See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/334133682

Influence of surface pores on selective laser melted parts under lubricated

contacts: a case study of a hydraulic spool valve

Article in Virtual and Physical Prototyping · June 2019

DOI: 10.1080/17452759.2019.1633930

CITATIONS READS

12 304

5 authors, including:

Yi Zhu Yang Yang

Zhejiang University Zhejiang University
62 PUBLICATIONS 1,458 CITATIONS 11 PUBLICATIONS 207 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

wear resistance control of SLM parts View project

tribology of SLMed parts View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Yi Zhu on 06 March 2020.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Virtual and Physical Prototyping

ISSN: 1745-2759 (Print) 1745-2767 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/nvpp20

Influence of surface pores on selective laser

melted parts under lubricated contacts: a case
study of a hydraulic spool valve

Y. Zhu, Y. Yang, P. Lu, X. Ge & H. Yang

To cite this article: Y. Zhu, Y. Yang, P. Lu, X. Ge & H. Yang (2019) Influence of surface pores
on selective laser melted parts under lubricated contacts: a case study of a hydraulic spool valve,
Virtual and Physical Prototyping, 14:4, 395-408, DOI: 10.1080/17452759.2019.1633930

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/17452759.2019.1633930

Published online: 30 Jun 2019.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 65

View Crossmark data

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=nvpp20
VIRTUAL AND PHYSICAL PROTOTYPING
2019, VOL. 14, NO. 4, 395–408
https://doi.org/10.1080/17452759.2019.1633930

Influence of surface pores on selective laser melted parts under lubricated

contacts: a case study of a hydraulic spool valve
Y. Zhua,b, Y. Yanga, P. Lua, X. Gea and H. Yanga
a
State Key Laboratory of Fluid Power and Mechatronic Systems, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China; bNingbo Research
Institute, Zhejiang University, Ningbo, People’s Republic of China

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Hydraulic valve spools can be produced with hollow structures using SLM to increase dynamic Received 24 April 2019
response. The contact between the valve spool and body is crucial and relates to the Accepted 17 June 2019
performance of a hydraulic valve, which has not been studied. This paper investigates the
KEYWORDS
reciprocating contact of an SLM-fabricated spool valve from a tribological aspect. By varying Selective laser melting;
the process parameters, porous and standard spool samples (18Ni-300 steel) were produced hydraulic valve; pores;
using SLM. The lubricating behaviours of 18Ni-300 samples under various contact pressures and lubrication; friction
reciprocating frequencies were investigated in comparison to a real spool sample (hardened
38CrMoAl steel) using conventional manufacturing. The results indicate that the standard SLM
18Ni-300 spool sample has comparable tribological performance compared to the conventional
manufactured 38CrMoAl sample. The SLM fabricated sample, with a number of large pores, has
the highest friction coefficient under a wide range of contact conditions due to rough surfaces
and cracks. Compared to the standard sample, the presence of a few small pores positively
affects lubrication by providing local extra lubrication and serving as debris containers. Such an
effect becomes very notable under low pressure, reducing the friction coefficients by half.

1. Introduction dispersed defects (e.g. pores, keyholes, cracks) play a deci-

Selective laser melting (SLM) is a type of additive manu-
facturing that produces metal parts. The process uses a
fibre laser to selectively melt metal powders according
to a pre-sliced CAD model of a layer of pre-spread
powders in a sealed chamber (Yang et al. 2019). Since
the technology is able to manufacture very complex
structures, it has been successfully applied in fields
such as aerospace design, medical apparatus fabrication
and injection moulding (Gebhardt et al. 2010; Zhao et al.
2015). Due to the nature of the SLM process and the
resultant unique thermal effects, SLM-fabricated
materials have many variations in microstructures that
can cause uncertainties in properties and performance
(Yadollahi and Shamsaei 2017). Many published articles
have focused on understanding the relationship
between the process-microstructure-property-perform-
ance of SLM materials (Uriondo, Esperon-Miguez, and
Perinpanayagam 2014; Yadollahi and Shamsaei 2017;
Yap et al. 2015; Zhang and Attar 2016).
The friction and wear performance of machine
elements are of great importance since they affect the
reliability and lifetime of a machine (Van Beek 2006). For
SLM-fabricated materials, microstructures and randomly
sive role in friction and wear behaviours, particularly under
dry conditions. Zhu, Zou, and Yang (2018) reviewed pub-
lished literature on the wear performance of SLM-fabri-
cated materials and found that process parameters
greatly influence the friction coefficient and wear resist-
ance of SLM-fabricated parts under dry conditions. In
general, a part with high density exhibits high wear resist-
ance and low friction coefficient regardless of material
type. However, most machine elements are lubricated.
The friction and wear behaviours under lubricated
conditions greatly differ from those under dry conditions.
Due to hydrodynamic effects, surface topography
becomes particularly important when assessing lubricat-
ing behaviours. Surface textures, such as micro dimples,
have been reported to reduce friction by more than half
(Menezes et al. 2009; Wang et al. 2003). However, SLM-fab-
ricated materials have not been investigated for their
lubricating performance; their surface pores may be of
particular interest for improving lubrication. Previous
studies examined the boundary lubrication of SLM-fabri-
cated 316L stainless steel and Ti6Al4V alloy, although
hydrodynamic lubrication was not taken into account
(Zhu, Chen, et al. 2016; Zhu, Zou, et al. 2016).

CONTACT Y. Zhu yiz@zju.edu.cn State key laboratory of fluid power and mechatronic systems, Zhejiang University, 38 Zheda Road, Hangzhou 310027,
People’s Republic of China; Ningbo Research Institute, Zhejiang University, Ningbo 315100, People’s Republic of China
© 2019 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
396 Y. ZHU ET AL.
The presence of pores negatively affects mechanical
properties, e.g. tensile strength and fatigue (Kurzynowski
et al. 2018). Material scientists have conducted extensive
research to reduce pores and increase densification
(Aboulkhair et al. 2014; Almangour, Grzesiak, and Yang
2017; Catchpole-Smith et al. 2017; Dilip et al. 2016;
Gong et al. 2013; Gu et al. 2015; Sun et al. 2016;
Walker, Liu, and Brandt 2017; Zhang, Dembinski, and
Coddet 2013). However, pores may positively affect lubri-
cating behaviours to reduce friction and wear. Powder
metallurgy (PM) has already demonstrated that the pres-
ence of pores reduces wear (Li, Sosa, and Olofsson 2015;
Li and Olofsson 2015; Martin, García, and Blanco 2015).
Therefore, pores may act differently depending on the
dominant failure mode of a particular application.
2. The application of SLM-fabricated valve
spools
A spool valve is a hydraulic component that directs the
flow of hydraulic fluids; it has been widely used in
various applications such as aerospace, mobile machin-
ery, vessels and marine equipment. As a common
configuration, a sliding spool is placed inside a valve
body to move between relief, open, and modulating pos-
itions for controlling fluid flows (Majdič, Velkavrh, and
Kalin 2013). A schematic of a spool valve configuration
is shown in Figure 1. For an electro-hydraulic pro-
portional spool valve, the displacement of a spool is
often several millimetres. The frequency of a pro-
portional spool valve ranges from 0 to 20 Hz or even
higher depending on operational demands. To fulfil the
requirements of high control accuracy and quick
dynamic response, a lightweight spool may provide a
potential solution. A lightweight spool can be achieved
by reducing either the material density (the use of a
Figure 1. Schematic showing the contact between a valve spool
and a valve body (Zhu et al. 2018).
low-density material, which is not discussed here) or
the structure weight. It is difficult to reduce weight
using conventional machining. SLM technology can
produce spools with hollow structures (shown in
Figure 2), which increase the position resolution and
dynamic response of a direct electro-hydraulic pro-
portional valve (Su 2016).
The contact between the valve spool and body greatly
affects the component service life. The literature shows
that failures resulting from spool valve wear account
for more than 22% of total control valve failures, and
the repairs can account for more than 20% of total
repair time (Chen, Gong, and Rui 2016). Failures often
occur on the bore surface due to wear between the
spool and body, as well as contaminants, which signifi-
cantly reduce component lifetime and dynamic response
(Amini, Abbaszadeh, and Lotfi 2017). Therefore, wear is
the dominant failure mode of a valve spool. Various
measures have been taken to improve wear resistance,
including coatings (Majdič, Velkavrh, and Kalin 2013)
and surface heat treatments (Amini, Abbaszadeh, and
Lotfi 2017). However, test results did not fully represent
the actual contact conditions.
The motivation of the research is to study the
influence of surface pores on the lubricating behaviours
of a spool valve. Spool samples were produced using
SLM. Pores were intentionally created by varying
process parameters, and the surface pores were charac-
terised. The contact between the spool and valve body
was simulated using a reciprocating rig. This study exam-
ines the influence of the pores from another angle based
on the application of hydraulic valves. The tensile and
flexural strength were also tested for the SLM-fabricated
samples.
3. Materials and methods
3.1. Sample preparation and materials
The spool samples were manufactured using a Renishaw
AM250 SLM system comprised of an SPI redPOWER
200 W ytterbium fibre laser in Q-switched mode, an auto-
matic powder layering system, an argon gas protection
system, and a process control system. The laser operates
with a 70 μm focused beam diameter at a 1071 nm
wavelength. SLM-fabricated spool samples were built
using different process parameters, which are listed in
Table 1. The exposure time (40 and 60 μs), laser power
(160 and 180 W), and hatch space (60 and 100 μm)
were varied based on prior parameters studies
(Kempen et al. 2011; Tan et al. 2018; Zhu, Zou, and
Yang 2018). Sample G (standard sample) was built
using the standard parameters supplied by Renishaw
 VIRTUAL AND PHYSICAL PROTOTYPING 397

Figure 2. Valve spools with (a) lattice and (b) hollow structures. (Photo taken by Zhu.)

Table 1. Laser process parameters used in the study.

Layer thickness (μm) Laser power (W) Hatch space (μm) Point distance (μm) Scanning strategy Exposure time (μs)
Sample A 40 200 80 65 Meander (zigzag) 40
Sample B 200 80 60
Sample C 160 80 80
Sample D 180 80 80
Sample E 200 60 80
Sample F 200 100 80
Sample G 200 80 80

plc. The Renishaw system splits the scanning speed into Hardened 38CrMoAl steel is widely used to produce
exposure time and point distance, called ‘spot-to-spot spools, and its high hardness of 53 ± 2 HRC ensures a
formation’ (Wang et al. 2017). The laser exposure time high wear resistance (Ge 2018). However, 38CrMoAl
is the time duration that a pulsed laser dwells on one steel is not commercialised as a type of SLM powder.
spot, which represents the scan speed. The scanning 18Ni-300 maraging steel is one type of commercially
strategy of meander was used and each layer was available SLM powder material, which has a similar hard-
scanned by the laser using a zigzag pattern as shown ness value as hardened 38CrMoAl steel (Table 2) after
in Figure 3. heat treatment (aging treatment at 480°C for 6 h with a
The sample building orientation is schematically
shown in Figure 4. Figure 5 shows the dimensions of
the samples. The diameter of the spool sample is less
than that of the body sample to ensure uniform wear
on the contact area. Since this work focuses on the tribo-
logical performance of SLM-fabricated samples with
pores and the mechanisms of the lubricated reciprocat-
ing contact, the real situation has been simplified to a
conformal contact, which usually happens between a
pair of convex and concave surfaces such as the
contact between the valve spool and body. Figure 4. Schematic of the sample building orientation.

Figure 3. Schematic of the laser scanning tracks in each layer. Figure 5. Dimensions of the spool and valve samples.
398 Y. ZHU ET AL.

pre-solution treatment at 815∼830°C). Therefore, 18Ni-
300 was used to produce spool samples in this research.
The valve body samples were made of grey cast iron
(HT300, hardness ≈ 220 HRC), which is a common
material for producing valve bodies. The 18Ni-300
powders (purchased from Sandvik plc) are spherical in
shape, ranging from 15 to 53 μm in size. The material
compositions of the 18Ni-300 maraging steel,
38CrMoAl steel, and grey cast iron (HT300) are shown
in Table 3. The data in Tables 2 and 3 were acquired
according to Chinese Standards GB/T 3077-1999, GB/T
9439-2010, and material data sheet from Renishaw plc.
The as-built spool samples were post-treated by age-
hardening at 480°C for 6 h to achieve a high hardness. As
a comparison, a group of spool samples cut from real
spools (hardened 38CrMoAl) was machined. The surfaces
of the spool samples, including seven types of SLM-fab-
ricated and conventionally manufactured (CM) 38CrMoAl
samples, were ground to a root mean square (RMS) Ra =
0.1 μm. The upskins and the borders fabricated using
different process parameters were removed by post
machining. The surfaces of the body samples were
ground to a root mean square (RMS) Ra = 0.8 μm.
3.2. Test methods
The densities of the spool samples were measured based
on the Archimedes principle. Effective porosity is intro-
duced to characterise the effective pores on the
surface which are included in the contact area. The
micrographs of surface topography were analysed
using greyscale imaging and binarisation. Since the con-
tacting surface is much larger than the view of the con-
focal laser scanning microscope (approximately 1 ×
1 mm2), three measurements were taken in three areas
located along the centreline, which is schematically
shown in Figure 6. The pores in contact area were quan-
titatively compared. The Feret diameter (the distance
between the two furthest points of the shape measured
in a given direction [Dražić, Sladoje, and Lindblad 2016])
in the horizontal and vertical directions was calculated to
determine the equivalent pore size.
Hardness was measured using a hardness tester at
applied weights of 500 g. Six indentations were per-
formed on the sample surfaces.
The friction tests were performed using a reciprocat-
ing contact rig. As shown in Figure 7, the spool sample
is fastened in mounting block and the body sample is
mounted on the reciprocating apparatus. The force is
applied to the spool sample in a stationary dead-
weight-loaded manner to produce contact pressure.
The reciprocating motion of the body sample is con-
verted from a motor with a crank and rod and accord-
ingly the reciprocating frequency is controlled by the
motor. The friction coefficient μ between the spool and
body samples is calculated based on the friction force
FT obtained from the force sensor and the applied load
FN, as given by Equation (1). The data is recorded at 1 s
intervals by a computer.
FT
m= (1)
FN
Both high and low loads were used to create contact
pressures of 10 and 50 MPa, which ranged from
medium to very high pressure of an electro-hydraulic
proportional spool valve. The reciprocating frequencies
were set to 5 and 25 Hz, which are also typical for a pro-
portional spool valve. Therefore, this study takes contact
pressure (2 factors), frequencies (2 factors), and materials
(8 factors) into consideration, which requires 32 series of
tests in total. Each test lasted for 30 min and was
repeated three times. All specimens were ultrasonically
cleaned for 10 min with acetone and ethanol before
and after testing. The test conditions are listed in Table
4. The hydraulic oil used in the tests was L-HM 46 anti-
wear hydraulic oil. The oil properties are listed in Table
5 (Zhu, Zou et al. 2016). The coefficient of friction was
recorded, and the surface topography was examined

Table 2. Properties of hardened 38CrMoAl steel and 18Ni-300 maraging steel after heat treatment.
Material Hardness (HRC) Yield strength (MPa) Tensile strength (MPa) Density (g/cm3) Elongation (%) Area reduction (%)
18Ni-300 maraging steel 52 2000 2050 8.1 12 60
Hardened 38CrMoAl steel 51∼55 835 980 7.85 14 50

Table 3. Chemical composition of materials used in this study.

Chemical
composition
(wt %) Ni Co Mo Ti Al Cr Cu C Mn Si P S Fe
18Ni-300 17–19 8.5–9.5 4.5–5.2 0.6–0.8 0.05–0.15 <0.5 <0.5 <0.03 <0.1 <0.1 <0.01 <0.01 –
maraging
steel
38CrMoAl <0.3 0.15–0.25 0.7–1.1 1.35–1.65 <0.3 0.35–0.42 0.3–0.6 0.2–0.45 <0.035 <0.035 –
steel
HT300 2.9–3.2 0.5–1.4 1.0–2.5 <0.15 <0.12 –
 VIRTUAL AND PHYSICAL PROTOTYPING 399

Table 5. Properties of the hydraulic oil used in the testing.

Kinematic viscosity (mm2/s at 40°C) 48.2
Viscosity index 96.3
Flash point (°C) 196
Pour point (°C) −16

Figure 6. Positions of porosity measurements on the sample

surface (top view).

using a confocal laser scanning microscope and a scan-

ning electron microscope (SEM).

4. Results and discussion

4.1. Surface topography and properties of the
SLM fabricated parts
Figure 8 shows the densities of the seven SLM fabricated
samples. Exposure time greatly influences the sample
densities. Particularly for the short exposure time
(sample A), the density is lower than 7.8 g/mm3, which
is far below those of other samples. Both low laser
power (160 W) and narrow hatch space (60 μm) decrease
sample densities. Samples D, F and G do not exhibit
noticeable differences in densities and porosities.
Figure 9(a) shows the effective porosity of the seven
SLM fabricated samples. For sample A, the porosity can
Figure 8. Densities of the 7 SLM fabricated samples.
exceed 4%. Figures 9(b–h) show the related surface topo-
graphies of the contacting surfaces (measurements were
taken in the middle red square shown in Figure 6) on the
SLM-fabricated samples, which are in line with the
measured results shown in Figure 9(a). Due to low heat
input, pores were generated on the SLM-fabricated
sample surfaces, causing low densities, which is clearly
seen in samples A and B. Pores on sample A are large

Figure 7. Schematic of the reciprocating rig.

Table 4. Friction test conditions.

Processing method Sample Contact pressure Reciprocating frequency Test time Repetitions
SLM Sample A 10 MPa (≈3.88 N) 5 Hz 30 min 3
Sample B
Sample C
Sample D
Sample E 50 MPa (≈97.09 N) 25 Hz
Sample F
Sample G
CM 38CrMoAl sample
400 Y. ZHU ET AL.

Figure 9. (a) Effective porosity and micrographs showing pores on the surfaces of the 7 SLM fabricated samples: (b) samples A, (c)
samples B, (d) samples C, (e) samples D, (f) samples E, (g) samples F, (h) samples G.

and very dense. It is noted that sample A is used as the
benchmark, which may not be suitable for practical
use. Other samples also show a few pores, but their
numbers are much lower than those found on samples
A and B.
Figure 10 shows the measured pore size distribution
results. The vertical axis shows the area of the specific
pore size over the total area as a percentage. It can
be seen that sample A exhibits not only a number of
small pores but also many large pores (>1000 μm2).
Sample B also has many pores of different sizes.
Reducing laser exposure time greatly affects part
densification, resulting in the presence of both small
and large pores. Samples C, D, and F only have small
pores, while sample E contains large pores. Thus,
varying laser power and hatch space generates pores
of different sizes. It is noted that sample G, which was
fabricated using standard parameters, has only small
pores (<100 μm2).
The hardness of the SLM-fabricated samples is shown
in Figure 11. Sample A has much lower hardness com-
pared to other samples because many pores were
included during indentation. Other SLM-fabricated
samples do not have remarkable differences in hardness

Figure 10. Pore size distribution of all SLM fabricated samples measured from surface topography micrographs.

Figure 11. Hardness results of the SLM-fabricated samples and
the 38CrMoAl sample.
when considering error bars. The hardness of the
38CrMoAl sample is also presented in the figure, which
is very close to that of the high-density SLM-fabricated
samples.
4.2. Microstructures of the SLM-fabricated samples
Samples were polished and etched with 1 g CuCl2, 25 ml
HNO3, 50 ml HCl and 150 ml water. The microstructures
of all seven SLM-fabricated samples are observed using
SEM and shown in Figure 12. The dark regions refer to
martensite (α), while the light regions are austenite (γ).
Very fine structures can be seen due to the extremely
high cooling rate during the solidification process (Yin
et al. 2018). Cellular structures can be observed with
non-continuous boundaries due to the precipitation of
intermetallic phases and the enhanced phase transform-
ation at the cellular boundaries during heat treatments,
which was reported by Yin et al. (2018). It is noted that
columnar structures can also be observed with
different orientations, which are very typical in the micro-
structures of an SLM-fabricated sample. Samples E and G
have the largest cellular size, while sample A has the
smallest. Other samples illustrate similar sizes of the cel-
lular structures.
Figure 12. Microstructures of the SLM-fabricated samples: (a) samples A, (b) samples B, (c) samples C, (d) samples D, (e) samples E, (f)
samples F, (g) samples G.
VIRTUAL AND PHYSICAL PROTOTYPING 401
4.3. Friction results
To show the influence of the two types of materials on
the coefficient of friction, the friction results of sample
G (the SLM-fabricated 18Ni-300) and the CM 38CrMoAl
sample are initially compared. Mean values of three
repeats and deviations were calculated at each time
step of the test procedure, that is, for the first 10 min
(0–10 min), the second 10 min (10–20 min), and finally
the last 10 min (20–30 min).
Figure 13 shows the friction results of the two
samples. A similar trend can be found: the friction coeffi-
cients decrease with increasing testing time due to the
running-in effect at the beginning. In general, the friction
coefficients are quite close between the two samples,
particularly in the last 10 min. Wear scars were observed
using a confocal laser scanning microscope and are
shown in Figure 14. The wear rate is very low and
cannot be measured by weighing the mass loss. Both
micrographs show scratches indicating abrasive wear
and mild adhesive wear. Wear micrographs tested
under other conditions only differ in the size of the
wear patch, while the wear mechanism is similar. It can
be concluded that sample G (the almost densified SLM
fabricated 18Ni-300) has similar friction and wear beha-
viours compared to the commonly used valve spool
material (hardened 38CrMoAl).
To study the differences among the seven SLM fabri-
cated samples, friction results are shown in the forms of
their mean values and deviations of the last 10 min in
Figure 15. In general, friction coefficients decrease with
the increase of either pressure or reciprocating fre-
quency. It is obvious that the influence of frequency is
much greater than that of pressure. Increasing the fre-
quency from 5 Hz to 25 Hz reduces the friction coeffi-
cient from approximately 0.15 to below 0.1 or even
below 0.05. According to the classic ‘Stribeck curve’,
boundary lubrication appears when the applied normal
402 Y. ZHU ET AL.
Figure 13. The results of coefficient of friction of the SLM mara-
ging sample G and the CM 38CrMoAl sample.
load is completely supported by asperity contacts. The oil
between the two bodies only eliminates the adhesion.
Full film lubrication happens when the applied load is
completed carried by the oil film in which asperities do
no contact at all. Mixed lubrication is between the two
while the applied load is shared by asperity contact
and oil film. Compared with a classic Stribeck curve,
the lubrication regime switches from a mixed lubrication
to hydrodynamic lubrication with increased reciprocat-
ing frequency. Increasing pressure, on the other hand,
does not change the lubrication regimes.
Sample A has the highest friction coefficient under all
contact conditions, indicating that too many pores nega-
tively affect friction. Similar to the results found by many
researchers (Lore et al. 2013; Sallica-Leva, Jardini, and
Fogagnolo 2013; Wegener, Spierings, and Starr 2013;
Zhu, Zou, and Yang 2018; Zhu et al. 2018), cracks are
more likely to initiate from surface pores, which cause
further damage, as shown in Figure 16. The presence
of a number of pores, particularly large pores, reduces
the real contact area, which considerably increases the
local contact pressure and leads to plastic deformation
and cracks. Low porosity levels (at or below 1%) do not
significantly reduce the contact area, which has a trivial
Figure 14. Micrographs of the worn surfaces of sample G and the CM sample performed at 50 MPa and 5 Hz.
Figure 15. Results of coefficients of friction of samples A-G under
four contact conditions.
impact on concentrated local contact pressure. The fric-
tion coefficient of sample G ranged in the middle of all
samples. This indicates that the standard sample did
not greatly improve lubrication. Samples B-F, which
contain a few pores, usually have lower friction coeffi-
cients than two extreme cases, which are samples A
and G. Surface pores may behave as surface micro-tex-
tures that generate additional hydrodynamic pressure
by means of cavitation and suctioning effects and
provide micro-reservoirs for the lubricant (Wang et al.
2003). The EDX results shown in Figure 17 further
confirm this result. Because 18Ni-300 has a very low
silicon content and a high nickel content (as shown in
Table 3), the extremely high peak of silicon detected in
the large pores of sample A comes from the counterpart
(grey cast iron), which has a high silicon content. This
indicates that the large surface pores on sample A gener-
ated considerable wear debris from the counterpart.
However, no obvious peaks from the counterpart were
detected from the pores on sample B, indicating very
mild wear. From this work, it can be seen that the size
and/or number of pores greatly affects lubrication.
For dry or boundary lubricated contacts, metal asperi-
ties come into direct contact, causing plastic defor-
mation and damages below the surface (Prashanth
et al. 2014; Zhu, Chen et al. 2016; Zhu, Zou, et al. 2016).

Figure 16. A typical surface image showing wear scars and
cracks in sample A.
However, the lubrication regime between a spool and
valve body is often full-film lubrication in which a full
lubricating film is formed to avoid direct metal contacts.
On some occasions, local asperities come into contact,
creating a mixed lubrication due to wear debris and
very low speed as the reciprocating ends. Thus, the
microstructure does not exhibit noticeable deformation.
We compared two extreme cases: sample C under
50 MPa 5 Hz, representing a very high friction coefficient,
and sample G under 50 MPa 25 Hz, representing a very
low friction coefficient. As shown in Figure 18, the
cross sections of the two samples and the hardness
both confirm that no any deformation or damage
appears in the microstructures below the surface.
Figure 17. EDX results measured on surface pores on samples A (a and b) and B (c and d).
VIRTUAL AND PHYSICAL PROTOTYPING 403
Therefore, the difference in the microstructures of the
SLM-fabricated samples does not significantly influence
the lubricating behaviours under the given contact con-
ditions. The surface feature plays a dominant role.
A further comparison of the friction results of the
samples with small pores is shown in Table 6. Sample
G is set as the reference sample. Any friction coefficient
that is greater than 103% of sample G is highlighted in
red. Any friction coefficient that is less than 97% of
sample G is highlighted in blue. The rest are not high-
lighted, indicating that the friction coefficient is compar-
able to that of sample G. It can be seen that samples B-F
all have lower or comparable friction coefficients than
sample G except for two cases. This further confirms
that a few small pores positively influence lubricating
behaviours under current contact conditions ranging
from high to low pressure and from high to low recipro-
cating frequency.
Sample B under 10 MPa and 25 Hz shows a high fric-
tion coefficient, while the other samples tested under the
same conditions have low friction coefficients. In particu-
lar, the friction coefficients of samples C and E are only
approximately half that the sample G. Under low
pressure, a full lubricating film is not formed. Thus,
local extra lubrication is crucial for increasing additional
lifting force to create a local elasto-hydrodynamic lubri-
cation (EHL), which reduces the possibility of direct
contact between asperities (Zhu, Olofsson, and Söder-
berg 2013). Moreover, surface pores could act as debris
404 Y. ZHU ET AL.

Figure 18. Cross section observation of (a) sample C under 50 MPa 5 Hz (b) sample G under 50 MPa and 25 Hz and (c) hardness profile.

containers, which reduces secondary wear caused by lubrication (Figure 19a–c and g–i). A complete lubricat-
wear debris. Sample F also shows a high friction coeffi- ing film is not formed. Under high frequency, asperity
cient under 50 MPa and 25 Hz. It is noted that the contacts are much less frequent, and a complete film
reduction of the friction coefficient under the contact starts to form (Figure 19d–f and j–l). This trend can be
conditions is not significant. The presence of small clearly observed in the standard sample. The sample
surface pores has a greater influence under low pressure. with dense and large pores significantly increases
Under high pressure, small pores are closed due to high surface roughness, which negatively affects film for-
contact pressure. The dominant factor is the contact mation (Figure 19a, d, g and j). Moreover, wear debris
area, which helps form a full-film lubrication. In that is more likely to be generated because cracks initiate
case, the positive influence of surface pores for improv- and propagate from pores due to high pressure
ing lubrication is negligible. Therefore, the difference (Figure 19a, d, and g). Therefore, dense and large
between the samples containing small pores and pores negatively influence lubrication. The lubricating
sample G is not noticeable under high pressure. behaviours of samples with a few small pores greatly
depend on the contact conditions. Under low fre-
quency, when asperities come into contact and gener-
4.4. Mechanisms of lubricating behaviours ate wear debris, small pores act as debris containers
A schematic of lubricating mechanisms is shown in that reduce the wear (Figure 19c and i). Under low
Figure 19. Frequency is the dominant factor that deter- pressure and high frequency, small surface pores
mines the lubricating regimes. Under low frequency, begin to provide extra lubrication that builds local lubri-
partial asperities come into contact under mixed cating films, reducing asperity contacts (Figure 19f).
Under high pressure and high frequency, the lubricat-
ing film becomes stable enough to separate the two
Table 6. Comparison of friction results.
surfaces (Figure 19l). Thus, the effect of small surface
Percentage of the friction coefficient compared to
sample G pores is negligible. However, a quantitative study of
10 MPa; 10 MPa; 50 MPa; 50 MPa; pores on lubricating behaviours is challenging
Sample Porosity 5 Hz 25 Hz 5 Hz 25 Hz because not only the size and number of pores but
B 1.16% 94.2% 109.2% 97.4% 100.1% also the shape of pores affect lubrication (Nanbu et al.
C 0.57% 92.8% 41.9% 98.6% 98.7%
D 0.16% 98.3% 79.9% 89.7% 101.3% 2008; Wang et al. 2003). Such an effect requires
E 0.32% 91.6% 56.4% 97.4% 88.1% further study, since the shape of pores is very difficult
F 0.18% 100.4% 96.9% 93.1% 107.7%
to control.
 VIRTUAL AND PHYSICAL PROTOTYPING 405

Figure 19. Schematic of lubricating mechanisms.

4.5. Application to hydraulic valves previous works (Peng et al. 2018; Zhu et al. 2019). The
results are shown in Figure 20. Sample A has quite low
From the measured hardness and friction coefficient, the
strength due to its high porosity. Other samples do not
SLM-fabricated 18Ni-300 (sample G) has a comparable
show significant differences, particularly for the
performance compared to the hardened 38CrMoAl
measured tensile strength. Therefore, the strength of
sample. This indicates that the replacement of the
the samples with porosity at or below 1% is not consider-
material does not significantly affect the results. The
ably reduced. In particular, the strengths of samples D, E
SLM-fabricated 18Ni-300 can be a potential option to
and F are very close to that of sample G, all of which fulfil
replace the current spool material. In this work, laser
the required tensile strength for a valve spool (approxi-
power, exposure time and hatch space were varied to
mately 1500 MPa). Thus, the presence of pores is ben-
build spool samples. These process parameters influence
eficial for valve performance, and the corresponding
the energy absorbed by the materials, which are usually
process parameters are recommended for practical use.
evaluated based on the calculated energy density
For traditional processing methods such as casting
(Sallica-Leva, Jardini, and Fogagnolo 2013) and have
and forging, the processing cost is very sensitive to the
been studied by many researchers (Almangour, Grzesiak,
complexity of the part, which restricts their potential
and Yang 2017; Franke et al. 2010; Gu et al. 2014; Lore
commercial performance. However, the processing cost
et al. 2013). Different process parameters will affect the
overall porosity and the distribution of pores.
Lubricating performance between the spool and the
valve body is critical for the accurate control and
reliability of a hydraulic valve. On the other hand, the
strength of a spool is also crucial. The presence of
pores often reduces the strength (Lu et al. 2015; Sallica-
Leva, Jardini, and Fogagnolo 2013; Zhu et al. 2018)
since cracks are usually initiated from large pores,
leading to unpredictable damage. There is a trade-off
between the part strength and lubrication. To evaluate
this factor, the tensile and flexural strength were
further measured according to Chinese Standards GB/T
228-2002 and GB/T 14452-93. Details of measurements Figure 20. Tensile and flexural strength of the SLM fabricated
and sample manufacturing are the same as those in samples.
406 Y. ZHU ET AL.
of additive manufacturing is mainly dependent on the
used materials, which opens a new arena to improve
the performance of parts based on structural design.
For the case of a hydraulic spool, a gradient design can
be used in the fabrication of the spool by SLM. A very
thin surface with pores (1–2 mm) can be produced (for
example, using process parameters of samples D, E or
F), while the rest can be fabricated using optimised
SLM parameters (process parameters of sample G) to
ensure the strength. In this case, the spool can have
good lubrication performance and high strength.
However, other mechanical properties, such as thermal
expandability and fatigue resistance, which are impor-
tant for a spool, have not been considered, which
requires further study before SLM technology can be
used in reality.
5. Conclusions
This case study demonstrates the influence of pores on
lubricating behaviours in a hydraulic spool valve manu-
factured using SLM. By varying laser power, exposure
time, and hatch space, pores of different sizes and distri-
butions were created and characterised. Following
results can be drawn:
. In the reciprocating contact, reciprocating frequency
is the dominant factor affecting friction coefficients,
which determines the lubrication regimes.
. A number of large pores on the surface negatively
affects friction coefficients under a wide range of
contact conditions, since cracks are initiated and pro-
pagated from pores.
. The presence of a few small pores (porosity at or
below 1%) positively affects lubrication by providing
local extra lubrication and serving as debris contain-
ers. This affect becomes very notable under low
pressure, which can reduce friction coefficients by
half.
. There is a trade-off between structural integrity and
lubrication. However, the samples with a few small
pores still demonstrate comparable strength. Thus,
with a suitable combination of process parameters,
the valve performance can be improved by using an
SLM-fabricated spool. Of course, other mechanical
properties need to be examined and real bench
tests need to be performed before this technology
can be applied.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Funding
This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foun-
dation of China [grant numbers 51890881 and 51775486],
National Key Research and Development Program of China
[SQ2018YFB200029-04], and the Zhejiang Province Qianjiang
Talent Program [QJD1702027].
Notes on contributors
Dr. Y. Zhu is an associate professor at the State Key Laboratory
of Fluid Power and Mechatronic Systems of Zhejiang University
in China. He received his Ph.D. from Royal Institute of Technol-
ogy, Sweden. He is also the associate editor of ASME Journal of
Tribology. His research interests include surface design in metal
additive manufactured parts and the AM driven product
design, particularly in hydraulic components.
Y. Yang is a Ph.D. student from the State Key Laboratory of Fluid
Power and Mechatronic Systems, Zhejiang University, China. His
research area is enhancing wear resistance of SLMed surfaces.
P. Lu a Master student from the State Key Laboratory of Fluid
Power and Mechatronic Systems, Zhejiang University, China.
His research area includes lubricating behaviours of SLMed
surfaces.
X. Ge a Master student from the State Key Laboratory of Fluid
Power and Mechatronic Systems, Zhejiang University, China.
His research area includes lightweight design of hydraulic com-
ponents using SLM.
Prof. H. Yang is a professor at the State Key Laboratory of Fluid
Power and Mechatronic Systems of Zhejiang University in
China. He is Academician of Chinese Academy of Engineering
and a board director of Global Fluid Power Society (GFPS). His
research interests include fluid power transmission and
control and intelligent manufacturing.
References
Aboulkhair, N. T., N. M. Everitt, I. Ashcroft, and C. Tuck. 2014.
“Reducing Porosity in AlSi10Mg Parts Processed by
Selective Laser Melting.” Additive Manufacturing 1–4: 77–86.
Almangour, B., D. Grzesiak, and J. M. Yang. 2017. “In-Situ
Formation of Novel TiC-Particle-Reinforced 316L Stainless
Steel Bulk-Form Composites by Selective Laser Melting.”
Journal of Alloys and Compounds 706: 409–418.
Amini, S., S. Abbaszadeh, and M. Lotfi. 2017. “Measuring
Wear-Resistance of AISI 1.7225 Steel Under Various
Heat Treatments: Hydraulic Spool Valve.” Measurement 98:
179–185.
Catchpole-Smith, S., N. Aboulkhair, L. Parry, C. Tuck, I. A.
Ashcroft, and A. Clare. 2017. “Fractal Scan Strategies for
Selective Laser Melting of ‘Unweldable’ Nickel Superalloys.”
Additive Manufacturing 15: 113–122.
Chen, Y., W. Gong, and K. Rui. 2016. “Coupling Behavior
between Adhesive and Abrasive Wear Mechanism of Aero-
Hydraulic Spool Valves.” Chinese Journal of Aeronautics 29
(4): 1142–1150.
Dilip, J. J. S., G. D. J. Ram, T. L. Starr, and B. Stucker. 2016.
“Selective Laser Melting of HY100 Steel: Process
Parameters.” Microstructure and Mechanical Properties.
Additive Manufacturing 13: 49–60.

Dražić, S., N. Sladoje, and J. Lindblad. 2016. “Estimation of
Feret’s Diameter from Pixel Coverage Representation of a
Shape.” Pattern Recognition Letters 80: 37–45.
Franke, R., I. Haase, M. Klemm, and R. Zenker. 2010. “Friction and
Wear Behaviour of Electron Beam Surface Treated
Aluminium Alloys AlSi10Mg(Cu) and AlSi35.” Wear 269 (11):
921–929.
Ge, X. 2018. A Study on Processing a Spool in a Proportional
Directional Valve Using Selective Laser Melting and its
Friction Performance in the Reciprocating Contact.
Hangzhou: Zhejiang University.
Gebhardt, A., F. Schmidt, J. Hötter, W. Sokalla, and P. Sokalla.
2010. “Additive Manufacturing by Selective Laser Melting
the Realizer Desktop Machine and its Application for the
Dental Industry.” Physics Procedia 5: 543–549.
Gong, H., K. Rafi, N. V. Karthik, T. Starr, and B. Stucker. 2013.
“Defect Morphology of Ti-6Al-4 V Parts Fabricated by
Selective Laser Melting and Electron Beam Melting.” Paper
Read at 24th Annual International Solid Freeform
Fabrication Symposium.
Gu, D., H. Wang, F. Chang, D. Dai, P. Yuan, Y. Hagedorn, and W.
Meiners. 2014. “Selective Laser Melting Additive
Manufacturing of TiC/AlSi10Mg Bulk-Form Nanocomposites
with Tailored Microstructures and Properties.” Physics
Procedia 56 (56): 108–116.
Gu, D., H. Wang, D. Dai, C. Fei, W. Meiners, Y. C. Hagedorn,
K. Wissenbach, I. Kelbassa, and R. Poprawe. 2015.
“Densification Behavior, Microstructure Evolution, and
Wear Property of TiC Nanoparticle Reinforced AlSi10Mg
Bulk-Form Nanocomposites Prepared by Selective
Laser Melting.” Journal of Laser Applications 27 (S1):
S17003.
Kempen, K., E. Yasa, L. Thijs, J. P. Kruth, and J. Van Humbeeck.
2011. “Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of
Selective Laser Melted 18Ni-300 Steel.” Physics Procedia 12:
255–263.
Kurzynowski, T., K. Gruber, W. Stopyra, B. Kuźnicka, and E.
Chlebus. 2018. “Correlation between Process Parameters,
Microstructure and Properties of 316 L Stainless Steel
Processed by Selective Laser Melting.” Materials Science
and Engineering: A 718: 64–73.
Li, X., and U. Olofsson. 2015. “FZG Gear Efficiency and Pin-on-
Disc Frictional Study of Sintered and Wrought Steel Gear
Materials.” Tribology Letters 60 (1): 9.
Li, X., M. Sosa, and U. Olofsson. 2015. “A Pin-On-Disc Study of
the Tribology Characteristics of Sintered Versus Standard
Steel Gear Materials.” Wear 340–341: 31–40.
Lore, T., K. Karolien, K. Jean-Pierre, and V. H. Jan. 2013. “Fine-
Structured Aluminium Products with Controllable Texture
by Selective Laser Melting of Pre-Alloyed AlSi10Mg
Powder.” Acta Materialia 61 (5): 1809–1819.
Lu, Y., S. Wu, Y. Gan, T. Huang, C. Yang, J. Lin, and J. Lin. 2015.
“Study On the Microstructure, Mechanical Property and
Residual Stress of SLM Inconel-718 Alloy Manufactured by
Differing Island Scanning Strategy.” Optics & Laser
Technology 75: 197–206.
Majdič, F., I. Velkavrh, and M. Kalin. 2013. “Improving the
Performance of a Proportional 4/3 Water–Hydraulic Valve
by Using a Diamond-Like-Carbon Coating.” Wear 297 (1–2):
1016–1024.
Martin, F., C. García, and Y. Blanco. 2015. “Influence of
Residual Porosity on the Dry and Lubricated Sliding Wear
VIRTUAL AND PHYSICAL PROTOTYPING 407
of a Powder Metallurgy Austenitic Stainless Steel.” Wear
328–329: 1–7.
Menezes, P. L., S. Kishore, V. Kailas, and M. R. Lovell. 2009.
“Friction and Transfer Layer Formation in Polymer–Steel
Tribo-System: Role of Surface Texture and Roughness
Parameters.” Tribology Transactions 52 (5): 611–622.
Nanbu, T., N. Ren, Y. Yasuda, D. Zhu, and Q. J. Wang. 2008.
“Micro-Textures in Concentrated Conformal-Contact
Lubrication: Effects of Texture Bottom Shape and Surface
Relative Motion.” Tribology Letters 29 (3): 241–252.
Peng, T., S. Xu, H. Zhang, and Y. Zhu. 2018. “Influence of
Exposure Time On Energy Consumption and Mechanical
Properties of SLM Fabricated Parts.” Rapid Prototyping
Journal 24 (9): 1428–1435.
Prashanth, K. G., B. Debalina, Z. Wang, P. F. Gostin, A. Gebert, M.
Calin, U. Kuehn, M. Kamaraj, S. Scudino, and J. Eckert. 2014.
“Tribological and Corrosion Properties of Al-12Si Produced
by Selective Laser Melting.” Journal of Materials Research 29
(17): 2044–2054.
Sallica-Leva, E., A. L. Jardini, and J. B. Fogagnolo. 2013.
“Microstructure and Mechanical Behavior of Porous Ti–6Al–
4 V Parts Obtained by Selective Laser Melting.” Journal of the
Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Materials 26 (30): 98–108.
Su, Q. 2016. Switching Delay Analysis and Compensation
Methods for the Pilot Operated Proportional Directional
Valves. Hangzhou: Zhejiang University.
Sun, Z., X. Tan, B. T. Shu, and W. Y. Yeong. 2016. “Selective Laser
Melting of Stainless Steel 316L with Low Porosity and High
Build Rates.” Materials & Design 104: 197–204.
Tan, C., K. Zhou, M. Kuang, W. Ma, and T. Kuang. 2018.
“Microstructural Characterization and Properties of
Selective Laser Melted Maraging Steel with Different Build
Directions.” Science and Technology of Advanced Materials
19 (1): 746–758.
Uriondo, A., M. Esperon-Miguez, and S. Perinpanayagam. 2014.
“The Present and Future of Additive Manufacturing in the
Aerospace Sector: A Review of Important Aspects”
Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part
G: Journal of Aerospace Engineering 229 (11): 2132–2147.
Van Beek, A. 2006. Advanced Engineering Design: Lifetime
Performance and Reliability. Delft: Delft University of
Technology Press.
Walker, K. F., Q. Liu, and M. Brandt. 2017. “Evaluation of Fatigue
Crack Propagation Behaviour in Ti-6Al-4 V Manufactured by
Selective Laser Melting.” International Journal of Fatigue
104: 302–308.
Wang, X., K. Kato, K. Adachi, and K. Aizawa. 2003. “Loads
Carrying Capacity Map for the Surface Texture Design of
SiC Thrust Bearing Sliding in Water.” Tribology International
36 (3): 189–197.
Wang, S., Y. Liu, W. Shi, B. Qi, J. Yang, F. Zhang, D. Han, and Y. Ma.
2017. “Research on High Layer Thickness Fabricated of 316L
by Selective Laser Melting.” Materials 10 (9): 1055.
Wegener, K., A. B. Spierings, and T. L. Starr. 2013. “Fatigue
Performance of Additive Manufactured Metallic Parts.”
Rapid Prototyping Journal 19 (2): 88–94.
Yadollahi, A., and N. Shamsaei. 2017. “Additive Manufacturing
of Fatigue Resistant Materials: Challenges and
Opportunities.” International Journal of Fatigue 98: 14–31.
Yang, Y., Y. Zhu, M. M. Khonsari, and H. Yang. 2019. “Wear
Anisotropy of Selective Laser Melted 316L Stainless Steel.”
Wear 428–429: 376–386.
 408 Y. ZHU ET AL.
Yap, C. Y., C. K. Chua, Z. L. Dong, Z. H. Liu, D. Q. Zhang, L. E. Loh,
and S. L. Sing. 2015. “Review of Selective Laser Melting:
Materials and Applications.” Applied Physics Reviews 2 (4):
041101.
Yin, S., C. Chen, X. Yan, X. Feng, R. Jenkins, P. O’Reilly, L. Min, L.
Hua, and R. Lupoi. 2018. “The Influence of Aging
Temperature and Aging Time on the Mechanical and
Tribological Properties of Selective Laser Melted Maraging
18Ni-300 Steel.” Additive Manufacturing 22: 592–600.
Zhang, L. C., and H. Attar. 2016. “Selective Laser Melting of
Titanium Alloys and Titanium Matrix Composites for
Biomedical Applications: A Review.” Advanced Engineering
Materials 18 (4): 463–475.
Zhang, B., L. Dembinski, and C. Coddet. 2013. “The Study of the
Laser Parameters and Environment Variables Effect on
Mechanical Properties of High Compact Parts Elaborated
by Selective Laser Melting 316L Powder.” Materials Science
and Engineering: A 584 (6): 21–31.
Zhao, X., Q. Wei, B. Song, Y. Liu, X. Luo, S. Wen, and Y. Shi. 2015.
“Fabrication and Characterization of AISI 420 Stainless Steel
Using Selective Laser Melting.” Materials and Manufacturing
Processes 30 (11): 1283–1289.
View publication stats
Zhu, Y., X. Chen, J. Zou, and H. Yang. 2016. “Sliding Wear of
Selective Laser Melting Processed Ti6Al4V Under Boundary
Lubrication Conditions.” Wear 368–369: 485–495.
Zhu, Y., G. Lin, M. M. Khonsari, J. Zhang, and H. Yang. 2018.
“Material Characterization and Lubricating Behaviors of
Porous Stainless Steel Fabricated by Selective Laser Melting.”
Journal of Materials Processing Technology 262: 41–52.
Zhu, Y., U. Olofsson, and A. Söderberg. 2013. “Adhesion
Modeling in the Wheel–Rail Contact Under Dry and
Lubricated Conditions Using Measured 3D Surfaces.”
Tribology International 61: 1–10.
Zhu, Y., T. Peng, G. Jia, H. Zhang, S. Xu, and H. Yang. 2019.
“Electrical Energy Consumption and Mechanical Properties
of Selective-Laser-Melting-Produced 316L Stainless Steel
Samples Using Various Processing Parameters.” Journal of
Cleaner Production 208: 77–85.
Zhu, Y., J. Zou, X. Chen, and H. Yang. 2016. “Tribology of
Selective Laser Melting Processed Parts: Stainless Steel 316
L Under Lubricated Conditions.” Wear 350–351: 46–55.
Zhu, Y., J. Zou, and H. Yang. 2018. “Wear Performance of Metal
Parts Fabricated by Selective Laser Melting: A Literature
Review.” Journal of Zhejiang University-Science A 19 (2): 95–110.