76 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MICROWAVE THEORY AND TECHNIQUES, VOL. 63, NO.
1, JANUARY 2015
Modeling of Noisy EM Field Propagation Using
Correlation Information
Johannes A. Russer, Member, IEEE, and Peter Russer, Life Fellow, IEEE
Abstract—In this paper, an efficient method for the numerical
simulation of near- and far-field propagation of stochastic elec-
tromagnetic (EM) fields is presented. The method is based on the
transformation of field correlation dyadics using Green's functions
or the field transfer functions computed for deterministic fields.
The method accounts for arbitrary correlations between the noise
radiation sources and allows to compute the spatial distribution of
the spectral energy density of noisy electromagnetic sources. The
introduced methodology can be combined with available electro-
magnetic modeling tools. It is shown that the method of moments
can be applied to solve noisy electromagnetic field problems by net-
work methods applying correlation matrix techniques. Examples
demonstrating the strong influence of the correlation between the
sources on the spatial distribution of the radiated noise field are
presented.
Index Terms—Electromagnetic interference, near-field scan-
ning, noisy electromagnetic fields, stochastic electromagnetic
fields.
I. INTRODUCTION
N OISE in electromagnetic fields and radiated electromag-
netic interference (EMI) are ubiquitous limiting factors
for the performance of wireless communication and electro-
magnetic sensor systems. The origins of electromagnetic noise
may be thermal background noise, terrestrial noise, and elec-
tromagnetic interference radiated by electric and electronic sys-
tems. Electromagnetic noise and radiated electromagnetic in-
terference may either superimpose the wanted RF signal at the
antenna or may interfere with electronic circuitry and by this
way degrade the signal-to-noise ratio. This degrades the signal
quality and requires an increase of signal power for achieving
the required signal quality. Therefore, the design of modern
electronic systems requires an accurate computer-aided design
also with respect to optimization of the signal-to-noise ratios in
critical parts of the circuits.
Manuscript received July 15, 2014; revised October 12, 2014, November 24,
2014, and November 25, 2014; accepted November 25, 2014. Date of publi-
cation December 18, 2014; date of current version December 31, 2014. The
research discussed in this paper was supported by the German Research Foun-
dation (DFG) under the project RU314/45. This paper is an expanded version
from the IEEE MTT-S International Conference on Numerical Electromagnetic
Modeling and Optimization for RF, Microwave, and Terahertz Applications,
Pavia, Italy, May 14–16, 2014.
The authors are with the Institute for Nanoelectronics, Technische Universität
München, 80333 München, Germany (e-mail: jrusser@tum.de; russer@tum.
de).
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TMTT.2014.2376962
0018-9480 © 2014 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
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The importance of an electromagnetic theory-based in-depth
analysis of wireless communication systems, taking impedance
matching, antenna mutual coupling, and different sources of
noise into consideration, has already been stressed in [1] and [2].
Mutual coupling of antenna elements in array antennas intro-
duces limitations on element efficiency and influences the noise
penalty in multiantenna communication systems [3]. Integrated
circuits are frequently the main source of radiated emissions in
electronic systems. Near-field characterization of radiating elec-
tromagnetic structures allows for a modeling of the electromag-
netic field generated by these structures when embedded into a
circuit or system environment, and therefore can be an efficient
tool for computer-aided manufacturing of electric and electronic
systems.
The use of narrow-band random noise as carrier for infor-
mation transmission has been discussed for [4] and [5] modu-
lation systems. With stochastic carriers, a high signal-to-noise
ratio can only be achieved when the modulation bandwidth is
small compared with the carrier bandwidth. In the micrometer
wavelength region with large available bandwidths, such ap-
plications may be of interest. Infrared detectors for the long-
wave infrared range based on nanoelectronic thermocouples in-
tegrated in nanoantenna arrays may allow, due to their ultra-
short response time in the picosecond regime, detection of the
carrier phase after envelop demodulation [6], [7]. This plays a
role also for chaotic signals since they exhibit transversal co-
herence. Such detectors are attractive candidates for various
applications including energy harvesting, target tracking, and
thermal imaging. Since such systems will operate with chaotic
carriers, design methodologies accounting for stochastic elec-
tromagnetic fields will be required.
Due to the equivalence principle [8, p. 106], [9, p. 121], an
equivalent source distribution determined by amplitude and
phase scanning of the tangential electric or magnetic field on
a surface enclosing the radiating structure is equivalent to the
internal sources and allows the modeling of the environmental
field. Numerous research groups have investigated the char-
acterization of the radiated electromagnetic interference of
devices by near-field measurements [10], [11]. The goal has
been to establish a model of the device under test that allows
modeling the EMI radiated by the device under test into the
environment.
So far, numerical tools for the modeling of complex electro-
magnetic structures under stochastic excitation are not avail-
able. Therefore, these problems usually are treated using elec-
tromagnetic full-wave simulators for deterministic electromag-
netic fields. However, deterministic field modeling tools cannot
RUSSER AND RUSSER: MODELING OF NOISY EM FIELD PROPAGATION USING CORRELATION INFORMATION
account for stochastic electromagnetic sources, which may be
partially correlated or uncorrelated. In this paper, a methodology
for the analytic and numerical modeling of stochastic electro-
magnetic fields is presented. Arbitrary correlation of the sto-
chastic sources will be accounted for. Throughout this paper,
we assume that the considered stochastic signals and stochastic
fields are Gaussian random processes [12, p. 154]. This guaran-
tees that auto- and cross-correlation functions and spectra, re-
spectively, yield a complete description of the stochastic signals.
The scanning of the near-field amplitude distribution only is
possible if phase and amplitude of the near-field signals are well
defined, i.e., when phase and amplitude signals are fully corre-
lated for any pair of sample points in the near field. In general,
this requirement is not fulfilled for the EMI radiated by elec-
tronic circuits. Even if the signals flowing in an IC or in a circuit
board are deterministic, the complexity of the interdependence
of signals flowing in different parts of the circuit areas cannot be
revealed by the near-field measurement. Therefore, due to this
inherent lack of information, the near-field measurement has to
be performed, accounting for the statistical nature of the near
field.
Due to the lack of information about the sources of the ra-
diated EMI, the near field to be measured has to be treated as a
stochastic field. Stochastic electromagnetic fields with Gaussian
probability distribution can be described completely by the au-
tocorrelation spectrum of each field variable and the cross-cor-
relation spectra of field variables at distinct points of observa-
tion [13]–[19]. Characterization of a stochastic electromagnetic
field requires the sampling of the EM field in pairs of observa-
tion points and the determination of the cross-correlation func-
tions for all pairs of field samples.
It already has been shown for deterministic fields that net-
work methods applied to electromagnetic field problems can re-
duce the computational effort substantially [9], [20]. Network
methods for the efficient solution of stochastic electromagnetic
field problems were introduced in [13]–[16]. A method for char-
acterizing and modeling the noisy electromagnetic fields ra-
diated from complex circuit boards using a simplified repre-
sentation of correlated dipoles has been described in [21]. De-
pending on the number of statistically independent field sources,
the eigenvalue decomposition of the correlation matrix yields a
compact description of the measured EM noise field [22].
In this work, an efficient method for the numerical simulation
of near- and far-field propagation of stochastic electromagnetic
fields is presented. The basic idea was introduced in [17],
and this manuscript expands by completing the theoretical
framework in deriving the formulas for the electric as well as
the magnetic fields computed in both cases, either from electric
or magnetic excitation currents. Additional theoretic and ex-
perimental examples are given showing the application of the
methodology for the near- and far-field modeling of stochastic
electromagnetic fields. The method is based on the transfor-
mation of field correlation dyadics using Green's functions or
the field transfer functions computed for deterministic fields.
In Section II, we recall the correlation-matrix-based methods
for network-oriented noise modeling. We show the simple and
general correspondence between the linear network equations
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77
describing linear circuits and the corresponding equations
governing the relations between the correlation spectra of the
noise signals. In Section III, we introduce the scalar Green's
function method for the computation of a scalar field excited
by a scalar stochastic source field. We show that we have to
consider the correlations between the exciting field amplitudes
at each pair of points. In Section IV, the description of vectorial
stochastic fields by correlation dyadics is introduced and the
Green's function method is extended to vectorial stochastic
fields. In Section V, we extend the method of moments (MoM)
to treat stochastic electromagnetic fields. The MoM allows to
formulate the field problem as an algebraic network problem
and to apply the correlation matrix methods from network
theory for the treatment of noisy electromagnetic fields. We
have applied the MoM for the formulation of the theory since
the MoM is a versatile framework for the general formulation
and algebraization of numerical electromagnetic methods as
we have already shown for the FDTD and TLM methods [23],
[24]. In Sections VI and VII, we present numerical examples of
the computation of near- and far-field distributions of electro-
magnetic fields excited by stochastic sources. In Section VIII,
we apply the method of correlation dyadics to the numerical
computation of a two-dimensional image of stochastic noise
sources. We discuss in Section IX a method for full character-
ization of stochastic fields by tangential two-point correlation
near-field scanning in a plane of reference. Finally, we present
an example for object reconstruction from measured near-field
data in Section X.
II. NETWORK-ORIENTED NOISE MODELING
Numerical values of noise amplitudes cannot be specified for
stochastic signals. For numerical modeling of noisy circuits, one
has to deal with energy and power spectra [12], [25]. Hence,
methods based on correlation matrices have been established
to cope with the numerical simulation of noisy linear circuits
[26]–[31].
In the superposition of random signals, their correlation is
playing a decisive role. If a signal is superimposed with
a time-delayed signal , where the time-delay of the
second signal is given by , we are interested in the correlation
of and . We define the correlation function
of the stationary random signals and by
(1)
where the brackets denote the ensemble average [32].
For stationary random signals, the correlation function
is independent of . Furthermore, for ergodic random signals we
can substitute the ensemble mean value by the time mean value,
and vice versa. We can write
(2)
For , we obtain the autocorrelation function
(3)
78 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MICROWAVE THEORY AND TECHNIQUES, VOL. 63, NO. 1, JANUARY 2015

Let us first have a look at the noise analysis of linear net- The power spectra of the signals can be calculated from the cor-
works and start by investigating which statements can be made relation matrix. The correlation spectra of noise signals may
concerning the spectrum of a random signal. Since a stationary be summarized in the quadratic correlation matrix
noise signal is not decaying for , the noise signal is not
square integrable or absolute integrable, and therefore an ampli-
tude spectrum of a stationary noise signal does not exist. How-
ever, we can consider a sample of a noise signal with finite ex- (12)
.. ..
tension in time. We consider the segment of the stationary . .
noise signal , given by
for
(4) which may be also obtained from
for

We call the signal the cut-time signal or time-windowed (13)

signal. In general, the Fourier transform of the time-win-
dowed signal exists and is given by The superscript denotes the Hermitian conjugate.
The equations describing linear networks have the form
(5)
(14)

where is the signal transfer matrix relating the input and

The corresponding inverse Fourier transform is
output signal vectors and of the linear network
under consideration. Usually, is an impedance-, admittance-,
(6) or scattering matrix. This yields the relation between the corre-
lation matrices

We can also represent the correlation function by (15)

The correlation matrix is derived from the amplitude

(7) vector of the time-windowed signal spectra . The gen-
eral relation between (14) and (15) is the rule for deriving the
bilinear transformation equations for the correlation matrices
The Fourier transform of the correlation function is the correla- from the linear equations for the complex signal amplitude.
tion spectrum
III. SCALAR STOCHASTIC FIELDS
(8)
We already have presented in [14] a method for the numer-
ical simulation of stochastic electromagnetic fields accounting
for the correlations of sources and applied this method for far-
(9)
field computation of the spectral electric-field energy density. In
this paper, we present the general methodology, including also
is called the autocorrelation spectrum, whereas near-field computation and presenting the complete formulas
with is called the cross-correlation spectrum. The cross- for electric- and magnetic-field computation, both in the case
correlation spectrum also is given by of excitation by electric, as well as magnetic, currents of arbi-
trary mutual correlation.
(10) We consider the tangential field in an aperture de-
picted in Fig. 1. This aperture field is the source yielding a far
An ensemble average is taken, indicated by the brackets . field . Let the far field be related to the near field
The ensemble average has to be taken before performing the via
limiting process . The autocorrelation function
represents the spectral energy density of the signal . We (16)
note that .
From this time-windowed signal, we can compute the spec-
trum . We summarize the spectra of time-windowed where the scalar Green's function is given by
signals flowing in a network in the vector
(17)

.. (11)
. Whereas amplitudes cannot be defined for stochastic quantities,
we can introduce power and energy spectra for their description.

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RUSSER AND RUSSER: MODELING OF NOISY EM FIELD PROPAGATION USING CORRELATION INFORMATION 79

The function describes the scalar field in time domain.

The Fourier transform for a deterministic field would be

(18)

A correlation function can be defined for the field

function by

(19) Fig. 1. Near and far field.

More specifically, this function is termed the autocorrelation

Hence, we can obtain from the correlation spectrum of
function of the field for and cross-correlation function
the source field the field correlation spectrum
for [12], [14].
for the field amplitudes at the observation points
Now, let us look at the Fourier transform of a sample of the
and . Knowledge of the spatial distribution of the spectral
noise field, which is of finite length in time . This Fourier
energy density of the source is not sufficient in order to compute
transform exists and is given by
the field excited by a distribution of stochastic sources; also full
information regarding the cross correlation of the source field
(20) amplitudes at any pair of points and is necessary.
Consider the correlation functions defined in (23) and (24),
respectively. If the field spectrum describes a de-
where the subscript denotes the time-windowed signal, de- terministic signal, the ensemble averaging described by the
fined by (4). We can express (19) also by brackets can be omitted. In that case, the correlation spec-
trum can be factorized into the factors
and , i.e., it can be represented by a product of
(21)
functions with a space dependence on and only. In the
general case of a stochastic field, such a factorization is not
possible.
The Fourier transform of is the correlation spec-
trum IV. VECTORIAL STOCHASTIC FIELDS
(22) In the case of EMI problems, we have to deal with stochastic
electromagnetic fields. If a stochastic electromagnetic field
originates from a sufficiently large number of statistically inde-
Alternatively, we can take the spectra of the time-
pendent processes, the field amplitudes will exhibit a Gaussian
windowed fields and find the correlation spectra as
probability distribution due to the central limit theorem. A
Gaussian process can be described completely by its mean value
(23) and its second-order moments. These second-order moments
are represented by the respective auto- and cross-correlation
functions.
where an ensemble average is taken indicated by the brackets.
The stochastic electric and magnetic fields can be described
To express the correlation spectrum of the far field
by the dyadic
as a function of the correlation spectrum of the
near field, given by
(26a)

(26b)
(24)

where and are the Fourier transforms of

we insert (16) into (23) and obtain the time-windowed electric- and magnetic-field vectors, and the
symbol denotes the Hermitian conjugate. The components of
the dyadic are summarized in the matrix

(27)
(25)

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80 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MICROWAVE THEORY AND TECHNIQUES, VOL. 63, NO. 1, JANUARY 2015

The correlation field of stochastic source currents at the points where is the free-space wave impedance, and
and can be described by the dyadic the denotes the transpose of the vector.
Consider a magnetic current density vector de-
(28) scribing the source of the electromagnetic field. The magnetic
current is the source of the dual vector potential , given
Consider a current density vector describing the source by
of the electromagnetic field. The magnetic vector potential
is given by (38)
(29)
With
With
(39)
(30)
we obtain the magnetic field excited from as
we obtain the magnetic field excited from as
(40)
(31)

where is the Green's dyadic relating the excited

where is the Green's dyadic relating the excited electric field to the vector potential , and the in-
magnetic field to the source current density , tegration is extended over the whole volume , where
and the integration is extended over the whole volume , where is nonvanishing. is given as
is nonvanishing [33, p. 306]. Accounting also for the
near-field contributions, the Green's dyadic is given by [34, pp. (41)
282–284]

(32) From (40), we obtain with

(42)
with the identity matrix , , the phase
coefficient , the free-space light velocity , and
the magnetic field excited from as

(33) (43)

From (31), we obtain with

where is the Green's dyadic relating the ex-
(34) cited magnetic field to the vector potential ,
and the integration is extended over the whole volume , where
is nonvanishing. is given as
the electric field excited from as

(35) (44)

A similar approach was used in [35] for representing the EMI

where is the Green's dyadic relating the excited sources in a printed circuit board by magnetic dipoles.
electric field to the source current density , and Neglecting in the terms going to zero with higher
the integration is extended over the whole volume , where order than , we obtain the far-field approximation
is nonvanishing.
(45)
(36)

with of the Green's function.

From (26a), (28), and (35), we obtain
(37a)

(37b)
(46)

(37c) Using the relation above, the correlation dyadic of the electric
field can be derived from the correlation dyadic

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RUSSER AND RUSSER: MODELING OF NOISY EM FIELD PROPAGATION USING CORRELATION INFORMATION 81

of the source currents. The spectral electric en- and can write (51) as
ergy density is obtained as
(55)

(47) We expand the correlation dyadics and

, introduced in (28) and (26a), into basis func-
where is the permittivity of the medium. tions. We obtain the matrix elements and
of the correlation matrices and , given by

V. APPLICATION OF THE METHOD OF MOMENTS (56a)

In the following, we use the MoM [36] to convert the electro-
magnetic-field problem formulated by integral equations into a
(56b)
network problem represented by algebraic equations. We apply
the MoM to compute the integral (35). At first, we expand the
current density and the electric field into or- These matrix elements can be summarized in the matrices
thonormal vectorial basis functions . This yields

(48a) .. .. .. (57a)
. . .

(48b)
.. .. .. (57b)
. . .
The expansion coefficients and can be considered
as generalized currents and voltages, respectively. The vectorial
basis functions fulfill the orthonormality relation We can also obtain these correlation matrices from the time-
windowed current and voltage amplitudes and
(49) via

(58a)
Inserting the series expansions (48a) and (48b) into the integral
equation (35) yields (58b)

From (55), (58a), and (58b), we obtain

(50) (59)
Multiplying both sides of this equation from the left with the This is the fundamental equation describing linear noisy net-
Hermitian conjugate of the vectorial basis function and works, already given in [28]–[31] and extended to the descrip-
integrating under consideration of (49) over and , we obtain tion of noisy EM fields in [13]–[15]. With this equation, we can
the linear system of equations compute the correlation matrix of the series expansion
coefficients of the electric-field dyadic from the se-
(51)
ries expansion coefficients of the source current den-
sity. We note that the transformation matrix , which describes
The matrix elements are given by the electric-field response to the excitation current, is the same
as that occurring in the deterministic problem. Therefore, the re-
(52) sponse functions computed for deterministic field problems can
also be applied to stochastic field problems.
Interpreting as the matrix elements of an impedance VI. EXAMPLE: NEAR-FIELD DISTRIBUTION EXCITED BY
matrix, the MoM gives a network description of the field SOURCES IN A PLANE
problem. For a chosen dimension of the series expansions
Due to the increasing operating frequencies and bandwidths
(48a) and (48b), we introduce the generalized current and
and decreasing signal amplitudes in modern electronic systems,
voltage vectors
the EMI radiated from integrated circuits and circuit boards of
(53a) the electronic systems may affect the whole system. Internal
(53b) shielding increases weight, volume, and costs of the system and
may also yield signal degradation. Therefore, an accurate mod-
and the impedance matrix eling of the expected EMI spectral energy distribution inside
a piece of electronic equipment under design is a requirement
.. .. for modern computer-aided design and fabrication of electronic
.. (54)
. . . systems. The EMI data of the components for modeling the EMI
distribution inside an electronic apparatus may be taken either

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82 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MICROWAVE THEORY AND TECHNIQUES, VOL. 63, NO. 1, JANUARY 2015

Fig. 2. Planar array of stochastic sources sampled at a sampling plane

parallel to the source plane. Fig. 3. Three-dimensional logarithmic plot of the spectral electric energy den-
sity for 100 mm, 100 mm 1 mm and
0.1 mm .

from theoretical knowledge of the components or from mea-

with the correlation matrix elements of the dipole currents
surement.
In the following, we present a numerical example of the sto- (63)
chastic near-field radiated by a number of stochastic sources.
We consider the near-field distribution of stochastic Hertzian Inserting (62) into (46), we obtain the correlation field of the
dipole sources with arbitrary orientation arranged in a plane. stochastic electric-field vectors at the points and , as fol-
Fig. 2 shows the sources arranged in the plane lows:
at positions with , and where the
superscript denotes the transpose. Assuming for the th dipole
an impressed current , an infinitesimal length and an
angular orientation characterized by the azimuth and pole an-
gles and , respectively, the current density of all (64)
dipoles is given by In the following, we compute numerically the correlation
dyadic of the field excited by the set of dipoles in pairs of points
and in the scan plane, as depicted in Fig. 2. We assume
(60) all current sources to be mutually uncorrelated, i.e., statistically
independent and to exhibit equal normalized amplitude 1. This
yields
where is the three-dimensional Dirac delta distribution,
and the normalized orientation vector , given by (65)

For this case, (64) reduces to

(61)

describes the angular orientation of the th dipole. We assume
the dipoles to be arranged above a perfectly conducting layer
PEC positioned at 1 mm, as shown in Fig. 2. In the
computation, this layer will be considered by mirror dipoles.
The electric field is scanned in the plane with vec-
torial electric-field probes sensing the - and -components of
the electric field. To measure the electric-field correlation in the
plane , two probes and positioned at and are used
simultaneously. In Section IX, a near-field scanning system for
performing these measurements will be discussed.
Inserting (60) into (28) yields the correlation field of sto-
chastic source currents
(62)
(66)
Fig. 3 shows the spectral electric energy density magnitude
logarithmic plot computed for a scanning plane at a distance
1 mm from the source plane for 0.5 mm, and
0.1 mm , i.e., 6.28 cm. To collect these data by
measurement, only a single probe would be required. The plot
shows the spectral electric energy density distribution without
containing any information concerning the correlation between
the field at different scan points. The spectral electric energy
density distribution exhibits strong maxima when the probe is
positioned opposite to one of the dipoles.
Fig. 4 shows the 3D logarithmic plot of the magnitude
of electric-field correlation density, where
probe 1 with the coordinates scans over the area
100 mm 100 mm , whereas probe 2 is positioned as a
reference at the fixed point 20 30 1 mm just
over the source at . This yields a strong maximum of the
scan at . The magnitude of electric-field correlation density

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RUSSER AND RUSSER: MODELING OF NOISY EM FIELD PROPAGATION USING CORRELATION INFORMATION 83

Fig. 4. Three-dimensional logarithmic plot of the magnitude of the electric- Fig. 6. Three-dimensional logarithmic plot of the magnitude of the electric-
field correlation density for 100 mm 100 mm , field correlation density for and are varied independently,
1 mm, fixed reference point 20 30 1 mm, and 1 mm, and 0.1 mm .
0.1 mm .

Fig. 5. Three-dimensional logarithmic plot of the magnitude of the electric- Fig. 7. Three-dimensional logarithmic plot of the magnitude of the electric-
field correlation density for 100 mm 100 mm , field correlation density for fully correlated in-phase sources
1 mm, fixed reference point 100 100 1 mm, and of equal amplitude and for 100 mm 100 mm , 1 mm, fixed
0.1 mm . reference point 20 30 1 mm, and 0.1 mm .

exhibits a strong primary peak when the position of probe 1 For this case, (64) yields the electric-field correlation dyadic
coincides with that of probe 2 and smaller peaks when probe 1
is positioned opposite to one of the other dipoles.
In Fig. 5, the 3D logarithmic plot of the magnitude of
electric-field correlation density is shown (68)
for the case where the reference is taken at the fixed point Computing the 3D logarithmic plot of the magnitude of elec-
100 100 1 mm, which is remote from all sources. tric-field correlation density for the reference
This reference is correlated with all sources and therefore pro- taken at the fixed point 20 30 1 mm over the
vides a suitable reference for the correlation field measurement. source at now yields the result shown in Fig. 7. Although
Due to the position of probe 2, remote from all the dipoles, the the reference probe is positioned opposite the source dipole at
fixed probe 2 may be a suitable reference for the correlation 20 30 0 mm, as in the case of Fig. 4, the maxima of
measurements. the magnitude of electric-field correlation density are of equal
Fig. 6 shows the magnitude of the electric-field corre- height, as in the case of the remote probe in Fig. 5. Due to the
lation density , where and are varied full correlation of all sources, any position of the reference
independently and 30 mm corresponding to the probe would give a suitable reference. In this case, the reference
-coordinates of the dipoles at 20 30 0 mm and probe 2 could be in a fixed position, and scanning with probe 1
at 30 30 0 mm. This plot shows strong main maxima only would yield the complete information.
when both probes are above either or and smaller relative Fig. 8 shows, like Fig. 6, the magnitude of the electric-field
maxima when only one probe is above or . correlation density , where and are varied
Now, let us assume full correlation of all sources and further- independently and 30 mm corresponding to the
more all sources to be in phase and to exhibit same amplitude. -coordinates of the dipoles at 20 30 0 mm and at
In this case, the correlation matrix of source currents 30 30 0 mm. However, Fig. 8 shows the electric-field cor-
is given by relation density for in-phase fully correlated sources and ,
whereas Fig. 6 shows the case where and are statistically
(67) independent. The plot in Fig. 8 shows strong main maxima not

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84 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MICROWAVE THEORY AND TECHNIQUES, VOL. 63, NO. 1, JANUARY 2015

Fig. 10. Nonuniform linear array of Hertzian dipoles positioned at

.

In the far field, the term on the right-hand side of (69) can be
approximated in the denominators by . Introducing the vec-
tors

Fig. 8. Three-dimensional logarithmic plot of the magnitude of the electric-

field correlation density for fully correlated in-phase sources of (71a)
equal amplitude and for and are varied independently, 1 mm, and
0.1 mm . (71b)

we obtain with (69) the electric field in the far field of the an-
tenna array

(72)

To describe a stochastic excitation of the antenna elements, we

Fig. 9. Linear array of 9 near-field cells. introduce the correlation matrix describing the antenna feed cur-
rents

(73)
only when both probes are above either or but also when
one probe is above and the other probe is above . The correlation function describing the spectral electrical en-
The graphic representations of this section gave only a weak ergy density in the far field on a sphere of given is
impression of the information contained in the field correlation
dyadics. The field correlation dyadics contain full amplitude
and relative phase information, allowing the application of the (74)
equivalence principle [8], [9] for computing the environmental Inserting (72) and (73) into (74) yields
stochastic field on the basis of known tangential electric or mag-
netic field on the boundary surface of a volume enclosing the (75)
stochastic EM sources.
We note that in the equatorial plane , we obtain
. Inserting (75) into (47) yields the
VII. EXAMPLE: FAR-FIELD DEPENDENCE ON THE spectral electric energy density of the far field
NEAR-FIELD CORRELATION
(76)
As an example, let us consider a linear antenna array formed
by a number of linear dipoles of uniform shape arranged in Let us consider a nonuniform linear array of parallel Hertzian
parallel with equal mutual distance, as shown in Fig. 9 [9, p. dipoles positioned at , as
575]. The far field exhibits only the -component of the depicted in Fig. 10. Fig. 11 shows the polar plot of the angular
electrical field and a -component of the magnetic field, where distribution of the magnitude of the electric energy
and are the polar and azimuthal angles [9, p. 575]. For ex- density in the plane and at a given distance from the origin
citation of the th dipole with the current , is given by for the following five cases.
1) All Hertzian dipoles are excited by fully correlated currents
of equal amplitude and equal phase. The correlation matrix
(69) of the excitation currents is given by

is the wave impedance of the free space, and is

the radiation characteristics of the single dipole. The distances (77)
between the center of the th dipole and the far-field observation
is
The curve (1) in Fig. 11 shows the angular far-field distri-
(70) bution of the radiated electric energy density. The far-field

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RUSSER AND RUSSER: MODELING OF NOISY EM FIELD PROPAGATION USING CORRELATION INFORMATION 85

Fig. 11. Polar plot of the angular distribution of the magnitude

electric-field spectral energy density in the far field.

Fig. 12. Magnitude of the correlation spectrum of the electric-

field amplitudes measured in the far field at angular positions and for
distribution exhibits a strong maximum in direction uncorrelated excitation currents.
.
2) All excitation currents are mutually uncorrelated but ex-
hibit equal rms values. The correlation matrix of the exci-
tation currents is

(78)

The angular far-field distribution of the electric energy den-

sity shown in curve (2) is uniform.
3) The excitation currents are a weighted superposition of cor-
Fig. 13. Magnitude of the correlation spectrum of the electric-
related currents represented by and uncorrelated cur- field amplitudes measured in the far field at angular positions and for
rents . The correlation matrix of the excitation currents partially correlated excitation currents.
is
For the case of two antennas only, separated by a distance
(79) , the magnitude of the correlation spectrum
is plotted in Fig. 12 for the case of uncorrelated sources, com-
In this case, the far-field distribution shown in curve (4) parable to case 2) above. For the case of partially correlated
exhibits a narrow maximum in direction . How- sources, as considered in case 3) above, the magnitude of the
ever, incoherent radiation with broad angular distribution correlation spectrum is plotted in Fig. 13.
is superimposed.
4) In this example, the Hertzian dipoles again are excited with VIII. EXAMPLE: IMAGING OF STOCHASTIC
mutually correlated currents of equal amplitude. However, SOURCES OF RADIATION
the phases of the currents are given by , ,
We already have discussed the imaging of stationary noise
. This yields the correlation matrix
and EMI scenarios by two-point sampling in [37] and [38]. Sam-
pling of the two-point correlations in a Fourier plane of a virtual
imaging system yields the information required for the digital
reconstruction of the image of the sources. In the paraxial ap-
proximation, a thin lens with focal length , thickness , and
refractive index performs a phase delay
(80)
5) In this case, the Hertzian dipoles are excited with a super- (82)
position of correlated currents with nonuniform phase ac-
cording to (4) and uncorrelated currents according to (2), and, by this, transforms the field in front of the lens into the
as follows: field behind the lens [39, p. 80]. The image is computed from
the two-point scans in the Fourier plane by compensating this
(81) phase delay and Fourier transformation of the scanned correla-
tion dyadics [37], [38].
In this case, the angular distribution (5) has a tilted max- Fig. 14 shows the intensity distribution of five uncorrelated
imum with a strong superimposed noise floor with broad stochastic sources in the object plane. Due to the incoherence
angular distribution. of the sources, the far-field intensity distribution in the Fourier

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86 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MICROWAVE THEORY AND TECHNIQUES, VOL. 63, NO. 1, JANUARY 2015
Fig. 14. Intensity distribution in the object plane [37].
Fig. 15. Reconstruction of the intensity distribution in the object plane [37].
plane is constant, and we need only to sample the field correla-
tions between the chosen set of sampling points and one selected
point of reference.
We have chosen a set of 10 10 sampling points. A two-di-
mensional rectangular windowing in the Fourier plane was per-
formed. The reconstructed image of the source distribution is
depicted in Fig. 15. Using only 10 10 sampling points resulted
in a broadening of the source width. However, source localiza-
tion and separation is still possible.
IX. NEAR-FIELD SCANNING
If we want to fully characterize the near field, we have to scan
the tangential electric- or magnetic-field components on a sur-
face enclosing the device under test. We have to determine the
autocorrelation functions of the field in all sampling points, and
the cross-correlation functions of the field amplitudes have to
be determined for each pair of sampling points. We also have to
determine the cross-correlation functions of both polarizations
in one sampling point.
Fig. 16 shows the schematic of a near-field scanner, allowing
full characterization of the stochastic electric or magnetic near
field. Its two vectorial electric- or magnetic-field probes are po-
sitioned by the measurement system. The signal processing unit
comprises a two-channel system, which processes the signals
delivered by the field probes. From the sampled and digitized
data, autocorrelation and cross-correlation functions of the spa-
tially sampled field probe signals are computed.
Probes for measuring EMI radiated on integrated circuit or
miniature package and board level are described in [40]–[42].
Submillimeter-size active integrated sensors with on-chip gain
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Fig. 16. Schematic drawing of the near-field scanning system.
meet the requirements for high sensitivity and high spatial res-
olution [43]–[45]. The measurement time could be reduced by
using of a switched matrix array of antenna elements for scan-
ning. Such an array of antenna elements already has been de-
scribed for one scan channel in [46].
For a number of sampling points chosen on the scan plane,
the probes are positioned so that the fields in all possible pairs
of sampling points are sensed. Since every vectorial probe has
two outputs sampling points yield output signals. Consid-
ering these signals to be stochastic signals, we can form au-
tocorrelation functions and cross-correlation func-
tions from these sensed signals. The positioning of the probes is
controlled by the central control and processing unit. The switch
selects the polarization of each probe. Furthermore, the switch
also allows to feed both output signals of the same probe into
channels 1 and 2 of the system. By this way also the cross-cor-
relation function of the two polarization amplitudes at one sam-
pling point can be determined. The two channels are sampled
and digitized in the analog-to-digital converters (ADC) 1 and
2. The digitized signals are further processed in the central pro-
cessing and control unit. In the central processing and control
unit, the sampled signals are processed by fast Fourier trans-
form. Autocorrelation and cross-correlation spectra are com-
puted and stored in the output and display unit. From these auto-
and cross-correlation functions, the angular distribution of the
radiated spectral power density and the spatial distribution of
the spectral energy density can be computed.
Time-domain electromagnetic interference measurement sys-
tems are up to 64 000 times faster than conventional hetero-
dyne receiver-based systems [47]–[49]. Two-channel time-do-
main EMI measurement systems already have been realized for
ambient noise cancellation [50]–[52]. Such two-channel mea-
surement systems can be easily adapted for correlation mea-
surements and allow to handle the large amount of data. Tan-
gential vectorial scanning of a near-field array in two polariza-
tions with 10 10 sampling points would require the acquisi-
tion of 200 autocorrelation functions and 19 900 cross-correla-
tion functions. Due to the short measurement times of modern
time-domain EMI measurement systems and powerful FPGA
postprocessing in the systems, such a high amount of data ac-
quisition will be feasible.
RUSSER AND RUSSER: MODELING OF NOISY EM FIELD PROPAGATION USING CORRELATION INFORMATION
Fig. 17. Measured near-field magnitude distribution of the correlation spec-
trum [53].
Fig. 18. Reconstructed magnitude distribution of the field in the object area
[53].
X. EXAMPLE: OBJECT RECONSTRUCTION FROM MEASURED
NEAR-FIELD DATA
Measurements were performed with a near-field scanning ex-
perimental setup as shown in Fig. 16 [53]. The radiated EMI of
two small electromotors placed at 10 cm and 10 cm
and both at 0 cm was scanned with two electric dipole
probes in one dimension with five equidistant sampling points
at 0 cm and 18 cm along the -axis in 5-cm intervals
by measuring the -component of the electric field only. The
signals of the two dipole probes were recorded by a Tektronix
two-channel digital oscilloscope TDS 7704B and further pro-
cessed on a PC using Matlab routines to compute the auto- and
cross-correlation spectra of the sampled electric field in the fre-
quency interval from 0.9 to 1.1 GHz. The magnitude of the mea-
sured near-field autocorrelation spectrum is plotted in Fig. 17.
Fig. 18 shows the magnitude of the field distribution in the
object pane reconstructed from the field data sampled in the ob-
servation line. The object plane field reconstruction has been
performed using parametric identification methods as described
in [53] and [54].
XI. CONCLUSION AND OUTLOOK
Field correlation spectra and the spectral energy density
distribution of stochastic electromagnetic fields with Gaussian
probability distribution can be described by field correlation
dyadics. The response of electromagnetic structures to a sto-
chastic field excitation can be computed on the basis of the
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87
deterministic field Green's functions. The spatial and temporal
correlations of the stochastic source distributions are described
by the correlation dyadics.
Converting the field problem to a network problem allows
the modeling of stochastic electromagnetic fields by applying
correlation matrix methods. One general approach to do this is
the application of the method of moments (MoM). Near-field
scanning of the radiated electromagnetic interference (EMI) is
motivated by the desire to analyze and predict the EMI radiated
from electric or electronic components or systems into space or
a given environment, as well as to compute images from the
radiating objects.
As examples, we have investigated the correlation spectra
of electric-field samples in the far-field radiated by arrays of
Hertzian dipoles. In the case of incoherent excitation, the ar-
rays' Hertzian dipoles radiate with uniform azimuthal distribu-
tion of the spectral energy density. The cross-correlation spec-
trum of the amplitudes in different angular positions, however,
exhibit a strong angular dependence. This shows that the char-
acterization of incoherent electromagnetic field requires the in-
formation about the correlation between the field values at dif-
ferent points. Furthermore, we have shown the application of
two-point scanning for the construction of images of stochastic
source demonstration and demonstrated the image reconstruc-
tion from scanned data. Finally, we have shown an experimental
example for the reconstruction of the object distribution from
scanned near-field correlation data.
Considering the power of modern time-domain EMI
measurement systems in connection with future switched
two-channel antenna array scanners, we expect the develop-
ment of near-field stochastic field measurement systems that
will facilitate an accurate modeling of the EMI radiated into
complex environments.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors gratefully acknowledge the German Research
Foundation (DFG) for the support of this research.
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RUSSER AND RUSSER: MODELING OF NOISY EM FIELD PROPAGATION USING CORRELATION INFORMATION
Johannes A. Russer (M'09) received the Dipl.-Ing.
(M.S.E.E.) degree in electrical engineering and infor-
mation technology from the Universität Karlsruhe,
Karlsruhe, Germany, in 2003 and the Ph.D.E.E. de-
gree from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Cham-
paign, Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA, in 2010.
In 2004, he joined the University of Illinois at Ur-
bana-Champaign as a Research Assistant. From 2007
to 2010, he worked for Qualcomm, Inc,. as an in-
tern. Since 2010, he has been a Postdoctoral Research
Fellow at the Institute of Nanoelectronics of the Tech-
nische Universität München (TUM), München, Germany.
Dr. Russer has received a Best Student Paper Award at the IEEE International
Microwave Symposium in 2008. He is a member of VDE and the Eta Kappa Nu
honor society.
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89
Peter Russer (SM'81–F'94–LF'13) received the
Dipl.-Ing. (M.S.E.E.) degree in 1967 and the Dr.
techn. (Ph.D.E.E.) degrees in 1967 and 1971,
respectively, both from the Vienna University of
Technology, Vienna, Austria.
In 1971, he joined the Research Institute of
AEG-Telefunken, Ulm, Germany, where he worked
on electronics and electronics and lightwave tech-
nology. From 1981 to 2008, he was Full Professor
at the Technische Universität München (TUM),
München, Germany. From October 1992 to March
1995, he also was Director of the Ferdinand-Braun-Institut für Höchstfrequen-
ztechnik, Berlin, Germany. After his retirement in 2008, he was appointed
as Emeritus of Excellence at the TUM, and since 2010, he has been with the
Institute of Nanoelectronics of the TUM. He has published five books and more
than 800 scientific papers in refereed journals and conference proceedings.
Dr. Russer received the Best Paper Award from the NTG (German Society
for Information Technology) in 1979. In 2006, he received the Distinguished
Educator Award of the IEEE MTT Society and in 2009 the Distinguished Ser-
vice Award from the European Microwave Association (EuMA). In 2007, he
received an honorary Doctor degree from the Moscow University of Aerospace
Technologies (MAI), Moscow, Russia. In 2010, he was awarded the Golden
Ring of Distinction of the VDE—the German Association for Electrical, Elec-
tronic and Information Technologies. He was elected member of acatech, the
German Academy of Science and Engineering, in 2006.