01 - DISCOVERING EXPRESSIONS,
EQUATIONS, AND FUNCTIONS
EXPRESSIONS AND VARIABLES
An algebraic expression comprises both
numbers and variables together with at least one
arithmetic operation.
Example
4*x-3
A variable, as we learned in pre-algebra, is a
letter that represents unspecified numbers.
One may use a variable in the same manner as
all other numerals:
To evaluate an algebraic expression, you have to
substitute each variable with a number and
perform the operations included.
Example
Evaluate the expression when x=5
4*x–3
Substitute x with 5 (4 * 5-3)
Calculate the answer: (20 – 3 = 17)
An expression that represents repeated
multiplication of the same factor is called a
power e.g.
OPERATIONS IN THE RIGHT ORDER
When faced with a mathematical expression
comprising several operations or parentheses,
the result may be affected by the order in which
the various operations are tackled e.g.
4*7=2
The result is influenced if we take the
multiplication first:
28 – 2 = 26
Or if we begin with the subtraction:
4 * 5 = 20
To avoid misunderstandings mathematicians
have established an order of operations so
that we always arrive at the same result.
1. Simplify the expressions inside
parentheses (), brackets [], braces { }
and fractions bars.
2. Evaluate all powers.
3. Do all multiplications and division
from left to right.
4. Do all addition and subtractions from
left to right.
An example of this appears if we were to ask
ourselves how many hours a person works
over two days, if they work 4 hours before
lunch and 3 hours after lunch. We first work
out how many hours the person works each
day:
Example
Tony is at a car rental service to rent a car.
There is an administration fee of $50 to rent
a car and then it costs $20 for each day he
has the car. Write an expression for the total
cost of renting a car at this particular car
rental service.

Written as a verbal model.

administrative fee + price each day * no. of

days

COMPOSING EXPRESSIONS Translate the verbal model into a

mathematical model.
In the previous section we used an example
where we wanted to know how many hours a
50+20x
person works over a period of two days if he
each day were to work 4 hours before lunch and
where x is the number of days that you've
3 hours after lunch. As we could see this
problem could be turned into the expression
rented the car.

When we measure how fast a car, or

(4+3) * 2 = 14
When we want to translate a verbal phrase like
the example above into a mathematical
expression, we can look for words that indicate a
mathematical operation.
something is moving we are usually
comparing quantities measured in different
units like comparing distances with time.
The fraction resulting is called a rate. The
unit rate is when the denominator of the
fraction is 1 unit.

For example, words like "sum", "increased by"

and "plus" indicates that we are to use addition.
And words like "times" and "multiplied by" calls
for multiplication. When we are writing
subtractions and divisions the order in which we
write is important. "The difference of a number
12 and a" is written 12 - a and not a - 12.
When we have a mathematical problem as in the
example below, we can begin by making a
verbal model where we describe the situation in
words and relate the words by usage of
mathematical symbols. These words can then be
replaced by numbers or variables to create a
mathematical model, or expression, to describe
the situation.
COMPOSING EQUATIONS AND
INEQUALITIES

Equations and inequalities are both

mathematical sentences formed by relating two
expressions to each other. In an equation the two
expressions are deemed equal which is shown by
the symbol =.
X=Y | X IS EQUAL TO Y

REPRESENTING FUCNTIONS AS RULES

AND GRAPHS

Let's begin by looking at an example:

EXAMPLE
At a store the carrots cost $2.50/lb. The
Is 3 a solution to
price the customer pays is dependent on how
5x + 14 = 24 many pounds of carrots that he buys.
Another way to say this is to say that the
Substitute x for 3 total cost is a function of the pounds bought.
5 * 3 + 14 We can write this as an equation.

15 + 14 = 29 ≠ 24 total cost = price per lb * weight bought

FALSE! Or
Since 29 is not equal to 24, 3 is not a solution to
the equation.
Y= 2.50 * x
A function is an equation which shows the
relationship between the input x and the
output y and where there is exactly one
output for each input. Another word for
input is domain and for output the range. As
we stated earlier the price the costumer has
to pay, y, is dependent on how many pounds
of carrots, x, that the customer buys.
The number of pounds bought is called the
independent variable since that's what we're
changing whereas the total price is called the
dependent variable since it is dependent on
how many pounds we actually buy.
Input variable = Independent variable =
Domain
Output variable = Dependent variable =
Range
Functions are usually represented by a
function rule where you express the
dependent variable, y, in terms of the
independent variable, x.
Y= 2.50 * x
You can represent your function by making it
into a graph. The easiest way to make a graph is
to begin by making a table containing inputs and
their corresponding outputs. Again, we use the
example with the carrots.
A pair of an input value and its corresponding
output value is called an ordered pair and can be
written as (a, b). In an ordered pair the first
number, the input a, corresponds to the
horizontal axis and the second number, the
output b, corresponds to the vertical axis.
We can thus write our values as ordered
pairs.
(0, 0) - This ordered pair is also referred to
as the origin
(1, 2.5)
(2, 5)
(3, 7.5)
These ordered pairs can then be plotted into
a graph.
A pairing of any set of inputs with their
corresponding outputs is called a relation.
Every function is a relation, but not all
relations are functions. In the example above
with the carrots every input gives exactly
one output which qualifies it as a function.
If you are insecure whether your relation is a
function or not you can draw a vertical line
right through your graph. If the relation is
not a function the graph contains at least two
points with the same x-coordinate but with
different y-coordinates.

The relation portrayed in the graph to the left shows a
function whereas the relation in the graph to the right
is not a function since the vertical line is crossing the
graph in two points.
How to Simplify Expressions: Learn the rules
for combining like terms, removing
parentheses, and reducing fractions in
algebraic expressions.
Step 1: Identify Like Terms
Like terms are terms that have the same
variables raised to the same exponents. To
simplify expressions, we need to combine these
like terms.
Step 2: Combining Like Terms
To combine like terms, add or subtract the
coefficients (numbers in front of the variables)
while keeping the variable part unchanged.
Example:
 Simplify the expression: 3x + 2y - x +
4y
 Solution:
 Combine the x-terms: 3x - x = 2x
 Combine the y-terms: 2y + 4y = 6y
 The simplified expression is: 2x + 6y
Step 3: Removing Parentheses
Sometimes, expressions have parentheses that
need to be removed. To do this, apply the
distributive property, which states that a (b + c)
= ab + ac.
Example:
 Simplify the expression: 2x (3 + 5)
 Solution:
 Apply the distributive property: 2x * 3 +
2x * 5
 Simplify: 6x + 10x
 The simplified expression is: 16x
Step 4: Reducing Fractions
If the expression contains fractions, simplify
them by finding the greatest common factor
(GCF) of the numerator and denominator and
then dividing both by the GCF.
Example:
 Simplify the fraction: (6x^2 - 12x) / 18
 Solution:
 Factor out the GCF of the numerator:
6x(x - 2)
 The GCF of 6x and 18 is 6. Divide both
the numerator and denominator by 6:
(6x * (x - 2)) / (18 / 6)
 Simplify: (6x * (x - 2)) / 3
 Finally, simplify further: 2x (x - 2)
 The simplified expression is: 2x (x - 2)
Pay attention to signs: Adding a negative term is the same
as subtracting the positive form of the term.
Be cautious with distributing negatives across parentheses.
Watch out for common mistakes like mixing up exponents
or dropping terms.
How to Perform Operations with Exponents:
Discover rules for simplifying expressions
involving exponents, such as multiplication,
division, and power rules.
1. Exponentiation (Power Rule)
When you raise a number to an exponent, it means
multiplying the base by itself the number of times specified
by the exponent. The general form is: `a^b`, where 'a' is the
base and 'b' is the exponent.
Example: 2^3 = 2 * 2 * 2 = 8
2. Multiplication with Exponents (Product Rule):
When you multiply two terms with the same base but
different exponents, you can add the exponents while
keeping the base unchanged.
Example: x^3 * x^2 = x^ (3 + 2) = x^5
3. Division with Exponents (Quotient Rule)
When you divide two terms with the same base but
different exponents, you can subtract the exponent of the
denominator from the exponent of the numerator while
keeping the base unchanged.
Example: x^5 / x^2 = x^ (5 - 2) = x^3
4. Power to a Power (Power Rule)
When you raise a power to another power, you can multiply
the exponents while keeping the base unchanged.
Example: (x^2) ^3 = x^ (2 * 3) = x^6
5. Negative Exponents
A negative exponent means taking the reciprocal of the
term with a positive exponent.
Example: x^ (-3) = 1 / x^3
6. Zero Exponent
Any number (except zero) raised to the power of zero is
equal to 1.
Example: a^0 = 1
7. Fractional Exponents (Roots)
Fractional exponents represent roots. To calculate the 'nth'
root of a number 'a', raise 'a' to the power of 1/n.
Example: 4^ (1/2) = √4 = 2
Let's look at some examples of simplifying expressions
using these rules:
Example 1:
 Simplify: 3^2 * 3^4
 Solution:
 Step 1: Apply the product rule.
 3^2 * 3^4 = 3^ (2 + 4) = 3^6
Example 2:
 Simplify: (x^2) ^3 / x^4
 Solution:
 Step 1: Apply the power to a power rule.
 (x^2) ^3 = x^ (2 * 3) = x^6
 Step 2: Apply the quotient rule.
 (x^2) ^3 / x^4 = x^6 / x^4 = x^ (6 - 4) = x^2
Example 3:
 Simplify: (2^3 * 2^ (-2)) / 2^1
 Solution:
 Step 1: Apply the product rule and negative
exponent rule.
 (2^3 * 2^ (-2)) / 2^1 = 2^ (3 + (-2)) / 2^1 = 2^1 /
2^1 = 2^(1-1) = 2^0 = 1
How to Perform Operations with Exponents:
Discover rules for simplifying expressions
involving exponents, such as multiplication,
division, and power rules.
Simplifying radical expressions involves simplifying square
roots and higher-order radicals. Let's start with square roots
and then move on to higher-order radicals.
1. Simplifying Square Roots:
A square root is an expression of the form √x, where x is a
non-negative number. The goal is to find the simplest form
of the square root expression. Here's the step-by-step
process:
Step 1: Factorize the Number Under the Radical (if
possible)
- Look for perfect square factors of the number under the
radical. A perfect square is a number that can be expressed
as the square of an integer (e.g., 4, 9, 16, 25, etc.).
- If the number under the radical can be factored into
perfect squares, do so. Otherwise, the expression is already
in its simplest form.
Step 2: Use the Product Rule for Square Roots
- The product rule states that √ (a * b) = √a * √b. We can
use this rule to separate the perfect square factors found in
step 1.
Step 3: Simplify the Expression
- If there are any perfect square factors, take the square
root of each of them and write them outside the radical
sign. Any non-perfect square factors should remain under
the radical.
Step 4: Combine Like Terms (if applicable)
- If there are like terms (same radicals) in the expression,
you can combine them together. For example, √4 + √9 can
be simplified to 2 + 3 = 5.
2. Simplifying Higher-Order Radicals:
Higher-order radicals are expressions with a higher index,
such as cube roots (∛) and fourth roots (∜). The same
principles apply as with square roots, but the process may
involve finding perfect nth powers. Let's go through the
steps:
Step 1: Factorize the Number Under the Radical (if
possible):
- Look for perfect nth powers (where n is the index of the
radical) of the number under the radical.
- If the number under the radical can be factored into
perfect nth powers, do so. Otherwise, the expression is
already in its simplest form.
Step 2: Use the Product Rule for Radicals:
- The product rule for nth roots states that √[n] (a * b) =
√[n]a * √[n]b. Use this rule to separate the perfect nth
power factors found in step 1.
Step 3: Simplify the Expression:
- Take the nth root of each perfect nth power factor and
write them outside the radical sign. Any non-perfect nth
power factors should remain under the radical.
Step 4: Combine Like Terms (if applicable)
- If there are like terms (same radicals) in the expression,
you can combine them together.
Here's an example for both square roots and higher-order
radicals:
Example 1: Simplify √ (18)
 Step 1: Factorize the number under the radical:
18 = 2 * 9
 Step 2: Apply the product rule: √ (2 * 9) = √2 *
√9
 Step 3: Simplify: √2 * 3
 Final Answer: 3√2
Example 2: Simplify ∛ (64)
 Step 1: The number under the radical is already a
perfect cube: 64 = 4^3
 Step 2: Apply the product rule: ∛ (4^3) = ∛4 * ∛4
* ∛4
 Step 3: Simplify: 4
 Final Answer: 4
How to Find the Domain and Range of
Functions: Learn to determine the
permissible inputs and corresponding
outputs of algebraic functions
Finding the domain and range of a function
involves determining the set of permissible
inputs (domain) and the corresponding
outputs (range). Let's go through a step-by-
step process to find the domain and range of
algebraic functions.
Step 1: Understand the Definition of
Domain and Range
- The domain of a function is the set of all
possible input values for which the function
is defined.
- The range of a function is the set of all
possible output values that the function can
produce.
Step 2: Identify the Function
- Start by identifying the algebraic function
you want to find the domain and range for.
For example, let's consider the function f(x).
Step 3: Look for Excluded Values in the
Domain
- In some cases, the domain might be
explicitly specified or limited. Look for any
restrictions on the input values (x) in the
function's definition or any restrictions in the
problem statement. These may include:
a. Denominators in fractions: The function
might be undefined when the denominator is
zero (division by zero is not allowed).
b. Square roots: The radicand (expression
inside the square root) must be non-negative
since square roots of negative numbers are
not real.
c. Logarithms: The argument of a
logarithmic function must be positive.
Step 4: Find the Domain
- Based on the identified restrictions in Step
3, determine the set of all possible input
values (x) for which the function is defined.
This set will be the domain of the function.
Write the domain in interval notation or set
notation, whichever is appropriate.
Step 5: Determine the Range
- To find the range, consider the behavior of
the function as x varies over the domain.
Some functions may have specific patterns
or characteristics that allow you to
determine the range directly. However, in
some cases, it may be challenging to find the
exact range without the help of advanced
mathematical tools.
- If the function is continuous over its
domain, you can find the range by analyzing
the end behavior and looking for any
maximum or minimum points.
- If the function is not continuous or has
complex behavior, you might need to use
graphical methods or advanced
mathematical techniques to find the range.
Step 6: Verify Your Results
- Double-check your work to ensure you
have correctly determined the domain and
range. Make sure to review any restrictions
you found in Step 3 and confirm that you
have accurately represented the domain and
range of the function.
Let's illustrate this process with a simple
example:
Example: Find the domain and range of the
function f(x) = 2x + 3.
Step 1: The function is f(x) = 2x + 3.
Step 2: There are no explicit restrictions
mentioned in the problem, so we proceed to
Step 3.
Step 3: There are no excluded values for x in
the function f(x) = 2x + 3. So, the domain is
all real numbers (-∞, ∞).
Step 4: Domain = (-∞, ∞).
Step 5: Since the function f(x) = 2x + 3 is a
linear function, it is continuous over its
domain, and it has no turning points.
Therefore, the range of this function will
also be all real numbers (-∞, ∞).
Step 6: Verify that the domain is (-∞, ∞),
and the range is also (-∞, ∞).
How to Find the Slope of a Line: Learn to
calculate the slope of a line given two
points or the equation of the line.
Finding the slope of a line is a fundamental
concept in algebra and geometry. The slope
represents the rate at which the line rises or
falls as you move from one point to another.
It's typically denoted by the letter "m."
There are two common methods to calculate
the slope of a line: using two given points or
using the equation of the line. Below is a
step-by-step guide for both methods:
Method 1: Using Two Given Points
Step 1: Identify the two points.
Let's assume you have two points on the
line, (x1, y1) and (x2, y2). Each point
consists of an x-coordinate and a y-
coordinate.
Step 2: Calculate the difference in y-
coordinates.
Subtract the y-coordinate of the first point
(y1) from the y-coordinate of the second
point (y2).
Delta y (Δy) = y2 - y1
Step 3: Calculate the difference in x-
coordinates.
Subtract the x-coordinate of the first point
(x1) from the x-coordinate of the second
point (x2).
Delta x (Δx) = x2 - x1
Step 4: Calculate the slope.
Divide the difference in y-coordinates (Δy)
by the difference in x-coordinates (Δx).
Slope (m) = Δy / Δx
Method 2: Using the Equation of the Line
Step 1: Identify the equation of the line
The equation of a straight line is generally
written in the slope-intercept form, y = mx +
b, where "m" is the slope and "b" is the y-
intercept (the point where the line intersects
the y-axis).
Step 2: Read the slope from the equation
In the slope-intercept form, the coefficient of
"x" represents the slope "m."
Simple Example:
Let's calculate the slope of the line passing
through the points (2, 3) and (5, 9).
Method 1:
 Step 1: Given points: (2, 3) and (5, 9)
 Step 2: Δy = 9 - 3 = 6
 Step 3: Δx = 5 - 2 = 3
 Step 4: Slope (m) = Δy / Δx = 6 / 3 =
2
Method 2:
 Step 1: Given points: (2, 3) and (5, 9)
 Step 2: Using the equation of the line
(y = mx + b) and either of the points,
solve for "m":
 3 = 2 * 2 + b (using point (2, 3))
 b = 3 - 4 = -1
 Step 3: The equation of the line is y
= 2x - 1. The slope (m) is 2.
Both methods yield the same slope (m = 2),
which means the line rises 2 units for every
1 unit it moves horizontally.
Fractions:
Introduction to Fractions:
Definition: A fraction represents a part of a
whole. It consists of two parts: a numerator
and a denominator. The numerator is the
number above the fraction line, and the
denominator is the number below it.
Example: In the fraction 3/5, the numerator
is 3, and the denominator is 5.
Types of Fractions:
1. Proper Fraction: When the numerator is
smaller than the denominator (e.g., 1/2, 3/7).
2. Improper Fraction: When the numerator is
equal to or greater than the denominator
(e.g., 7/4, 10/3).
3. Mixed Number: A combination of a whole
number and a proper fraction (e.g., 2 3/4, 5
1/2).
Converting Between Mixed Numbers and
Improper Fractions:
1. Converting Mixed Numbers to
Improper Fractions:
To convert a mixed number to an improper
fraction, follow these steps:
 Step 1: Multiply the whole number
by the denominator.
 Step 2: Add the product from Step 1
to the numerator.
 Step 3: Write the sum from Step 2
over the original denominator.
 Example: Convert 2 3/5 to an
improper fraction.
 Step 1: 2 (whole number) × 5
(denominator) = 10
 Step 2: 10 (product) + 3 (numerator)
= 13
 Step 3: The improper fraction is
13/5.
2. Converting Improper Fractions to
Mixed Numbers:
To convert an improper fraction to a mixed
number, follow these steps:
 Step 1: Divide the numerator by the
denominator.
 Step 2: Write down the whole
number part of the result.
 Step 3: Write the remainder (the
remainder is the numerator of the
proper fraction) over the original
denominator.
Example: Convert 17/4 to a mixed number.
 Step 1: 17 (numerator) ÷ 4
(denominator) = 4 with a remainder
of 1
 Step 2: The whole number part is 4.
 Step 3: The proper fraction is 1/4.
 Answer: The mixed number is 4 1/4.
Operations with Fractions:
1. Addition and Subtraction:
To add or subtract fractions with the same
denominator, simply add or subtract their
numerators while keeping the denominator
the same.
Example: Add 1/3 + 2/3.
1/3 + 2/3 = (1 + 2)/3 = 3/3 = 1 (simplified to
a whole number).
2. Addition and Subtraction with
Different Denominators:
To add or subtract fractions with different
denominators, follow these steps:
 Step 1: Find a common denominator
for both fractions (LCM - Least
Common Multiple).
 Step 2: Rewrite both fractions using
the common denominator.
 Step 3: Add or subtract the
numerators while keeping the
common denominator.
Example: Add 1/4 + 1/3.
 Step 1: The LCM of 4 and 3 is 12.
 Step 2: Rewrite the fractions with the
common denominator: 1/4 = 3/12
and 1/3 = 4/12.
 Step 3: 3/12 + 4/12 = 7/12.
3. Multiplication:
To multiply fractions, multiply the
numerators together and multiply the
denominators together.
Example: Multiply 2/5 × 3/4.
2/5 × 3/4 = (2 × 3)/(5 × 4) = 6/20 (You can
simplify this fraction further.)
4. Division:
To divide fractions, multiply the first
fraction by the reciprocal of the second
fraction.
Example: Divide 2/3 ÷ 4/5.
2/3 ÷ 4/5 = 2/3 × 5/4 = (2 × 5)/(3 × 4) =
10/12 (You can simplify this fraction
further.)
Simplifying Fractions:
To simplify a fraction, find the greatest
common divisor (GCD) of the numerator
and denominator, then divide both the
numerator and denominator by the GCD.
Example: Simplify 16/24.
Step 1: Find the GCD of 16 and 24: GCD
(16, 24) = 8.
Step 2: Divide both the numerator and
denominator by the GCD: 16/24 ÷ 8/8 = 2/3.
Remember to always simplify fractions
when possible to get them in their lowest
terms.
These are the fundamentals of fractions,
their operations, and how to convert between
mixed numbers and improper fractions.
Practicing these concepts with various
examples will strengthen your understanding
of fractions and their applications in more
advanced mathematical concepts.
Linear Equations:
A linear equation is an equation of the form
"ax + b = 0", where "a" and "b" are
constants, and "x" is the variable we want to
solve for. The goal is to find the value of "x"
that satisfies the equation.
Step 1: Identify the linear equation
Write down the linear equation you need to
solve. Make sure it is in the form "ax + b =
0".
Step 2: Simplify the equation
If there are any terms that can be combined
or simplified, do it. For example, if the
equation is "2x + 4x - 8 = 0", you can
simplify it to "6x - 8 = 0".
Step 3: Isolate the variable term
The objective is to get "x" by itself on one
side of the equation. To do this, you need to
move all the terms without "x" to the other
side of the equation.
If "x" is on the left side with a coefficient
(e.g., "3x"), you want to get rid of any
constants on that side. To do that, follow
these steps:
- Add or subtract the constant term on
the left side to both sides of the
equation to move it to the right side.
This will eliminate the constant on
the left side.
- If there's a coefficient on "x," divide
both sides of the equation by that
coefficient to isolate "x."
If "x" is on the right side (e.g., "3 = 2x +
5"), you want to move all the constant terms
to the left side:
a) Add or subtract the constant term on the
right side to both sides of the equation to
move it to the left side. This will eliminate
the constant on the right side.
b) If there's a coefficient on "x," divide both
sides of the equation by that coefficient to
isolate "x."
Step 4: Solve for "x"
Once you have isolated "x" on one side of
the equation, the equation should be in the
form "x = something." Now, simply
compute the value of "x."
Example:
Let's solve the equation "2x - 6 = 0."
- Step 1: Identify the equation:
2x - 6 =0
- Step 2: Simplify if possible: The
equation is already simplified.
- Step 3: Isolate the variable term:
- Add 6 to both sides: 2x = 6
- Divide both sides by 2: x = 3
- Step 4: The solution is x = 3.
Remember, the objective is to get "x" by
itself on one side of the equation, and you
can use basic arithmetic operations
(addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division) to manipulate the equation and find
the value of "x."
NOTE: To determine if a linear equation is
simplified, you need to check if the equation
follows certain rules:
1. All like terms are combined: In a
simplified linear equation, all terms
with the same variable and
exponent (if any) should be
combined. For example, "3x + 2x"
should be simplified to "5x," and
"4x^2 + 2x^2" should be simplified
to "6x^2."
2. No unnecessary parentheses: Make
sure there are no unnecessary
parentheses in the equation. For
instance, if the equation is "(2x + 3)
- (x - 1) = 0," you should simplify it
to "2x + 3 - x + 1 = 0" by removing
the parentheses without changing
the sign inside the parentheses.
3. No fractions in the coefficients: In a
simplified linear equation, the
coefficients of the variables should
not contain fractions. For example,
"2/3x - 4 = 0" is not simplified,
while "2x - 12 = 0" is.
4. No like terms on both sides of the
equation: In a simplified linear
equation, there should be no like
terms on both sides of the equation.
For instance, "2x - 3 = 4x - 7" is not
simplified, while "2x - 3 = 4x + 7"
is.
5. Constant term on one side: In a
simplified linear equation, the
constant term should appear on only
one side of the equation. For
example, "5x + 2 = 3" is not
simplified, while "5x - 1 = 0" is.
Inequalities:
Systems of Equations

Polynomials

Quadratic Equations

Exponents and Radicals

Functions and Graphing

Inequalities with Multiple Variables

Coordinate Geometry

Polynomial Functions and Rational

Exponents

Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Matrices and Systems of Equations