tanco Pegmatite Internal zoning

Shape, size and attitude
In form, the Tanco pegmatite is best described as a
flat, subhorizontal, roughly triangular, bilobate, saddle-
shaped, shallowly north-dipping and doubly east- and
west-plunging body (Fig. 3). The pegmatite fingers out
in swarms of parallel dikes along most of its margin.
The maximum thickness of the pegmatite is slightly in
excess of 100 m. The pegmatite can be traced for 1520
m along strike; in the north–south direction, the pegma-
tite is up to 1060 m wide. The lateral boundaries of the
pegmatite shown in Figure 3 are completely bracketed
by diamond drilling. The only uncertainty concerns the
thin westernmost extension, which would extend the
length by additional 450 m. There is a gap 150 m wide
in the drillhole net at the beginning of the potential
extension, so no definitive conclusions can be drawn
about the western limit of the pegmatite.
The Tanco pegmatite is internally strongly diversi-
fied. It consists of nine zones, numbered (10) to (90)
(Stilling 1998), of different mineralogy, texture and
location, and a halo of exomorphic alteration in the
mafic wallrock (Figs. 4 to 7, Table 1). Zones (10)
and (20) compose shell-like concentric envelopes,
commonly much thicker along the footwall contact than
at the hanging wall. Zones (40) and (50), connected by
gradual transition into each other, also form a concentric
shell. In contrast, zones (30), (60), (70), (80) and (90)
form more or less discontinuous layers. Most of these
flat lenticular bodies are confined to the upper central
part of the pegmatite and to the central parts of the
eastern and western lobes.
In the east–west section, the pegmatite displays a
distinct symmetry (Figs. 4, 5). At its central crest, most
of the thickness of the pegmatite is occupied by the
Li-rich zones (40) and (50). These two are separated

Fig. 2. Structural and geological setting of the Tanco pegmatite at Bernic Lake (un­shaded),
modified from Crouse et al. (1979). The known and potential extents of the pegmatite
are shown in light and dark grey, respectively.
 the tanco pegmatite at bernic lake, manitoba
Fig. 3. Plan view of the Tanco pegmatite (light grey), and the potential western exten-
sion (dark grey), and of the course of sections 9100E, 10200E and 9700N, shown in
Figures 4 to 7.
in both lobes by the intervening zone (60), and are
overlain by quartz and pollucite bodies (70) and (80),
respectively. Most of the segments of the lepidolite zone
(90) occur within and just above the two parts of zone
(60), and are in part transitional into this zone. Zone (30)
follows the contacts of quartz zone (70) with adjacent
zones, and it penetrates particularly the zones (20) and
(60). However, late stringers of coarse- to fine-grained
albite that cross-cut and locally replace most of the
primary zones are not necessarily connected with the
main albite-rich aplite (30).
The border zone (10) is dominantly a saccharoidal
assemblage of albite and quartz along the ­ pegmatite–
wallrock contacts, and it locally replaces zone (20).
Owing to its negligible thickness (≤30 cm, average ~15
cm), this zone is not shown in Figures 4 to 7.
The wall zone (20) attains a thickness of 35 m along
the footwall contact. Giant columnar microcline perthite
(≤3 m) in a matrix of quartz, medium-grained albite
and tabular greenish muscovite (≤10 cm) are its main
primary constituents. Other textural varieties of albite,
columnar curvilamellar lithian muscovite and some
of the accessory minerals locally display metasomatic
features.
The albite-rich aplite zone (30) forms layers ≤16 m
thick, as well as smaller, discontinuous and ragged lens-
and pod-like bodies in the eastern lobe of the pegmatite,
where they occur along contacts of the wall zone (20)
with the overlying zones (60) and (70), or grade into
zone (60). A fringe of beryl crystals is commonly devel-
oped along the outer contacts. In the western lobe of the
pegmatite, zone (30) is dispersed as a network within
zone (60) and its contacts with zones (20) and (40);
continuous, texturally well-defined layered sequences
typical of the eastern lobe are rather exceptional. The
603
albite is mostly saccharoidal or less commonly medium-
grained, whereas bladed albite is uncommon. This zone
carries significant Ta and Sn mineralization, along with
minor Be, Nb, Zr and Hf.
The lower intermediate zone (40) is located mainly
in the lower central parts of the pegmatite, attaining a
maximum thickness of ~25 m. Textural and compo-
sitional diversity is characteristic, but there are two
dominant assemblages and textures: one consists of
crystals of microcline perthite and spodumene + quartz
pseudomorphs after petalite (both ≤2 m) embedded
in medium-grained quartz, albite and micas, with or
without scattered wispy layers of albite-rich aplite;
the other, quartz pods (0.5 to 2 m across), are found
with amblygonite and spodumene + quartz aggregates.
Radial rims of bladed albite and micas around the K-
feldspar and spodumene + quartz pseudomorphs usually
separate them from the accumulations of quartz.
The upper intermediate zone (50), ≤24 m thick,
evolves gradually, and mainly upward, from zone (40),
by almost total disappearance of albite and micas.
Gigantism of the components is typical: amblygonite
and pollucite pods attain ≤2 m across, and microcline
perthite and petalite crystals are up to at least 10 and 13
m long, respectively. This zone is the main economic
source of petalite, spodumene + quartz pseudomorphs,
amblygonite and quartz. Miarolitic vugs are rare, but
cavities generated by hydrothermal leaching with
low-temperature mineral assemblages are locally
abundant.
The central intermediate zone (60) is divided into
two segments that reside in the central parts of the
eastern and western lobes of the pegmatite. Perthitic
to perthite-free microcline and quartz (5 to 40 cm) and
fine-grained greenish muscovite are the main constitu-
604 the canadian mineralogist

ents of this zone, which contains high concentrations
of Ta, Nb oxide minerals, beryl and hafnian zircon, and
rare miarolitic cavities.
The quartz zone (70) does not form the classic
quartz core, typical of zoned granitic pegmatites, but
makes up several lenticular bodies located asymmetri-
cally, toward the top of the pegmatite. Massive, white
to faintly pink quartz carries very minor quantities of
petalite, primary spodumene and amblygonite as the
main accessory phases.
The pollucite zone (80) consists of several lenticular
bodies located mainly along the upper contacts of zone
(50) with the upper wall-zone (20). The largest lens of
zone (80) is the only one located in the eastern lobe
(180 3 75 3 12 m in size); several smaller bodies
lie in the western lobe. Petrologically, these lenses of
pollucite belong to zone (50), which shows enrichment
in pollucite along a gradational contact with zone (20).
However, the large bodies of pollucite are treated as
a separate zone because of their huge dimensions and
distinctive locations. This zone represents a rather
unique economic concentration of ~75% pure pollu-
cite. Coarse veining of pollucite by micas, quartz and
feldspars is widespread.
The lepidolite zone (90) forms two flat-lying sheets
elongate in the east–west direction, ≤18 m thick, and
several smaller bodies within the central intermediate
zone (60) or along its contacts with zones (40) and
(50). Fine-grained lithian muscovite predominates over
true lepidolite phases, both commonly intergrown with
microcline and quartz along contacts with zone (60).
Rb- and Cs-bearing lithium micas and Ta–Nb oxide
minerals are of economic interest in this zone.

Fig. 4. Western half of E–W fence section 9700N through the Tanco pegmatite looking north. See Figure 2 for the location of
the section in plan view. Continued in Figure 5.

Fig. 5. Eastern half of the E–W fence section 9700N through the Tanco pegmatite looking north. See Figure 2 for the location
of the section in plan view.
 the tanco pegmatite at bernic lake, manitoba 605

Textural evidence indicates that concentric inward consolidation proceeded from the footwall portion of
solidification generated the outermost zones (10) and (20) through zone (30) to the quartz bodies (70), and
(20) (Thomas et al. 1988, Čern ý et al. 1998, Stilling in others through the lower and upper intermediate
1998, Čern ý 2005). In some parts of the pegmatite, zones (40) and (50) + (80) well into the upper parts of

Fig. 6. N–S fence section 9100E through the Tanco pegmatite looking east. See Figure 2 for the location of the section in plan
view.

Fig. 7. N–S fence section 10200E through the Tanco pegmatite looking east. See Figure 2 for the location of the section in
plan view.
606 the canadian mineralogist
the pegmatite body. However, a downward directional
trend is indicated in the uppermost parts of zone (50).
Transitional relations between zones (40) and (50)
suggest near-simultaneous inward crystallization as
respective footwall and hanging-wall segments of a
collective shell-like concentric zone. The layered central
intermediate zone (60), segments of the lepidolite zone
(90), and most of the quartz bodies (70) solidified within
this innermost concentric shell, the upper parts of which
contain the pollucite concentrations (80) as a late but
integral component.
Textural and paragenetic features strongly suggest
that the bulk of all nine zones was produced by primary
crystallization from a melt ± aqueous fluid phase.
However, zones (10), (30) and in part also (90) locally
show metasomatic relationships with adjacent zones,
and small-scale plus very-low-volume replacements are
observed within each of the zones (20) and (40) to (90)
[cf. Černý et al. (1998), Černý (2005) for evidence and
details of the primary and replacement features].
Methodology and Numerical Results
for Volume Calculations
Data collection and storage
During the past 49 years, most of the maps and drill-
core logs were recorded on paper; digital storage began
only in 1992. Thus, all required maps and sections were
processed from the original paper copies on a Calcomp
digitizer and stored in AutoCAD 12 drawing files. In
total, 1,355 surface and underground drill holes (Fig. 8)
 the tanco pegmatite at bernic lake, manitoba
with paper core logs were coded into a standardized
format and manually entered into a set of Symphony
spreadsheets and Dbase databases. Re-interpretation of
core logs, originally recorded with different emphasis
on minerals by different personnel, was required. Inter-
pretation was based on zone mineralogy, texture and,
wherever required and suitable, on assays. Comparison
of independent assessments by AS, PJV and other mine
geologists were in close agreement.
A system of data storage and retrieval was developed
to increase the rates of data handling and to eliminate
chances of entries of incorrect data. Spreadsheets were
designed with built-in data prompting, code-checking
forms, and automatic error-flagging routines. Subse-
quently, databases and programs were constructed to
organize and compile all the coordinate and core-log
spreadsheets into related database files, and intermit-
tently recompiled to correct errors or to add new data.
The compilation program automatically cross-checked
the databases for inconsistencies as it merged the data
for the model-building programs.
Model construction
The bulk of the 3D pegmatite model was designed
and produced in AutoCAD 12 with custom-written basic
programs. They accessed user-defined lists of drill holes
from databases or spreadsheets to extract their informa-
tion from the main compiled databases, when building
sections, surfaces or block models. When a segment
of the drill-hole model was built, it was examined
using animated or real-time viewing, sectioning and
virtual fly-throughs to visualize the internal structures
and relationships within the pegmatite. This approach
allowed entering the pegmatite model to visually spot
potential problems and to debug complex geological
3D situations. This process was aided by incomplete,
but extensive, records of observations on a minimum of
~185 km of underground wall exposure, revealed over
~40 years of mining.
Volumetric calculations of individual zones
Volumetric calculations were done by constructing
hundreds of thousands of individual TIN (triangulated
irregular networks) and TGRN (triangularly gridded
regular networks) trapezoid surfaces between drill
holes at drill-core intersections of the hanging-wall and
footwall contacts of each zone or body (cf. Fig. 9 as an
example). The TIN surfaces were drawn in 3D CAD
space using Auto Miner and Schreiber’s Quick-Surf
with Matrox Graphics real-time tools. The resulting
zone-specific trapezoids (block volumes between the
two surfaces of the individual zones) were calculated
using Simpson’s trapezoid rule (Press et al. 1992). The
individual zone-volume components for every TIN were
summed up to get the total individual zone-volumes for
the entire pegmatite (Table 2).
607
Initially, surfaces were created with TIN, which are
good for flat surfaces with few points or for densely
populated surfaces. However, TRGN were used for
complex and distorted surfaces for closer approxima-
tion. Denser grid values give better approximation to
the real surface, but at the expense of an exponentially
increasing size of the files. Experiments with grid sizes
from 5’ (1.52 m) to 50’ (15.24 m) optimized file-size
manageability and volume accuracy around the 20’
(6.09 m) grid size, which was subsequently used for
calculation of grid volumes.
The periphery of the pegmatite was interpolated
and extrapolated from the slopes of the footwall and
hanging-wall contacts and internal zone-boundaries in
drill holes closest to the edge of the pegmatite. This
treatment involved virtually solely the zones (10) and
(20).
Given the size of the pegmatite and the viewing
perspectives on thin zones, the density of the surface
grid-lines makes it impossible to display individual
zones at a reasonable scale, as they show up as indis-
tinguishable solid objects. Instead, isopachs of the indi-
vidual zones were calculated, using the vertical distance
between the hanging and footwall surfaces (they do not
represent a true thickness even though the pegmatite is
subhorizontal). In conjunction with the vertical sections
shown in Figures 4 to 7, the isopachs of Figures 10A to
17A provide visual information about the 3D character
of zones (20) to (90). Maps of drillcore intersections of
each zone, Figures 10B to 17B, are stored at the Deposi-
tory of Unpublished Data, CISTI, National Research
Council of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0S2.
A significant but inevitable shortcoming of the
isopach maps is the collective thickness for footwall
and hanging-wall portions of concentric zones (20),
(40), (50) and any overlapping parts of inner pegmatite
zones (30), (70) and (90). Note that the scales used in
the individual isopach maps are not identical: they were
chosen to be proportional to the dimensions and shapes
of their respective zones, to maximize the resolution of
the smallest zones.
The isopach maps provide not only the information
on the variation in thickness of individual zones, but
also on their lateral extent and lateral location within
the pegmatite that cannot be seen in Figures 4 to 7. The
lateral shrinking from zone (20) through (40) to (50) is
evident (Figs. 10A, 12A and 13A), as is the split of zone
(60) into an eastern and western segment (Fig. 14A).
This split is even more pronounced in zones (70), (80)
and (90), whose main segments or concentrations are
vertically superimposed in both the east and west (Figs.
15A to 17A).
Volumetric calculation of the bulk pegmatite
The surface construction for the hanging-wall and
footwall contacts of the pegmatite with the host rocks
was facilitated by the sharp contrast of the black and
608 the canadian mineralogist

Fig. 8. Plan view of the Tanco pegmatite showing the location of 736 underground (top)
and 583 surface (bottom) drill holes used in this study. The thick red line is the outline
of Tanco, the dashed orange line is the outline of the potential western extension, and
the red lines inside the bottom Tanco outline represent the area covered by underground
drilling, for direct comparison.

Fig. 9. TIN surfaces for calculation of the

volume of the western end of the Tanco
pegmatite (hanging-wall in red, footwall
in blue). Vertical multicolored lines are
the drill-hole intersections of the zoned
pegmatite. The section highlighted in
green (right of center) is an example of
volume-block trapezoid.
 the tanco pegmatite at bernic lake, manitoba 609

Fig. 10A. Isopach map of the

wall zone (20).

Fig. 11A. Isopach map of the

albitic aplite zone (30).

F ig . 12A. Isopach map of the

lower intermediate zone (40).
610 the canadian mineralogist
white lithologies involved, consistently identified by
all personnel all the time. The top surface is sloping,
flat and regular, whereas the bottom surface shows pits
and a few troughs. These two surfaces meet gradually
or abruptly, depending on the local structural features
that controlled the emplacement of the pegmatite.
The following notes should provide additional infor-
mation concerning the bulk volume: (i) Minor subver-
tical and subhorizontal pegmatite dikes off the main
body were observed in the drill-cores and underground.
However, they proved to be impossible to quantify and
were not included in the calculations. (ii) The only
known eroded surface of the pegmatite is known from
the lake bottom, covered by glacial drift. Extrapola-
tion from the surrounding contact-surfaces show this
elongate spot (ca. 500 3 15 3 2.5 m) to be negligible,
representing about 0.11 vol.% of the pegmatite. The
erosion surface only exposes the outermost contacts
of zones (10), (20) and (50), and the eroded volume is
insignificant relative to the bulk of the pegmatite. (iii)
The potential westernmost extension, mentioned above
under “Shape, size, attitude”, is intersected by only five
boreholes that do not provide sufficiently clear infor-
mation, and so its affiliation is at present ambiguous.
Thus, this potential extension was not included into the
volumetric calculations.
The bulk volume of the whole pegmatite is iden-
tical with the sum of volumes of individual zones, as
they are calculated from identical sets of TIN surfaces
(Table 2). This match provides a mutual check for the
two calculations and shows that all zone trapezoids are
accounted for. Figure 18 shows the isopach map of the
whole pegmatite, constructed using the data summa-
rized in Table 2.
Methodology and Numerical Results
for Mass Calculations
Mineral modes
Modal compositions for individual zones (Table 3)
were estimated by examining the drill cores, under-
ground workings, underground photographic docu-
ments, microscope images of fine-grained assemblages,
and a synthesis of decades of personal observations and
communications by former and current Tanco mine
geologists (R.A. Crouse, C.R. Galeschuk, J. Law, S.
Moran), colleagues and former students (Ercit 1986,
Morgan & London 1987, London 1990, Teertstra 1997)
and the authors. Table 3 includes most of the primary,
largely magmatic minerals (as opposed to alteration
products) by zone, in a roughly descending order of
abundance. Mineral modes of individual zones, coupled
with the volume percentages of the zones in the bulk
pegmatite, gave the modal composition of the whole
pegmatite (Table 3).
Chemical compositions and densities of minerals
These data were collected from many sources:
measured values and calculated data for zone-specific
Tanco minerals, and textbook values for common and
other minerals that were impractical to quantify experi-
mentally. In Appendix A (stored at the Depository of
Unpublished Data, CISTI, National Research Council
of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0S2), we summarize
information on the sources of chemical compositions,
whereas in Appendix B (deposited as above), we show
the same for density. Data on Ga2O3 and Tl2O were
added from Černý et al. (1998) and from unpublished
files of PČ, to account for these trace elements in
many minerals. The data are collected in Tables 4 to
12 (deposited as above).
 the tanco pegmatite at bernic lake, manitoba
Chemical compositions and densities of pegmatite
zones and bulk pegmatite
Compositions of individual zones of the pegmatite
were calculated by multiplying the modes of individual
minerals (Table 3) by their respective densities against
each elemental oxide of each mineral per zone (Tables
4 to 12, deposited). A “weighted factor” was created
from the cumulative resulting products of each element
oxide of each mineral within each zone. A “total factor”
was calculated from the sum of the individual weighted
factors. The composition of a pegmatite zone represents
a normalized composition for all the element oxides
using the individual weighted factors over the total
factor. A weighted zone-density is also produced for
each zone by summing the products of each mineral
mode multiplied by the mineral density. The results of
calculations of density, mass, and chemical composition
of pegmatite zones are shown in Tables 13 and 14.
Compositions, densities and volumes of individual
pegmatite zones lead to the bulk composition of the
whole pegmatite; individual oxide contents in a zone
composition are multiplied by the zone density against
the zone volume from Table 13. The resulting product
for each zone oxide in every zone is then summed to
create a weighted factor, and the individual weighted
factors are summed to create a total factor. The bulk
composition of the pegmatite is represented by a
composition adjusted to 100% for all the zonal oxide
data using the individual weighted factors over the total
factor. A weighted bulk-density is also produced by
summing the products of each zone volume multiplied
by the density of the zone. The results for the bulk
composition of the pegmatite also are shown in Tables
13 and 14.
Discussion
Consideration of errors
Estimates of error for the calculation of the bulk
composition are not easily determined for some stages
of the procedure and are at best semiquantitative. A
calculation of cumulative error was not attempted
because of lack of quantitative factors for most datasets,
although individual errors were estimated for some
stages of the overall procedure.
During the data entry, every data point and every
bit of geological information were double-checked
against the original drill logs, core logs, and maps.
Three-dimensional modeling of the compiled data also
allowed visual checking of the data. Data that did not
correlate with the 3D model were investigated and if
shown to be in error, corrected. The mineral descriptions
and assays from the core logs have been consistent over
time; however, the older interpretations of zones were
occasionally erratic. To correct this, the mineralogy of
the cores and core logs were rigorously re-examined
611
and correlated with current descriptions of zones, and
errors from incorrect data or misidentified zones have
been minimized.
The accuracy of borehole locations varies with date
and location. Since dewatering of the flooded mine in
1967, the accuracy of underground and vertical surface
holes is not in question because they were properly
surveyed within a few cm. Older hole-collars on the
surface were located and re-surveyed with current tools
and methods to establish their accurate coordinates.
Older hole-collars hidden on the lake bottom could not
be re-surveyed; however, the boreholes were surveyed
underground where exposed in the workings. Recent
drill-holes with good control that became exposed
underground were used as control points for calculating
the drilling drift of holes. Examination of holes exposed
underground indicates that most of the drill holes can
be considered vertical, as their drift and spiraling were
less than 3%. After back-calculating questionable holes,
new locations within 1.5 to 2.5 m could be projected
back to the lake bottom and checked against existing
coordinates. Three-dimensional modeling of the surface
boreholes with computer-generated land and lake-
bottom surfaces helped to confirm locations using collar
elevations and pegmatite mineralogy at contact intersec-
tions. Modeling of underground drill-holes was also
used to confirm locations and orientations. Only 2.6%
of the drill holes were rejected because they could not be
properly located or referenced. Error from hole location
is minor, when compared to the scale of the pegmatite,
and does not significantly influence the construction of
zone surfaces and volumes.
Errors in volume calculations were not measured,
as they are difficult to prove and quantify, because the
total of zone volumes matches the bulk volume of the
pegmatite. This match indicates that every given zone
trapezoid was accounted for in the total volumes, and
that each trapezoid uses and shares identical trapezoidal
surfaces with its neighbors. This observation rules out
the possibility of under- or overestimates from the
constructed and calculated surfaces.
612 the canadian mineralogist

Fig. 13A. Isopach map of the

upper intermediate zone (50).

Fig. 14A. Isopach map of the cen-

tral intermediate zone (60).

F ig . 15A. Isopach map of the

quartz zone (70).
 the tanco pegmatite at bernic lake, manitoba 613

Fig. 16A. Isopach map of the

pollucite zone (80).

Fig. 17A. Isopach map of the

lepidolite zone (90).

Fig. 18. Isopach map and out-

line of the Tanco pegmatite,
based on the vertical drill
holes and some of the inclined
ones shown in Figure 8.
614 the canadian mineralogist
Estimates of mineral modes are, in general, semi-
quantitative, but their accuracy varies for different
levels of abundances. Major components (≥3 vol.%:
K-feldspar, albite quartz, petalite, spodumene, pollucite,
most micas and amblygonite in all zones) gave the
relatively best estimates (±5% relative). The reliability
of modes of zones with an uneven distribution of very
coarse-grained minerals is somewhat less. Zones (50)
and (80) also are correlated with Li2O and Cs2O wt%
ore grades, based on minerals that make up most of
these zones. Subordinate components (3 to 1 vol.%:
beryl, apatite, lithiophilite, tourmaline, eucryptite and
locally amblygonite) are relatively accurate within
±20%. Minor components (<1 vol.%: Ta,Nb oxide
minerals, cassiterite, rutile, zircon and uraninite) gave
the poorest estimates (±40% relative). Abundances of
Ta–Nb and Sn minerals, based on microscopic observa-
tions and modes of Ta-ore concentrates, were correlated
with and adjusted to the published pre-production
reserves of Ta (Crouse et al. 1979, 1984), confidential
updates of same, and confidential assays for Ta and
Sn. Adjustment of mineral modes for Nb was based
on electron-microprobe data for relevant minerals per
zone. The modal percentage of zircon may be slightly
overestimated, but this is compensated by the recently
discovered subordinate Zr and Hf contents of wodginite
and columbite-group minerals (Černý et al. 2007).
Chemical compositions of individual minerals are
quite reliable, even for the interpolated data or for the
few estimates from optical properties. Locally, a minor
error could have been introduced into zonal averages
of mineral compositions, where the number of available
data is statistically low. However, the analytical data
have been accumulated over the period of 36 years from
 the tanco pegmatite at bernic lake, manitoba 615

different laboratories by different techniques; therefore,

a quantitative assessment of errors is not feasible, and
the errors are deemed insignificant. The same applies
to the data for mineral densities.
In summary, the results of bulk compositions
and their errors are products of six sets of data and
methods: borehole locations, computer modeling of
volumes, local improvements of volume calculations
by underground observations, chemical compositions
of minerals, mineral densities, and mineral modes used
to calculate the final data. The mineral modes are prob-
ably the main source of errors, distinctly greater than
any other datasets; in contrast, chemical compositions
and densities of minerals represent the most reliable
component of the exercise. Throughout the progress of
computing, the data were not adjusted by rounding off
at any stage, in order to eliminate rounding errors. The
only rounding was applied to the final volume, mass
and chemical composition data presented in Tables 2, 3
and 13 to 17. The significance of the decimal digits for
major oxide components, and the accuracy of the values
of minor components, must be judged accordingly.

Modal trends in zone compositions

The outermost (and footwall-dominant) zones

of the Tanco pegmatite, namely (10), (20) and, to a
616 the canadian mineralogist
degree, (40), tend to be granitic. The volumetrically
dominant zone (20) consists of substantial Ca-poor
albite, a potassic component and quartz. Zone (10)
is free of K-feldspar, but is adjacent to biotite-rich
exocontact assemblages that indicate substantial loss
of K from this zone. The composition of zone (40) is
evolved over and above a simple granitic mode by the
first extensive appearance of silicates and phosphates
of Li (Table 3).
Intermediate and inner zones deviate distinctly to
dramatically from simple granitic modes: for example,
zone (30) consists essentially of albite dominant over
quartz, and other zones tend to be mineralogically
simple, tending to a monomineralic character. Zone
(40) evolves into zone (50), which has only subordinate
K-feldspar (but still dominant over albite and micas)
and abundant (Li, Al)-silicates and quartz, and minor
Li phosphates; zone (70) is virtually pure quartz. The
primary composition of zone (80), composing bodies
integral to zone (50), is almost pure pollucite (as
opposed to superimposed veining and alteration), and
lithium micas are the exclusive component of some
segments of zone (90) (Table 3).
The bulk modal composition
The composition of the Tanco pegmatite is granitic
with about equal proportions of K-feldspar, albite and
quartz, but with substantial representation of micas,
anhydrous aluminosilicates of Li, pollucite and phos-
phates (Table 3). The dominance of petalite (mostly
broken down to spodumene + quartz on cooling;
London 1984, 1986) over lithian micas, primary spodu-
mene and amblygonite–montebrasite ranks Tanco with
the petalite subtype of complex rare-element pegmatites
(cf. Čern ý & Ercit 2005 for pegmatite classification),
as the minor quantities of the latter minerals do not
substantially contribute to the overall signature of the
pegmatite (collectively they constitute 3.45 vol.%, as
opposed to 8.75 vol.% of petalite).
Chemical trends in zone compositions
The silica content is relatively stable in zones (10)
to (40), but drops through the zones (50), (60), (80)
to (90). This trend is violated by the quartz zone (70),
which corresponds to a classic quartz core of granitic
pegmatites in all respects except for its segmentation
and irregular spatial distribution. In contrast, alumina
increases slightly from the outer to the inner zones, with
the exception of zone (70) (Table 14).
The contents of Na and K are close to those expected
for a granitic rock in the outer zones that more-or-
less approach typical modes of granites, as discussed
above. However, in the inner zones, Na and K become
combined with increasing amounts of Li, Rb and Cs,
and the different alkalis and their assemblages tend
to be strongly concentrated in different zones. The
highest value of Li is encountered in zone (50) (petalite,
spodumene, eucryptite), followed by zone (90) (Li-rich
micas). Zone-specific concentrations of Rb and Cs are
found in the central zones: Rb is prominent in K-feld-
spar and micas of zones (50), (60) and (90), whereas Cs
is particularly enriched in the pollucite “subzone” (80)
within zone (50) and, to a degree, in the lithium micas
of zone (90). Reciprocal behavior is shown by Na and
K: Na tends to be higher in the relatively outer zones,
such as (30) and the footwall part of (20), and decreases
inward, whereas K tends to increase erratically in this
direction. Progressive fractionation of the large alkalis
is shown by the Rb and Cs concentrations increasing
inward relative to K (Table 14).
Zonal distribution of other components is also
summarized in Table 14, but discussion of their behavior
is not within the scope of the present paper. The reader
is referred to Čern ý et al. (1998), Čern ý (2005) and
London (2005) for discussion of geochemical evolution
of the Tanco pegmatite and related problems.
The bulk chemical composition
In general, the bulk chemical composition of the
Tanco pegmatite is granitic sensu lato and peralumi-
nous, with prominent enrichment in Li, Rb, Cs and F,
and a moderate increase in Tl, Be, B, Ga, Sn, Nb and
Ta (Table 14). Compared to most granitic compositions,
Tanco is depleted in Fe, Mn, Mg, Ca, Ba, Sc, Ti and Zr,
and it contains only trace amounts of Pb, Zn, W and U.
The high degree of fractionation attained by the pegma-
tite-forming magma is documented by stated values of
the following ratios: K/Rb 4.7, K/Cs 9.3, Rb/Cs 2.0,
Rb/Tl 137, Fe/Mn 0.63, Mg/Li 0.02, Al/Ga 917, Zr/Hf
2.6, Zr/Sn 0.21 and Nb/Ta 0.19.
The very high degree of fractionation and economi-
cally important rare-element mineralization do not
affect the overall granitic composition. The only
significant deviation is the abundance of rare alkalis,
and particularly that of lithium, which is low per se but
translates into substantial modal abundances of lithium
aluminosilicates. In contrast, the remarkable content of
Cs is controlled by only minor modal abundances of
pollucite and lepidolite (Tables 3 and 14).
The A/CNK index of peraluminosity for Tanco is
1.40, which is elevated above the values typical of
peraluminous granite by the presence of aluminosili-
cates of Li and Cs, and by low but significant Rb. Were
Li and Cs accounted for in their role of Al-compen-
sating alkali elements in petalite, eucryptite, amblygo-
nite–montebrasite, spodumene and pollucite (and Rb in
K-feldspar), a modified ASI defined as mol. Al2O3/(CaO
+ Na2O + K2O + Li2O + Rb2O + Cs2O) would have a
more meaningful value of 1.10.
It is noteworthy that the composition of the wall
zone (20) is very close to the bulk composition of the
whole pegmatite (Table 14), except for the elevated
contents of rare elements in the bulk pegmatite that are
 the tanco pegmatite at bernic lake, manitoba
concentrated in the intermediate and inner zones. The
accumulation of exotic components such as Li, Cs and
P in the central parts of the pegmatite has no major
effect on the contents of the major rock-forming oxides
such as silica and alumina, although the dominance of
Na over K is moderately reduced owing to the high K
contents of zones (60) and (90). The composition of
zone (20), which represents 44 vol.% of the whole body,
has an almost controlling influence on the bulk compo-
sition, despite the locally spectacular deviations of zonal
modes and chemical compositions in the pegmatite’s
interior: volumes of the non-granitic zones (30), (50),
(80) and (90) are minor in relative and absolute terms.
The above relationships do not support the historical
contention that the wall zone of granitic pegmatites may
represent a rapidly cooled sample of the bulk melt: the
difference between the two is well-defined in our case
(Tables 14, 17, Fig. 19). However, this observation
cannot be generalized, as compositions of the wall zone
are rather variable in different pegmatite populations
and do not conform to a granitic composition in all
cases, unless segments of the immediately adjacent (and
texturally different) zones are incorporated.
Comparison with other rare-element pegmatites
Chemical compositions of petalite-subtype pegma-
tites and their higher-pressure spodumene-dominant
analogues were approximated from visually estimated
modes by Norton et al. (1962, Hugo, South Dakota),
Stewart (1978, several localities), and Walker et al.
(1986, Tin Mountain, South Dakota). Chemical analyses
of quarry and drill-core samples led to the composi-
tion given by Burnham & Jahns (1962, Harding, New
Mexico), and chemical data also were collected, but on
an unspecified basis of sampling, for diverse pegmatites
in the former USSR (Filippova 1971, Gordiyenko 1996,
Zagorskyi et al. 1997, and references cited therein) and
China (Mongolian Altai #3, Liu & Shan 1990). Some
of these compositions are compared to that of Tanco
in Table 15. Despite its generally much higher degree
of overall mineralization and zonal complexity, the
bulk composition of Tanco matches those of the above
pegmatites rather closely. With a few exceptions, all of
them are rich in silica, with Na and Ta dominant over K
and Nb, respectively, and with variable but substantial
contents of Li and Rb. The content of Cs is highly vari-
able and reflective mainly of the quantity of pollucite
(if any) and lepidolite.
In detail, the bulk compositions of albite–spodu-
mene pegmatites are slightly lower in silica, enriched
in Li, and poorer in F relative to Tanco (Heinrich
1975, Chackowsky 1987, Gordiyenko 1996, Zagorskyi
et al. 1997). The same features and enrichment in F
also are characteristic of pegmatites of the lepidolite
subtype (Jahns 1953, Pidlite, New Mexico; Gordi­
yenko 1996, Čern ý 2005, Red Cross Lake, Manitoba).
Both albite–spodumene and lepidolite pegmatites also
617
are more Na-dominant and K-depleted relative to the
complex spodumene and petalite subtypes. Enrichment
in Na culminates in the albite type (e.g., Sweetapple &
Collins 2002). Finally, to the best of our knowledge,
no quantitative data are currently available for the bulk
chemical composition of the elbaite- and amblygonite-
subtype pegmatites.
Comparison with experimental work
London (1986) constructed a cooling path of
consolidation of the Tanco pegmatite, based on a
fluid-inclusion study and phase equilibria. The pres-
sure–temperature path runs from ~650°C at ~3.0 kbar
to ~470°C at ~2.5 kbar, and continues at a steeper slope
along regional geothermal gradient to ~280°C at ~1.6
kbar. Similar values but generally lower temperatures
were estimated by Thomas et al. (1988, 1990).
The consolidation of complex petalite and spodu-
mene pegmatites was simulated by Stewart (1978) in
the system Li2O–Na2O–Al2O3–SiO2–H2O, in which
Na 2O represented the total feldspar component to
avoid complications by leucite stabilization at 2
kbar P(H2O). A trough of thermal minima stabilizing
spodumene was found at 1.8 to 2.0 wt.% Li2O over a
modest range of near-equal Ab:Qtz proportions, closely
corresponding to the bulk compositions of petalite and
spodumene pegmatites or their inner Li-rich zones
(Figs. 19, 20). The modest but systematic shift of the
pegmatite data toward lower Si and higher Na values
is caused by the presence of additional components in
the natural systems, namely B, F and P (e.g., London
1990, reviewed in Čern ý 1991). The temperatures
experimentally established for the minima stabilizing
Li-aluminosilicates at 2 kbar would be somewhat lower
at the conditions of Tanco solidification, mainly ~2.8 to
2.5 kbar, because of higher solubility of H2O.
The locally uncertain, and in part undoubtedly over-
lapping sequence of zonal consolidation in the Tanco
pegmatite (Fig. 19, Table 16) does not conform to any of
the simple cooling pathways in Stewart’s experimental
system (Stewart 1978, Fig. 4), in accord with London’s
argument for disequilibrium crystallization of pegma-
tite-forming melts (London et al. 1989, London 1992,
2005). However, a trend extending from the projection
of the Tanco zone (20) to the sum of the Li-rich zones
(40) and (50) may be indicative of the overall direction
of Tanco consolidation, analogous to but shifted from
the experimental Ab – Qtz cotectic to the evolution and
end product expectable for the F-, B-, K- and P-enriched
natural magmas (Fig. 19).
On the basis of the Tanco data, it is quite possible
that some of the bulk pegmatite compositions that
are very close to the maximum Li values established
experimentally (Fig. 20) are affected by incomplete
representation of the pegmatites examined. It can be
argued in several cases that the compositional data
reflect the composition of the accessible, and usually
618 the canadian mineralogist

most evolved, parts of the pegmatites, whereas the
outer zones in the flanks and roots of the pegmatite
bodies are underestimated or not taken into account
at all (e.g., Bikita, Zimbabwe and Hirvikallio, Finland
in Stewart 1978). Increased percentage of a relatively
barren wall-zone would reduce the proportion of Li-
rich internal zones and move the projection of the bulk
pegmatite composition away from the low-temperature
trough, located at maximum Li2O contents attainable by
magmatic differentiation.
The dominance of the wall zone is quantitatively
documented here for the flat Tanco pegmatite (44
vol.%) and by Norton (1994) for the bulbous Tin
Mountain pegmatite (37 wt.%, which should be very
close to the vol.% value). Numerous illustrations in the
literature indicate that the dominance of the wall zone
is a widespread feature, although not a universal one
(e.g., Cameron et al. 1949, Jahns 1955, Solodov 1962,
Ovchinnikov & Kuzmenko 1976). Thus the composi-
tions of the internal zones of complex petalite- and
spodumene-subtype pegmatites should be much more
representative of the tail-end maximum Li-enrichment
at the thermal minimum than the bulk compositions
of pegmatites that encompass substantial to dominant
quantities of Li-poor zones. From this viewpoint,
Norton's (1994) opinion that his calculated 37 wt.%
and the 20% estimated by Walker et al. (1986) for the
wall zone at Tin Mountain are both acceptable, albeit
for different purposes, is rather strange.
Solidified pegmatite versus its parent melt
A cautionary note is made here about the compo-
sitional relationship between the pegmatite-forming
magma and the product of its solidification. It has been
repeatedly emphasized in the past in qualitative terms
that a consolidated granitic pegmatite rock lacks a high
proportion of volatile components and alkalis contained
in the parent melt. Some of the ensuing exomorphism is
cryptic, but most of it generates extensive alteration of
the wallrock. Morgan & London (1987, 1989) indicated
that, with respect to the central ~70 to 75 vol.% of the
Tanco body, the relative percentages of loss for many
such components are substantial: B ~50 to 70%, Li and
K ~4% each, Rb ~6%, Cs ~13%, and F ~14% (and, of
course, large quantities of H2O and CO2). These values
would be slightly reduced when related to the currently
established mass of the entire pegmatite, but the general
magnitudes would be similar, as the wallrock altera-
tion varies with the mineralogy of the adjacent internal
zones of the pegmatite, and much of the volume of the
pegmatite that was not considered by the above authors

Fig. 19. Bulk compositions of petalite-subtype, spodumene-subtype, and albite–spodu-

mene-type pegmatites from Stewart (1978), compared to plots of zone (40), zone (50),
the weighted average of these zones (45), and the bulk of the Tanco pegmatite (Bulk).
 the tanco pegmatite at bernic lake, manitoba
is dominated by the geochemically least evolved zone
(20). No attempt was made to recalculate the above
data; as shown below, petrochemical modeling of
the derivation of the Tanco magma from its plutonic
parent is not feasible. Thus, petrogenetic implications
are limited to the contribution provided by the bulk
composition of the solidified pegmatite, which is the
main subject of this study.
Petrogenetic considerations
Most of the groups of cogenetic LCT pegmatites in
the Winnipeg River district are documented by field and
geochemical relations as derivatives of separate leuco-
granitic parents that outcrop in their close vicinity (e.g.,
Černý et al. 1981, 2005). The Bernic Lake group, of
which Tanco is a member, lacks an outcropping parent;
however, one is suspected beneath the central parts of
the pegmatite group (e.g., Černý et al. 1981, 1998). The
Bernic Lake pegmatite group has the same geochemical
signature as the Osis Lake leucogranite and derived
pegmatites of the Rush Lake group, located ~4 to 10 km
to the east: strongly peraluminous, enriched in Li, Rb,
Cs, Be, Sn, Ta and B, P, S, and with a relatively high
dO18 (Longstaffe et al. 1981). Thus it is reasonable to
expect that petrochemistry of the leucogranite parental
to the Bernic Lake group would be closely analogous
to that of the Osis Lake leucogranite.
The composition of the Tanco zone (20) is very
similar to that of the coarse-grained muscovite-bearing
phase of the Osis Lake leucogranite (and, for that
matter, to similar phases of other leucogranite intru-
sions in the district; Table 17). The only significant
difference is a slightly higher degree of fractionation
attained in zone (20), particularly in terms of the rare
alkalis. Thus, zone (20) provides permissive evidence
of a petrochemical link between a leucogranitic parent
and the Tanco pegmatite. Figure 21 approximates the
progressive fractionation trend expected in the Bernic
Lake Group, using members of the Osis Lake leuco-
granite suite as representative of the hidden parent of
the Tanco pegmatite. Quantitative modeling is, however,
not feasible because of the lack of data for the leuco-
granitic source of the Bernic Lake Group.
Conclusions
A 3D model of the Tanco pegmatite and its nine
inner zones, constructed from a dense network of
surface and underground drill-holes in and around the
pegmatite, and locally improved from underground
exposures, shows a virtually blind, subhorizontal, bilo-
bate, saddle-shaped body dipping shallowly to the north
and doubly plunging to the east and west.
The pegmatite is about 1520 m long, 1060 m wide,
and up to ~100 m thick, thinning toward the edges. The
volume of the pegmatite is ~21,850,000 m3, the mass is
~57,430,000 tonnes, and its average density is 2.63 g/
619
cm3. The granitic wall-zone (20) dominates at 44 vol.%
over the petalite-rich zones (40) and (50), which total
39 vol.%; the volumes of the Ta-ore zones (30) and (60)
and of the quartz zone (70) are between 3 and 7%, and
those of the border, pollucite and lepidolite zones (10),
(80) and (90), respectively, are less than 1%.
Despite being one of the economically most mineral-
ized and highly fractionated rare-element pegmatites in
the world, the bulk mode of Tanco approximates that
of a muscovite granite, with the exception of 8 wt.%
petalite, 2.8 wt.% lithian micas, and 1 wt.% primary
spodumene. The contents of all other accessory sili-
cates and phosphates are only in tenths of a wt.%, and
minerals of the high-field-strength elements account for
mere hundredths to thousandths of a wt.% each. Accord-
ingly, the bulk chemical composition of the pegmatite
corresponds to that of a peraluminous, moderately
silicic, high-phosphorus, Na>K granite, with Li, Rb and
Cs oxide contents in the range of middle tenths of %,
Sn, Ta and Be oxides in the range of low hundredths
of %, and oxides of all other minor elements less than
0.01 wt%.
The bulk compositions of Tanco and other Li-rich
pegmatites analyzed to date are enriched in feldspars
(albite in particular), and impoverished in quartz
and lithium aluminosilicates, relative to the 2 kbar
low-temperature trough in the experimental system
Li2O–Na2O–Al2O3–SiO2–H2O examined by Stewart
(1978). This shift is due to the influence of F, B and P,
invariably present in the natural systems, as documented
in experimental studies (cf. London 1990). However, the
shift is even greater in some cases, such as at Tanco,
where the bulk composition is properly measured for
the total pegmatite, including the full extent of the
outermost barren zones. The combined composition of
inner spodumene- or petalite-bearing zones (40) + (50)
matches the experimental minima much better.
Despite the general trend from the granitic wall-
zone to the close-to-minimum Li-rich zones, the
solidification of Tanco does not follow a simple course
comparable to that in the experimental system. The
broad variations in feldspar modes and grain size
correspond to the disequilibrium crystallization from
an undercooled melt, experimentally documented by
London et al. (1989).
Except for a much lower degree of fractionation
and enrichment in rare elements, the composition of
the dominant wall-zone (20) is very close to that of
the bulk Tanco. On the other hand, zone (20) closely
matches the somewhat less evolved leucogranite of
the nearby Osis Lake intrusion, which generated rare-
element pegmatites similar to Tanco. In the absence of
an outcrop of a leucogranite directly parental to Tanco,
these geochemical relationships are interpreted as
applicable to the hidden Tanco-generating system; zone
(20) represents a link between the presumed leucogra-
nitic parent and the highly evolved Tanco interior. The
available data indicate a process of origin similar to that
620 the canadian mineralogist

Fig. 20. Compositions of individual zones of the Tanco pegmatite in Stewart’s (1978)
plot of quartz – eucryptite – feldspars (the last represented by albite in experiments);
compositions of bulk Tanco marked (Bulk), of zones (40) and (50), and of the weighted
average of these two zones marked (45), are also shown.

for other nearby leucogranites and derived pegmatites,
although the ultimate source protoliths were in some
cases different (cf. Čern ý & Ercit 2005, Čern ý et al.
2005).
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the NSERC Discovery
Grants to PČ, and by logistical support from the
Tantalum Mining Corporation of Canada Ltd. Partic-
ular thanks are due to the past and present mine
managers C.T. Williams, L.R. Nielsen, R.O. Burt and
W. Ferguson, mine engineers H. Townshend and K.
McMurren, mine geologists J. Law and S. Moran,
and exploration geologist C.R. Galeschuk for their
assistance and access to all available data. Technical
assistance and critical discussion with W.C. Brisbin at
the Department of Geological Sciences, University of
Manitoba, A. Brown, R. MacGregor, D. Good and the
late D.H. Kamineni of the AECL Whiteshell Research
Laboratories were very valuable. Access to special-
ized computer resources facilitated by I. Muirhead at
the Faculty of Engineering, University of Alberta, D.
Mosscrop at the Department of Geography, University
of Manitoba, and the Tantalum Mining Corporation are
much appreciated. K.J. Ferreira and S. Mejia assisted
with several graphic and numerical improvements.
Critical reviews by George Morgan, Marcel Vallée
and Manuel Villadevall, and the editorial work of R.L.
Linnen and R.F. Martin, contributed to the final clean-up
of the manuscript.
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