Seismic methods:

Waves and rays - II

Reading:
Today: p117-133
Next Lecture: p133-143

Applied Geophysics – Waves and rays - II

Reflection and transmission

Seismic rays obey Snell’s Law

(just like in optics)

The angle of incidence equals the

angle of reflection, and the angle of
transmission is related to the angle of
incidence through the velocity ratio.

sin iP sin RP sin rP

= =
VP1 VP1 VP 2

Applied Geophysics – Waves and rays - II

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Reflection and transmission

Seismic rays obey Snell’s Law

(just like in optics)

The angle of incidence equals the

angle of reflection, and the angle of
transmission is related to the angle of
incidence through the velocity ratio.
But a conversion from P to S or vice
versa can also occur. Still, the angles
are determined by the velocity ratios.

sin iP sin RP sin rP sin RS sin rS

= = = = =p
VP1 VP1 VP 2 VS 1 VS 2

where p is the ray parameter and is constant along each ray.

Applied Geophysics – Waves and rays - II

Amplitudes reflected and transmitted

The amplitude of the reflected, transmitted and converted phases can be
calculated as a function of the incidence angle using Zoeppritz’s equations.

Simple case: Normal incidence

Reflection coefficient

AR ρ 2V2 − ρ1V1
RC = =
Ai ρ 2V2 + ρ1V1

Transmission coefficient

AT 2 ρ1V1
TC = = 1 − RC = Reflection and transmission coefficients
Ai ρ 2V2 + ρ1V1 for a specific impedance contrast

These coefficients are determined by from the product of velocity

and density – the impedance of the material.
RC usually small – typically 1% of energy is reflected.
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Reflection and transmission

You can see:

a direct wave, reflected and transmitted waves, plus multiples…

Applied Geophysics – Waves and rays - II

Normal move out (NMO)

Reflection from a single horizontal
impedance contrast:
Arrival time

Tx =
2 SR 2
V1
=
V1
h12 + x
2
( ) 2

or
x2
Tx2 = T02 +
V1

The arrival time curve is a hyperbola

Note: a geophone spread GG’ samples RR’ of the reflector. RR’=GG’/2

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Normal move out (NMO)
Arrival time curve is quadratic

x2
Tx2 = T02 +
V12

So, if plot T2 vs. x2 we can

determine the V1 and h1 from the
slope and intercept

The importance of NMO

• Having determined the layer velocity, we can use the predicted quadratic
shape to identify reflectors
• Then correct (shift traces) and stack to enhance signal to noise
x2
∆TNMO = Tx − T0 ≈
2T0V12
Applied Geophysics – Waves and rays - II

Multiple layers
Use Snell’s Law to
trace ray paths

At each interface

sin iP sin rP
= =p
VP1 VP 2

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NMO for layers
When the offset is small w.r.t.
reflector depth (x<<h), the NMO
curve is still a hyperbola

x2
T 2 = T02,n + 2
Vrms ,n

where
n n
2hk
T0,n = ∑ T0,k =∑ k=1
k =1 k =1 Vk
n k=2
∑V 2
T
k k

,n =
2 k =1
Vrms n k=3
∑T
k =1
k

Determine velocity structure

one layer at a time
Applied Geophysics – Waves and rays - II

From optics
Diffraction
A sharp break in a reflector acts as a
secondary source of a spherical wavefront

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Critical incidence

sin iP sin rP
=
VP1 VP 2
when V2 > V1, rP > iP
therefore, we can increase iP until rP = 90°

When rP = 90° iP = iC the critical angle

VP1
sin iC =
VP 2

The critically refracted energy travels along the

velocity interface at V2 continually refracting energy
back into the upper medium at an angle iC
Î a head wave

Applied Geophysics – Waves and rays - II

Head wave
• Occurs due to a low to high velocity interface
• Energy travels along the boundary at the higher velocity
• Energy is continually refracted back into the upper medium at an angle iC
• Provides constraints on the boundary depth e.g. Moho depth

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Head wave

You can see:

a head wave, trapped surface wave, diving body wave

Applied Geophysics – Waves and rays - II

κ + 43 µ
Factors affecting velocity VP =
ρ
µ
VS =
ρ
Density – velocity typically increases with density
(κ and µ are dependant on ρ and increase more rapidly than ρ)

Porosity and fluid saturation

1 φ 1−φ
Increasing porosity reduces velocity. = +
Vsat VF VM
Filling the porosity with fluid increases the velocity.

Poisson’s ratio – related to VP/VS

This is used to distinguish between rock/sediment types. It is usually
more sensitive than just VP alone.
The significant variations in sediments are usually due to porosity
variations and water saturation. Water saturation has no effect on VS (for
low porosities) but a significant effect on VP.

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Velocity and density

Nafe-Drake VP
igneous and
curve metamorphic rocks

sediments and
sedimentary rocks

VS

This curve has been

approximated using
the expression

ρ = aVP
1
4

(a is a constant: 1670 when

ρ in km/m3 and VP in km/s)

Applied Geophysics – Waves and rays - II

Velocity and density

Birch’s Law
A linear relationship between velocity and density

v = aρ + b
Three pressures

Crust and
mantle rock
observations

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Typical rock
velocity ranges

Using velocity alone

to determine rock
type is problematic
to impossible.

Applied Geophysics – Waves and rays - II

Consider
Seismic sources • Energy input
• Repeatability
• Cost
Rifles and guns
• Convenience
• Cheap
• Repeatable – fire into water filled hole
• Shallow targets 0-50m

Sledge hammer
• Cheap
• Repeatable once plate is stable
(and with training!)
• Targets 15-50m

Weight drops
• Cheap
• Repeatable – automated
• Targets > 50m

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 Consider
Seismic sources • Energy input
• Repeatability
• Cost
Vibroseis • Convenience
• No pulse, frequency sweep
• Significant signal with
stacking/deconvolution

Explosives
• Various sizes – target depth
• Safety and expense can be
an issue

Air guns
• At sea
• Very repeatable
• Large array for big signal

Applied Geophysics – Waves and rays - II

Seismic receivers
Geophones
• Cylindrical coil suspended in a magnetic field
• The inertia of the coil causes motion relative
to the magnet generating a electrical signal
• Geophones are sensitive to velocity Hydrophones
• Used at sea
• Use piezoelectric minerals to
Instrument response sense pressure variations
• The relation between the input
ground motion and the output
electrical signal
Natural frequency
• The frequency which produces
the maximum amplitude output
Damping
• Reduces the amplitude of the
natural frequency response and
prevents infinite oscillations
• Want a flat response

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Deployment
Important considerations
• Need good coupling to the ground – spike
• Mini-arrays to reduce surface wave noise

Offset of geophones
Small offsets
• Near-vertical incidence retains P-energy
• High resolution of subsurface reflectors
Î Seismic reflection analysis

Large offsets
• Improves velocity sensitivity
• Provides horizontal averages only
Î Seismic refraction analysis

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