Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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A Note about the Cover
The cover was designed by Gitta Noll.
It is based on an image of ITO‘s visualisation
of flights over Europe.
The image uses FlightRadar24 data over an
OpenStreetMap;
Source: www.itoworld.com
Impressum
Herausgeber: H.-H. Bass und H.-M. Niemeier
Hochschule Bremen,
Fakultät Wirtschaftswissenschaften,
Institute for Transport and Development,
Werderstr. 73, 28199 Bremen
ISSN 2191-4753
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ITD ANNUAL REPORT 2011 I 2012
Contents
PREFACE 04
Dietwart Runte, Dean of the Faculty of Business and Economics
GUEST CONTRIBUTION
Karl Hans Hartwig, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster
City toll: An Efficient Policy Strategy for Hanoi? 26
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Preface
by Dietwart Runte, Dean of the Faculty of Business and Economics, Bremen University of Applied Sciences
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ITD ANNUAL REPORT 2011 I 2012
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PREFACE
Among the main funding agencies for On behalf of the Faculty of Business and
the ITD’s projects are the United Nations Economics of Bremen University of Applied
Industrial Development Organisation Sciences, I hope that this publication attracts
(UNIDO), the German Federal Ministry the attention of the scientific community, of
for Education and Research (BMBF), the policy makers and the general public, both
German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD), in Germany and internationally. Personally,
the Deutsche Welthungerhilfe, and I wish the ITD and its members every success
the Wolfgang-Ritter-Stiftung. in their scientific endeavors for the bene-
fit of the stakeholders in the important
The ITD has also organized a number of issues of economic development and eco-
conferences, such as an international con- logically sustainable transport networks.
ference on the impact of the financial crisis
on Africa (co-funded by the Faculty of
Business and Economics), and participated
in international conferences und work-
shops in the framework of the German
Aviation Research Society.
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ITD ANNUAL REPORT 2011 I 2012
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PROFILES OF RESEARCH PROJECTS IN TRANSPORT ECONOMICS
Objectives Methodology
The project aims to investigate the changing Data collection and intensive field work
nature and performance of airports, their in cooperation with the airports;
commercialisation and competitive environ-
productivity and efficiency analysis to
ment, as well as the need for further finan-
identify best practice airports and gaps of
cial and environmental regulation.
less efficient airports;
use of several techniques
(partial productivity measures,
TFP, DEA, SFA);
regression analysis to illus-
trate relationships between
efficiency scores and potential
factors affecting performance.
Lead researchers
Source: www.lufthansa.com GAP is a joint project of
Bremen University of Applied Sciences (Prof.
Dr. Hans-Martin Niemeier), Berlin School of
Motivation Economics (FHW, Prof. Dr. Jürgen Müller),
The project was motivated by and International University of Applied
Sciences Bad Honnef (Prof. Dr. Hansjochen
a changing institutional structure since Ehmer)
the liberalisation of the aviation market;
below-average results of German air- Publications
ports in an international comparison in seve-
ral benchmarking studies; and A list of publications (2005-2009) is available
at www.gap-project.de
international benchmarking projects on
airport performance merely including large
airports in Germany.
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ITD ANNUAL REPORT 2011 I 2012
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PROFILES OF RESEARCH PROJECTS IN TRANSPORT ECONOMICS
The focus of this project is displayed in The second module will concentrate on
the following parts of the value chain: the increased competition pressure on air-
ports, which has enhanced the importance
of revenue from non-aviation activities.
Airlines
Which strategies (for example, shopping
Using a solid database, the productivity and mall development, parking space manage-
efficiency of LCCs and FSAs will be analyzed ment, etc.) are the airports following in this
with respect to the effects of liberalization, area and how do they cope up with the
privatization, increased competition and growing LCCs’ services? Do they come into
external shocks. Furthermore, an analysis conflict with the FSAs? How could the supply
of the strategies and the cost structures chain be optimized through cooperation?
of the Airlines will be highlighted. In the The third module will deal with the manage-
last years, the FSAs, the LCCs and also the ment of regional airports. The success of
charter and regional airlines have chan- LCCs has led to increased focus on these air-
ged their strategies. But how successful ports in the discussions on transportation
were they with the new strategies? Did policy. The most controversial point is the
they really hold out with the new strategic role of subsidies and the economic benefits
positioning or did they fail. And if yes, of air transport for the regions. In this
what were the reasons? How large is the regard it will be analyzed whether and to
share of the costs over which airlines what extend subsidies could be reduced
have a control and how do they manage with the help of efficient cost management
reducing their costs successfully? and further increase in revenue from
commercial activities.
Airports
Air Traffic Control
Based on benchmarking analyses
from the GAP-Project, three modules This section will use the existing literature to
will be analyzed in this part. estimate the impact of ATC on airlines, air-
In the first module, the question of why ports as well as its role on the value chain.
product and price differentiation at the In doing this, it will identify synergies and
airports have not been given enough atten- efficiency potentials and work out propo-
tion will be considered. The efficiency of sals for reform regarding pricing policy. Due
LCC terminals, peak-pricing, and airport to the complexity of ATC no benchmarking
charges discount schemes and other incen- studies will be conducted. This part will
tives will be examined. With regard to nonetheless deliver valuable insights
peak-pricing, the congestion costs at con- for the analysis of value chain. The air
gested German and European airports will transport supply chain In this part the
be estimated using econometric methods. insights and answers gained from the
above sections will be compiled.
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ITD ANNUAL REPORT 2011 I 2012
Cooperation partners
Academic Partners
Partners from Practice (outside of Germany)
Airport Dusseldorf, Airport Frankfurt, Free University Amsterdam, The Nether-
Airport Hamburg, Airport Nürnberg, lands, Dr. Pels; University of Westminster,
Airport Saarbrücken, Flight schedule United Kingdom, Dr. Dennis; University of
coordinator, Globe Ground, Lufthansa, Rome, Italy, Prof. Mancuso; University of
Lufthansa Consulting, Lufthansa City Line, Maryland, United States, Prof. Dresner;
Booz Allen Hamilton, Mkmetric, Wilfred Laurier University, Canada, Prof.
Uniconsult, Strata Morrison; University of British Columbia,
Canada, Prof. Gillen; Monash University,
Australia, Prof. Forsyth.
Academic Partners (Germany)
Jacobs University Bremen, Prof. Brune- Funding of the project (2008–2011)
kreeft; Institute for the World Economy
Kiel, Dr. Wolf; University of Paderborn, Bundesministerium für
Prof. Gilroy; Technical University of Dres- Bildung und Forschung
den, Prof. von Hirschhausen; German Aero-
space Center, Prof. Reichmuth; University of Project Managers
Applied Sciences Worms, Prof. Dr. Fichert.
Prof. Dr. Hans-Martin Niemeier, Karsten
Fröhlich, Adél Németh, and Eric T. Njoya
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PROFILES OF RESEARCH PROJECTS IN TRANSPORT ECONOMICS
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ITD ANNUAL REPORT 2011 I 2012
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PROFILES OF RESEARCH PROJECTS IN DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS
West Africa has a huge potential for agro- sustainable production, economic efficiency,
industry development – particularly in the loss-minimizing and clean harvesting and
food sector. Today, however, most processed storage, appropriate technical processing
food is imported. Improving the local value- and adequate channeling of the products
adding and into regional and international markets.
national and
international Guiding questions of project phase I
marketing could
considerably In its first phase as a consultancy project
contribute to commissioned by the United Nations
employment (in 2010), the research was aimed at an
and income in-depth study of Mali’s agro-industry
generation and sector and its sub-sectors, including
thus help reduce the dynamics of the agribusiness
poverty, stabilize enterprises, the trade relations in the
food provision, production chain from agriculture
and facilitate to agro-industry, and the institutions
sustainable eco- which are important for the functioning
nomic growth. of the agro-industry. Furthermore, it
was also aimed at identifying feasible
As it is predomi- policies to enhance agricultural growth
nantly women for agribusiness, upgrading the value
who are enga- chains, and stimulating private enterprise
ged as (small) development and investment.
entrepreneurs
in food pro-
cessing, the Guiding questions of project phase II
growth of this
In its second phase (starting in 2011 and
industry would
financed by BMBF), which will be in a
also be of pre-
collaborative venture with West African
eminent rele-
Selling karité soap in Northern Ghana. researchers, the project will be broadened
Photo: Rita Willaert, www.flickr.com vance for the
to include an analysis of the food processing
participation of
industry in Ghana and Nigeria, but will
women in the economy in general and
specifically target only those commodities
for their economic empowerment.
with which West African entrepreneurs can
develop a niche market strategy, including
The development of this subsector is
impeded by a number of obstacles, the actual and potential value chains
including shortcomings in ecologically of indigenous fruits such as mango,
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PROFILES OF RESEARCH PROJECTS IN DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS
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Supervisor
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PROFILES OF RESEARCH PROJECTS IN DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS
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ITD ANNUAL REPORT 2011 I 2012
The first phase of the project was highligh- In the second phase of the project, specific
ted by a conference in Hanoi in September instruments will be developed to assist
2010, which in the framework of the “Ger- building sustainable urban transport
many in Vietnam”-Year took place under systems in Vietnam, such as a benefit-cost
the auspices of the German Federal Govern- analysis of a toll for motorbikes entering
ment to celebrate the 30th anniversary of the inner city of Hanoi.
German-Vietnamese diplomatic relations.
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PROFILES OF RESEARCH PROJECTS IN DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS
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PROFILES OF RESEARCH PROJECTS IN DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS
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ITD ANNUAL REPORT 2011 I 2012
cates (since the 1990s, in Germany in parti- (5) Finally, high liquidity leads to accelerat-
cular since 2004) based on grain and soy as ing feedback processes in which increasing
underlyings. investments in commodities futures lead to
higher spot market prices, thus increasing
(4) Furthermore, investments in commodi- returns for previous investments, which in
ties as an asset class have become appealing turn leads to new financial investments into
as a result of two decades of falling returns commodity investments – and the building
on investment for traditional low-risk finan- up of price bubbles such as from 03/2007 to
cial investments, such as government bonds. 07/2008 and from 07/2010 to 03/2011.
The reasons for this have been: first, a glo-
bal “savings glut” (Bernanke) both in High By the end of 2010, according to US regula-
Income Countries and in emerging markets, tory authorities, US-American financial firms
especially in China; secondly, capital from were engaged as “index investors” with a
countries such as China looking for safe stock volume of about USD 14 bn on the
harbors abroad; thirdly, central banks’ all market for maize, USD 17 bn on the market
over the world flooding markets with cheap for soy, and USD 10 bn USD on the futures
money to overcome the financial crisis of market for wheat. (For rice, international
2009; fourthly, deteriorating returns for futures contracts only play a marginal role).
processing industries fuelled by rising com- To put this into context: This corresponds to
modity prices; and fourthly, a self-enforcing 5 to 10 per cent of the value of the annual
money inflation driven by rising commodity global production for these foods.
prices.
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PROFILES OF RESEARCH PROJECTS IN DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS
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GUEST CONTRIBUTION
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ITD ANNUAL REPORT 2011 I 2012
What can be used in the imperfect real satellite systems (GNSS). Vignettes are
world is “second best” pricing. Its intention stickers affixed to vehicles or paper con-
is not to cover all costs of road infrastruc- firmations verifying that the toll has been
ture and road usage but to collect reve- paid. Payment has to occur in advance at
nues, to reduce congestion and to mitigate patrol stations and toll booths by cash and
environmental damages of road traffic. cash card or electronically via the internet.
A second best toll for an existing road, In the stickers-case, monitoring is taken
therefore, covers all short run average by toll sheriffs, in the other cases vehicle
costs of operation plus mark ups to red- number plates are registered when the
uce congestion, accidents and pollution. toll is paid and automatically collected
A toll for a new road, additionally, has to by mobile cameras and supervisors which
include average capacity costs, i.e. oppor- match them against a database of vehicles
tunity costs of capital and depreciation. whose drivers have paid the charge (VLPR).
In practice, “third best” tolls often are DSRC is a payment system using radio
implemented. They are aimed at individual frequency identification, where antenna
components of the infrastructure costs only at the toll gate communicates with an
and are used to serve specific objectives of on-board-unit (OBU) on the vehicle. Each
transport policy like infrastructure financing, passing vehicle is identified and the data is
increasing the efficiency of capacity usage conducted for processing at a back office.
or reducing pollution. Therefore, different The back office forwards data to a central
types of road charges exist: facility related system, which converts vehicle data into
tolls for bridges, tunnels, passes or sin- trip data and produces the bill. The bill
gle roads; cordon tolls, where crossing of is collected from a bank account or from
defined borders triggers the charge; area cash card. The new “Read-and-Write-OBU”
tolls, where the charge is imposed not only is designed with all the processing taking
for the entry to the area but also for trips place inside the vehicle itself and permits
inside the area; and distance-based charges. tolling by distance. In all cases, enforcement
All types of tolls can be differentiated by has to be done by mobile controls and VLPR.
time, vehicle, emission standards, location,
traffic volume, car pools, and exemptions. Technically feasible, but currently not in use
due to high costs is global positioning by
Currently, four different systems of toll col- satellites (GNSS). Small receivers in the vehi-
lection and toll control are in use (Beckers cles (OBU) determine location, using time
et al. 2007): vignettes, video license plates signals transmitted by radio from satellites.
reading (VLPR), electronic road pricing by Because location is possible within a few
dedicated short-run microwave commu- meters, GNSS permits tolling by distance.
nication (DSRC), and global navigation After recording time and position
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GUEST CONTRIBUTION
data by OBU, back office possesses pay cash. The charge is low and covers a
vehicle data into trip data which is matched wide area of the city in order to collect high
against the pricing scheme to produce the revenues. Inbound vehicles are charged
bill. Some systems are able to do all pro- through a flat rate for cars and trucks
cessing inside the OBU itself. Enforcement once a day. Discounts exist depending
is done by mobile controls and VLPR. on the number of trips. Originally the Oslo
toll should have been abolished in 1999,
when enough money was collected to
International experiences
finance the road projects the toll system was
Road charges have a long tradition for introduced for in 1990. But new projects
several thousand years. But almost always came on the agenda, and so the toll
they have been applied to interurban was extended for the next 15 years.
roads, bridges, tunnels, and passes. City
tolls are discussed since the 1960s. But it With the aims of congestion reduction and
took until 1975, when Singapore started generating revenues of 240 million Euro per
with a broad transport policy combining year to finance the improvement of public
a vehicle license quota with a congestion bus transport, the City of London introduced
charging scheme (Area Licensing Scheme). an “Area Licensing Scheme” in 2003.
A cordon toll was introduced for a restricted The toll scheme originally covered the area
zone (toll area) of 7 square kilometers to of Central London, but has been expanded
reduce congestion and increase speed. In in the meantime. All road users within
1995, tolls where extended to different the area are required to obtain a license
congested expressways outside the toll on weekdays at daily costs of 12 Euro.
area. Tolls were paid by a vignette sticker Checking is done through 600 video cameras
that had to be affixed to cars, trucks, and and by automatic number plate reading
motorbikes. In 1998, the vignette system technology (VLPR). Taxis, motorbikes, buses,
was replaced by Electronic Road Pricing ambulances and handicapped persons
(ERP) using DSRC and cash card paying. are excluded. Fees for vehicles without
Tolls are charged for each trip on weekdays, a license reach from 140 to 200 Euro.
dependent on time, vehicle, and traffic.
The latest example of a city toll in Europe
A city toll with the objective to collect is the Stockholm toll scheme, where a
revenues for financing investments in urban full-scaled trial with road pricing was per-
road infrastructure was implemented in formed from January to July 2006 and a
Oslo 1990. Like in Singapore, the toll scheme referendum was hold in September, which
is based on a cordon toll and an electronic decided with a majority of 54 per cent of
payment system using short-range micro- the population to make the toll system
wave conveyance. Additionally, users can permanent. The toll system is directed to
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ITD ANNUAL REPORT 2011 I 2012
different objectives: traffic and congestion In all cases almost all objectives of tolling
reduction, noise reduction, improvement of were reached (see Table 1): Traffic volume
the environment and of public transport. and congestion decreased, speed increased,
The charge is based on a cordon toll, with a the modal split has been adjusted to public
toll area covering the whole central business bus transport, pollution has been reduced
district and an electronic payment system and the revenues of the toll systems
like in Singapore and Oslo. Tolls will be exceed the system costs – in London,
charged from inbound and outbound however, by a much lower amount than
vehicles on weekdays and differ between expected. The obvious success of urban
peak and off-peak hours. road pricing is the reason why a real
boom of city toll schemes is observable
worldwide (Kossak 2004, Hartwig 2011).
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GUEST CONTRIBUTION
City tolls and social welfare (2005) estimate a benefit cost ratio of only
0.6.
However, the achievement of political
objectives like the attraction of funds, the The different results of the studies are the
reduction of congestion or the improvement outcome of different methods and assump-
of the environment does not say anything tions for calculating the value of time gains
about the effects of city tolls on social and time losses, and of the additional costs
welfare. Social welfare only increases if the of public transport. Anyway, beside these
benefits of tolling exceed all of the costs discussions, from empirical estimates as well
caused by the introduction of user charges. as from experiences with city tolls, impor-
Benefits of urban road user charging are tant conclusions can be drawn for the imple-
savings of travel time and of travel liabili- mentation of toll schemes:
ties, reductions of accidents and pollution,
and the revenues generated by charges to First of all, costs and benefits of tolling
finance roads as well as the improvement of differ considerably between urban areas
public transport. Social costs include all costs because of different time values, consumer
of installing and operating the toll system, surpluses, reactions and adjustments of road
costs of monitoring and compliance, losses users, impacts outside the toll-area, and the
of parking revenues, the charges which effects of revenue spending. Therefore, the
are paid by road users, and welfare losses introduction of a toll system has to be consi-
because of deterred and postponed trips as dered carefully and to be analyzed in detail
well as increasing congestion and pollution in each case.
outside the toll area.
Secondly, benefits are generated mainly by
Unfortunately, to date, empirical studies on time savings, increases in travel reliability
the costs and benefits of city tolls are rare. and fewer accidents, but not by environ-
Only for London and Stockholm the welfare mental improvements. Cost-benefit-analysis
effects of road charges have been estimated show that environmental benefits in London
– with different results. Whereas Eliasson are not more than 1 per cent and in Stock-
(2006) evaluates the net benefits of the holm less than 8 per cent of total benefits,
Stockholm toll scheme of 683 million Euro which corresponds with estimations that
p.a., Prud’homme and Kopp (2006) calculate found that environmental costs account for
welfare losses of 768 million Euro, mainly less than 10 per cent of the overall exter-
because of lower time gains for car users, nal cost of transport. Therefore, charges
high subsidization of public transport and implemented to reduce pollution only, are
congestion costs due to more bus transport. inefficient and should not be used except
For the London congestion charge “Trans- as mark-ups on congestion charges and
port for London” (2007) calculates a benefit tolls related to collect revenues. It makes no
/ cost ratio of 1.4, Prud’homme and Bocajero sense, however, to set charges in relation to
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ITD ANNUAL REPORT 2011 I 2012
green house gas emissions because green As a consequence, the Vietnam Master
house gasses are decidedly non-local. Plan 2020/2030 on Urban Transport Deve-
lopment Strategies explicitly provides the
Thirdly, the most important costs of tolling introduction of city tolls as an “efficient
are the costs of installing and operating and effective” instrument, especially to
the toll system, costs of compliance and the fight congestion (Vietnam Urban Transport
disutility of deterred trips, and expenses Development Strategies and Master Plan
necessary to improve public transport. 2020/2030).
Because of technical and informational
shortcomings no toll has been introduced The accentuation of congestion is impor-
to cover all types of infrastructure costs, tant because a clear political prioritization
and because of considerable costs of intro- of objectives avoids inconsistencies when
duction and operation, no toll-city uses designing, marketing, and assessing the toll
distance-based tolls and GNSS. In many scheme. For example, there is an important
instances simple toll systems like cordon distinction between charging for revenue
pricing differentiated by time can do much generation purposes and charging roads to
of the job whilst waiting for more sophisti- reduce congestion (Oehry 2010).
cated and less expensive solutions. Whereas revenue generation needs rates set
to maximize revenues or to recover specific
costs and to avoid traffic diversion to
Implications for Hanoi
alternative routes and modes as it reduces
According to the problems of its road revenue collection, congestion charging has
traffic, the capital Hanoi seems to be a to reduce peak-period vehicle traffic volume
genuine candidate for a city toll (ALMEC and induce travel shifts to other modes and
2007): poor transport infrastructure with times which are considered desirable.
roads in bad condition, uncompleted ring Likewise, modifying the design of a con-
roads and radial roads, missing links to gestion charging scheme to improve the
important transaxial roads, and a road environment, increases the complexity and
network with many intersections; a boom the costs of running the charging system.
of motorcycles and cars, resulting in traffic The improvements in the urban environ-
congestion, traffic accidents, and pollution; ment that result may well be real, but
a dramatic increase of private cars and smaller than the additional costs. The point
public buses from 2005 to 2020, reducing is not that ancillary benefits of congestion
average speed of motorcycles from 24.8 to charges do not exist, are unimportant or
8.1 km/h, for cars from 27.1 to 8.9 km/h, and should not be taken into account when
of trucks and buses from 16 to 7.1 km/h in a implementing the scheme, but rather that
business-as-usual-scenario. they should not turn into first priority and
that the pricing system should not be modi-
fied too much and expanded to a variety of
other goals.
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GUEST CONTRIBUTION
When a congestion charge is planned, it the toll scheme, too. In theory, a complex
is vital to choose the right border of the time-place-distance differentiating charging
charging area. Congestion can only be scheme would lead to optimum welfare
reduced where it is excessive to begin with. and efficiency. In practice, charging schemes
Otherwise the introduction of a congestion have to be simple to be understandable
charging system would be very hard to sell and to give clear indications on how to best
to the people because many drivers will react (Oehry 2010). Like the Area License
initially be made worse off and perceived Scheme in Singapore, Hanoi should start
benefits will be low in relation to the costs its congestion scheme with tolls paid by a
of implementing and running the system. vignette sticker, which has to be affixed to
In Hanoi, the city center Hoan Kiem, which all motor vehicles except public buses: cars,
is one of the most congested areas in the trucks, motorbikes, and motorcycles. Stickers
world, is a genuine charging area. should be required weekdays from early
As mentioned above, the charging scheme morning to late afternoon. Instead of mate-
can take different forms: cordon-schemes, rial and virtual barriers in form of manned
where crossing of a defined border triggers toll stations and number plate recognition
the charge or area schemes, where being in systems, enforcement is simply done by spe-
the area defined by a border triggers the cial personnel.
charge. The charge might be a flat rate with
a fixed amount per day, time-dependent The effects of congestion tolls on social wel-
and/or distance based, with tariffs varying fare depend on both the behavior responses
according to the time of day. of the travelers and the way the revenues
from charges are spent. A congestion charge
Modern technical systems, especially should help to reduce traffic volumes and
GNSS/GPS, will enable all conceivable improve overall travel time and travel time
scheme principals. Therefore, they are the predictability within the network, but not
ultimate dream of traffic managers and to create extra funds for the government.
politicians who always ask for technically Because it is important that those who pay
most advanced solutions. But experience also benefit, the charge must be felt suffi-
suggests that satellite technology requires ciently such that people will react and the
costly investments, is very expensive to revenue should be spent for road infrastruc-
operate, and needs user compliance by ture, public transport, or even to reduce
VLPR. Especially for congestion charging in vehicle taxes, making charges paid deducti-
a city environment with a limited financial ble from income taxes, as is effectively done
room for maneuver, simpler technologies in Stockholm. As a result, citizens will drive
usually make for a better outcome, with less and are most likely better off. In Hanoi,
lower costs, lower risks, and a faster imple- public transport is in such a bad condition,
mentation (OECD 2010). This applies for that travelers have little opportunity other
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GUEST CONTRIBUTION
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RESEARCH REPORTS
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ITD ANNUAL REPORT 2011 I 2012
the other hand, as a result of the liberaliza- fact that spinning and weaving factories in
tion of capital imports and the world-wide China and other Asian producer countries
increased mobility of capital, Mali was also are able to exploit larger economies of scale
able to attract some foreign capital to make and have access to cheaper raw materials, it
use of the country’s relatively low unit labor does not seem realistic that Mali will be able
costs in the spinning and weaving industry. to attract the large investments obviously
necessary to expand cotton processing – at
One of the few fabric producers in Mali is least as long as the gap in unit labor costs
an integrated textile complex in the city of between Asian producers and West Africa
Ségou, a joint venture with a Chinese com- is not large enough to attract investment
pany. Another one is a former state-owned aimed at cost-cutting (Collier 2007). On the
company, which after having been aban- other hand, the existence of a large market
doned for several years has recently been in West Africa with special consumer de-
bought by an overseas Malian, and there mand (pagne, booboos) can be an asset also
is also a spinning mill financed with capital for foreign investors.
from Mauritius. Investment opportunities
promoted by the government of Mali Dairy, meat, and leather
include spinning, the production of loom-
state fabric and the manufacture of basin-
dyed cloth (Embassy 2010). Mali possesses one of the largest livestock
populations in West Africa. As a result of
Mali is a net exporter of cotton yarn and its steady increase over recent years, also
a net importer of cotton fabrics. Yarns are the domestic supply of fresh milk, meat,
exported to neighboring countries (Maurita- and hides and skins has also improved. As
nia, Burkina Faso, and Côte d‘Ivoire), and to animals are kept in extremely unfavorable
China. Cotton fabrics were mainly exported conditions, illness is widespread. As a result,
to Mauritania. In 2008, 80 per cent of the the quality of the traded hides and skins is
cotton fabrics imported from Mali were poor and exporting remains far below the
from China. country’s potential.
A recent SWOT analysis (MIGA 2006) men- Processing raw milk to pasteurized milk, cur-
tions low wage rates for unskilled and dled milk, yoghurt, butter, ghee, and cheese
skilled workers in the Malian textile industry takes place both in family-based, artisanal
but their poor availability as a characteristic small enterprises and in a few semi-industri-
of this industry, while the apparel industry al and industrial enterprises (LTA / IER 2005).
is said to be characterized by both, poor One of the main constraints for the smaller
availability and high wage rates for skilled milk-processing units is their low bacteriolo-
and unskilled workers. However, given the gical quality.
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RESEARCH REPORTS
Slaughter of livestock mostly occurs outside of the Manantali dam, which created Lake
of modern, controlled structures. Only a Manantali, also had a detrimental impact
fraction (25 per cent) of the total hides and on local fisheries (Bosshard 1999). Conse-
skins available enters the market, while the quently, the annual average consumption is
bulk of it is domestically processed. Tanning presently (2005) 8.7 kg, down from 15.1 kg a
is traditionally performed by female house- decade earlier. Nevertheless, fish still pro-
hold members. There are also a few industri- vides one third of animal proteins consumed
al tanneries. (LTA / IER 2005).
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ITD ANNUAL REPORT 2011 I 2012
Given the already observable overfishing, one quarter of all second-stage transformed
technically improved fishing technologies cereals), followed by couscous, monikuru,
do not seem to be a sustainable solution. and precooked fonio (LTA / IER 2005). Third
Furthermore, as fishing and processing are stage transformation includes the prepa-
organized on a family-based division of la- ration of flat bread, tacoula, didègué, and
bor, any industrialization of fishing may be mugufara as well as liquid and semi-liquid
detrimental to the social coherence. Given porridges (moni, seri; tô) as ingredients for
the labor-intensity of the present processes, domestic cooking.
more efficient techniques in the face of a li-
mited resource will spell employment losses Besides two larger companies, a considera-
even in the short run. ble number of small enterprises operate as
contract processors (customers bring grain
to be milled) along with a multitude of
Cereal processing
second and third stage transformers. Near-
ly three quarters of Mali’s agro-alimentary
Cereal crops are a major component of businesses are cereal transformers (LTA / IER
Mali’s agricultural production: Rice contri- 2005).
butes roughly one third, while maize, millet
and sorghum contribute one fifth each. Although wheat is not a major crop, con-
Cereals are also the major component of the tributing only 2 per cent to the total cereal
Mali diet. In urban areas, rice is the prefer- production, it has gained some relevance
red dish (40 per cent of daily food intake), due to an increased consumption in the
followed by sorghum and millet (together cities. Of a total wheat flour consumption
35 per cent). In rural areas, farmers consi- of approximately 70,000 tons in 2008, one
der rice as a cash crop rather than as a food half was imported in its non-processed form,
crop, whereby millet, sorghum, and fonio whereas one third was imported as flour
are the staple foods (Ember 2001). Despite (mainly from Senegal, Côte d’Ivoire, and
some progress in this respect, Mali is not yet France). Thus some untapped import substi-
self-sufficient in its cereal supply: In 2008, tuting market potential exists. The substi-
10 per cent of the rice consumption was tution of imports of flour for locally milled
imported. wheat might provide employment for 550
workers. One of the main problems, how-
Cereal processing is done in three stages: ever, is that due to impurities locally pro-
The first one includes the husking of rice, duced flour is considered of lesser quality
millet, sorghum, and fonio and the mil- compared to imported flour. Furthermore,
ling of maize and wheat. The second stage any promotion of wheat should consider
includes pre-cooking, especially of millet the fact that the nutritional value of white
and sorghum. Dèguè is the most important wheat flour is lower than that of unmilled
second stage product (constituting roughly
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ITD ANNUAL REPORT 2011 I 2012
The practice of mango and vegetable-leaf extension of production quantities and for a
desiccation has only recently been intro- constant high quality. Only a few enterprises
duced in the Sikasso and Koulikoro regions can be considered as producing near or at
(LTA / IER 2005). Indigenous West African industry-level. They are reported to produce
food plants which are processed include soft drinks only on the base of imported
jujube (ziziphus mauritiana) and néré (par- fruits and aromatic extracts. For the majority
kia biglobosa). Jujube is processed to snack of the Malians these products are consi-
foods. Néré seeds are processed by boiling, dered luxury goods (LTA / IER 2005).
cleaning, and fermenting to the popular
condiment soumbala. As néré seeds have Exclusively based on the very few large
become short in supply, substitutes include firms, exports of non-alcoholic beverages
soumbala made from other kinds of seeds, increased recently. Export destinations were
such as soybeans, as well as imported bouil- Guinea (70 per cent) and Côte d’Ivoire.
lon cubes, which, however, lack the proteins So far, processed fruits and vegetables have
and essential minerals of néré-based not been exported on a relevant scale. Food
soumbala. The processing of néré is safety standards are a major constraint.
considered to be highly profitable, but
access to peeling machinery is a bottleneck. Tobacco consumption is estimated to be 2.5
bn cigarettes per year. The only tobacco-pro-
In the 1990s, tomatoes were also processed ducing company in Mali, privatized in 2002,
on an industrial level by a parastatal. It pro- has a production capacity of 2 bn cigarettes,
duced 3.2 tons double-concentrated tomato but is utilized far below its capacity (L‘Essor,
puree but finally failed due to sales prices 26/01/2009) leaving tens of thousand of tons
lower than production costs, an insufficient of raw tobacco unused. Illegal imports are a
production capacity during the time of the main competitor.
tomato harvest, and consumers’ demanding
imported triple-concentrated puree (L‘Essor, Cashew nut processing
14/04/2003).
Cashew trees are planted in a number of
Juices, syrups, and confitures are produced districts around Sikasso and Bougouni,
with mango, dah rouge (hibiscus sabda- along Côte d’Ivoire and southern Burkina
riffa), ginger, and tamarind as the main borders; a secondary production area based
ingredients. Furthermore, zaban (saba sene- on old trees is located around Koulikoro.
galensis), guava, and tabacoumba (detarium Besides labor and land, few inputs are used,
microcarpum) are processed, albeit on a occasionally some insecticides (ACA 2007).
much smaller scale. The small transforma- The cashew trees bear the nuts and the
tion units mostly lack the production and apples. The latter ripen earlier than the nuts
quality-control equipment necessary for an and for this reason and due to their juicy
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RESEARCH REPORTS
pulp and fragile skin they are unsuitable for by cross-border co-operation or to produce
transport. However, they can be used for only for the premium segment of the final
syrups, juice, or marmalades. consumer market by applying a suitable pro-
cessing technique, such as the newly deve-
Approximately 12,000 small-sized farms loped, labor-intensive Indonesian cold state
produce an average of 3,500 tons of raw cashew shell-opening (Agropress 2006).
cashew nuts per year (MEIC / DNCC n.d. a)
along with some 120,000 tons of cashew The international marketing of organically
apples. Being harvested from February to grown cashew kernels could be facilitated
April, working-time allocation to cashews by the fact that chemical inputs to produc-
does not compete with main crops. The tion are already low – even if the present
trees also help to stabilize results from other low quality of the bulk of the nuts from
crops, as their tolerance against occasional Mali constitutes an impediment for this
droughts makes them instrumental in redu- option which cannot be overlooked (MEIC
cing soil erosion. For many Malian farmers, / DNCC n.d. a). Finally, cashew apples also
cashew nuts are the only source of cash have a still largely untapped potential to
income. be processed to durable products, both for
domestic consumption and for exports.
Raw cashew nuts have to be processed to
edible kernels. This is technically not trivial Shea nut processing
due to the fact that the nutshell contains
toxic oil (cardol), which has to be neutra- The West African shea (karité) tree grows
lized by way of roasting or water-damping. naturally in the dry savannah belt. Grinding
With the exception of a few micro-operators and cooking its fat-rich nuts allows the
located in Bamako with a total production separation of oil from shea butter. Usage
capacity of less than 0.1 per cent of the includes a wide variety of fields, such as
harvest and producing for retail in Bamako nutrition, soap, and cosmetic and pharma-
(ACA 2007), almost all nuts are exported to ceutical skin care. Shea butter can also be
India for final processing (UNCTAD 2007). a substitute for cocoa butter in chocolate.
Unfortunately, a targeted production of
As cashew nutshell liquid is mostly compo- shea nuts is difficult: New plants often only
sed of anacardic acids, processing cashew randomly germinate and a tree’s full yield
could provide scope for downstream indus- capacity is reached only after approximately
tries, both pharmacological and cosmetic. 50 years.
The present Malian production, however,
may be too small to meet the minimum ef- Mali’s production of shea nuts in 2008 was
ficient scale of processing standard qualities 190,000 tons, i.e. 24 per cent of the world
for competitive international markets. An production, second only to Nigeria (52 per
alternative is to exploit economies of scale cent). Estimates are that Mali presently
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ITD ANNUAL REPORT 2011 I 2012
makes use of only two thirds of its produc- reflecting the lack of consumer awareness
tion potential (LTA / IER 2005). This is even of the nutritional value and therapeutic
more extreme in exports: In 2003, Mali attributes of shea.
exported but 4,000 tons raw shea nuts (i.e.
3 per cent of total African exports) in In the past, various development projects
addition to 5,000 tons of shea butter. aimed at increasing both the quality and
quantity of shea butter production in Mali
Collecting and processing shea nuts provide by introducing mechanical presses to small-
seasonal employment and cash income for scale production units, but were mainly
about three million Malian women (where- unsuccessful mainly due to the arduousness
as traditionally men do not engage in the of work involved for the women (LTA / IER
shea nut business). The main constraints 2005) More recently, a number of initiati-
for an increased collection are that, as the ves, such as an UNIDO food processing pilot
shea trees are widespread, collection is only centre, have targeted the marketability of
small-scale, in a radius of a few kilometers Malian shea butter (UNIDO 2007).
around the village, and that shea nut col-
lection is in time-competition with other Given the fact that the shea tree’s occur-
work obligations for women during the rence is limited to Africa alone, shea
rainy season (June to September). provides a unique competitive advantage
for Mali. It should be pointed out, how-
Transformation of shea nuts to shea butter ever, that due to the botanical specifics, the
is usually organized by groups of women. In potential of shea processing is limited and
addition, there are three industrial enter- cannot be extended in the short to medium
prises processing shea nuts in Mali. How- term.
ever, all three enterprises have always been
far below their production capacity, both Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities,
due to the insufficient quantity and quality
of the raw material (LTA / IER 2005). Further- and threats
more, in household-based processing the
constraints include the unpredictability of Strengths of Mali’s agro-industrial sub-sector
product quality in addition to a low proces- include low unit labor costs in the textile in-
sing technology, an excessively long chain dustry, a large livestock population, a large
from producer to market, i.e. the inclusion freshwater fish producer, a large potential
of various levels of intermediaries, and a market for special cotton fabrics (booboo,
lack of market information (MEIC / DNCC pagne), and quasi-monopolies of African
n.d. b). Constraints on the domestic consu- producers (unique selling points): néré,
mer side can be seen in imported cheaper cashew, shea.
substitute products with a higher prestige,
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RESEARCH REPORTS
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ITD ANNUAL REPORT 2011 I 2012
outstanding was USD 1.4 bn in 2006, mainly expected to affect an economy’s attractive-
official bilateral and multilateral. The IMF ness to foreign investors) (UNCTAD 2009).
praises Mali for its “sound macroeconomic A comparison between these two rankings
policies” (IMF 2010): The target figure for reveals that Mali is above its potential. How-
the basic fiscal deficit for 2010 is 1.6 per cent ever, the figures are distorted as foreign
of GDP. Although still running huge current investment is concentrated in mining and
account deficit, buoyant gold exports have trade, while the manufacturing industry is
led to a greater-than-projected improve- only marginally targeted. Although legal
ment. Annual inflation is remaining at low barriers for FDI are small, including the fact
levels, 2.1 per cent. that foreign investors may have full owner-
ship of any new business according to the
(3) To support agriculture, the Malian go- Malian investment code (UNCTAD 2006),
vernment has resumed the practice of sub- the country is ranked only 153rd out of 183
sidizing inputs first in the rice sector (under countries in the Doing Business 2011 Report
a “Rice Initiative”), and then extending it (World Bank 2010), pointing to the fact that
to the support of wheat, maize, and cot- there is still a long way ahead.
ton. The subsidies are meant to be limited
in time and volume, and annual budgetary According to a number of studies summari-
cost shall not exceed an amount equivalent zed by AEO (AEO 2009), principal constraints
to 0.5 per cent of GDP in 2009 and 2010 include: a weak legal and regulatory frame-
(MEF 2009). The Malian government’s deve- work (including a high level of corruption)
lopment program is laid down in the Pover- and poor support for business despite the
ty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP). Inter existence of a host of institutions mandated
alia, it aims at creating 10,000 new jobs per with their development; an inefficient judi-
annum in the formal non-agricultural sector ciary system with little credibility; a complex
(AsDB 2005). In addition, the Malian govern- tax system; the almost non-existence of busi-
ment is committed to accelerating the de- ness support services, along with the high
centralization process within the framework prices charged by the few existing ones; and
of an institutional development plan, which the lack of qualified labor.
was adopted in 2004 (AsDB 2005).
With respect to the labor force it should be
(4) In 2007, Mali was ranked 74th out of mentioned that there is a “missing middle”
141 countries in the UNCTAD’s Inward FDI in the qualifications available in the labor
Performance Index (which ranks countries market, i.e. given a huge amount of
by the FDI they receive relative to their unskilled labor and a number of university
economic size), and 123rd out of 141 in the graduates especially in non-technical sub-
Inward FDI Potential Index (which identi- jects much too large for the country to be
fies several factors apart from market size absorbed in productive employment, the
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RESEARCH REPORTS
number of qualified technicians is very limi- cereals, vegetables, fruits and nuts) by
ted. Among 85 countries, Mali (along with setting and enforcing universal health and
Afghanistan) had the least equitable dis- hygiene standards;
tribution of education in the 1990s (World
upgrading the processing technology
Bank 2000, p. 59). This states the case for a
in compliance with the relative scarcity of
re-organization of the educational system
factors of production, i.e. targeting the
towards enhanced vocational training,
application of devices suitable for a labor-
which would also promise huge benefits for
abundant economy (e.g. in the cases of
the agro-industry sector.
fishing and cashew kernel processing,
imported machinery is typically labor-saving)
(5) Promotional activities for the agro-indus-
by providing targeted micro-credits and en-
tries include a multitude of organizations,
couraging the dissemination of appropriate
projects, and programs aimed at promoting
technology via technical training courses;
new processing technologies, improving the
reducing additional production costs
technical and organizational infrastructure,
which result from the relative backwardness
the dissemination of market information
in infrastructure, such as the particularly
and the participation in national and inter-
high costs for electricity, by moderate state
national trade fairs. More research will be
subsidies;
needed to assess the sustainability of these
endeavors, many of which do not seem to Demand side factors:
be continued beyond the actual project promoting national demand by redis-
durations. Given limitations due to the tributing income to the rural poor (whose
insufficient availability of trained person- demand structure is both geared towards
nel (evident from the extremely high wage products which are less import-intensive
premium on employment with internatio- and more labor-intensive products than the
nal organizations vis-à-vis employment in goods demanded by the urban middle class)
the private business sector), the absorption inter alia by a stronger de-centralizing of
capacity for project funds also seems a com- government-supported economic develop-
mon problem. ment initiatives;
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ITD ANNUAL REPORT 2011 I 2012
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ITD ANNUAL REPORT 2011 I 2012
whether it matters from a policy perspec- arises in situations where there are exter-
tive. nalities that the two parties could not have
solved differently (or with lower transaction
costs) than by using the platform as means
Airports as two-sided platforms?
of exchange. It is important to point out
Obviously it is very tempting to assert that here that the platform sells both parties
airports are two-sided platforms. As stated something that enables them to “come
in the introduction, airports bring together together” and to interact. With airports, this
passengers and airlines. Passengers are is not the case. When a passenger arrives at
attracted if they are offered a large number the airport to check-in, usually the ticket is
of destinations, frequent flights, choices of already purchased. The airport is not active-
different airlines, convenient schedules and ly seeking to bring airlines and passengers
so on. Airlines, on the other hand, are more together. Either the airlines already have a
likely to pick an airport as a point of opera- connection to the consumer (e.g. through
tion if a lot of passengers can be attracted their website) or a ticket agent or online
to fly to and from that airport. search and booking machines have brought
airline and passenger together. (In this case
Roche and Tirole (2003) define two-si- the ticket agent really is the two-sided plat-
dedness in such a way that the volume of form.) The airport is merely an input for the
transactions (output) fluctuates if the price airlines. Notwithstanding it is an essential
structure (relative prices between the two input, as the airport enables aircraft to land
groups) changes whereas the price level (de- and organizes passenger flows on behalf of
fined as the total revenues from both sides the airlines. Hence, the relationship bet-
of the platform) remains unaffected. If that ween passengers, airlines and airports is
does not hold true the market is said to be purely vertical. The only reason why airports
one-sided. It is not uncommon in two-sided might charge passengers directly in relation
market that one group will pay a zero price to the aeronautical product is when they
and only the other group has to pay for the charge passengers instead of airlines for any
product. passenger-related handling activities.
However, there is a difference between not If, for example, the airlines no longer pay
having to pay for something and not get- the airport for passenger handling processes
ting sold something. In the case of airports, but passengers have to pay themselves for
passengers pay no entry fee because they being processed through to their aircraft
are not getting sold anything by the airport instead, then, in this case, the basic verti-
in relation to the aeronautical product, i.e. cal relationship remains the same, but the
in relation to the actual flight. As Evans connection turns more into what Evans and
and Schmalensee (2007) point out in their Schmalensee (2007) call software platforms.
definition of two-sided markets, a platform Software platforms, like Windows or Apple,
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RESEARCH REPORTS
or videogame console developers are said thereby circumventing the platform’s pricing
to bring software developers and end-users scheme.
together, just as the airport is said to bring
passengers and airlines together. Yet that In setting their prices, both blade and the
assessment fails to recognize that, from the razor producers must recognize that they
consumer’s point of view, the products are sell complementary products. Whenever
what can be called perfect complements. blades are bought, the need to purchase a
In these cases, the consumer is forced to razor will be anticipated and is therefore
buy the input himself before buying the ex-ante internalized by the consumer. The
product that is actually consumed. Stated firms’ price setting rationale must consider
differently, the connection between the the vertical relationship between the razor
alleged platform and software developer is and razor blade departments and the com-
not independent of the connection between plementarity between their products. Two
developer and end-user, i.e. the connection separate firms would have to act in a similar
between the two customer groups of the way, the only difference being that coor-
alleged platform. Take, for example, a sce- dination might be more difficult and more
nario in which consumers have to buy razors than two firms might be involved. About
and razor blades from two separate com- the same would be true if airports simulta-
panies but the razor company holds patent neously charged passengers and airlines. In
rights for the blade system. They charge for this case, passengers and airlines would be
the razors and receive license fees from the required to buy the input factor “airport”.
blade producers. That kind of arrangement However, there are no externalities (other
does not make the blade producer a two-si- than vertical externalities) present in this
ded platform. The reason is that the product case. From the consumer’s view, the deci-
the razor producer sells to blade producers sion to buy the input “airport” is already
is not to enable blade producers and end reflected and internalized by the decision to
consumers to come together. For the blade buy an airline ticket and thus the demand
producers, the license is merely an input fac- function for airline tickets already reflects
tor. The costs for this input factor are (partly the demand for the input “airport”.
or completely) passed on to the consumers,
which cannot happen in two-sided markets. The role of non-aeronautical revenues
Going back to the example of the dating
agency, imagine that there was a partner- So far it has been argued that airports are
ship established and men were to find out not two-sided markets, but that the rela-
that they had paid more than their new tionship between airports and airlines is
partners. If men demanded compensatory purely vertical. Any externalities that may
payment from women, both parties could arise are resolved or remain unresolved
internalize their usage externalities ex-post, within this vertical structure.
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ITD ANNUAL REPORT 2011 I 2012
Yet, additionally airports usually sell various the overall price level between the two was
non-aeronautical products to passengers, kept constant, it still does not prove two-
such as food and beverages or clothes. sidedness because the outputs are different
Viewed that way, could the airport be a (passengers who shop and those who don’t).
two-sided platform?
Discussion and policy implications
Starkie (2001) discussed quite early the rela-
tionship between the two business streams, Considering the standard economic model
although he never explicitly argued that the of a multi-product monopolist (see for exam-
two products are complements, rather that ple Lipczynski et at, 2005), it can be seen
there are complementary revenues. Yet, the that depending on the cross-price elastici-
real question in the context of this section ties and economies of scope there might
is whether this connection is an example of be an incentive to charge a price for one of
a two-sided market. Here again one must the products below that what would have
go back and look at the underlying utility been charged for the product compared to a
function. When speaking about aeronauti- situation in which only one product was sold.
cal and non-aeronautical products, one must It could (theoretically) even be the case that
be aware that the former product is deman- one product is priced below marginal costs
ded by passengers who don’t shop and the or even at a negative price. The same could
latter by those who do. Hence, the group therefore be true for airports and their
of consumers is changed. Passengers who aeronautical and non-aeronautical products.
don’t shop simply come to the airport to fly, If there are scope economies and the main
whereas the passengers who shop also buy impact of the income effect works in such a
at the airport. Once a passenger decides to way that a price decrease in the aeronautical
shop, this is done not for the sake of flying, product boosts non-aeronautical demand
but for the sake of shopping. Therefore, one more than a price decrease in the non-aero-
moves to another utility function. There is nautical product would boost demand for
obviously no relation between airlines and the aeronautical product, there is an incen-
passengers who shop. Airlines do not be- tive to charge a lower price for the aeronau-
nefit from the presence of passengers who tical product and a higher price for the non-
shop and passengers who shop do not gain aeronautical products. In other words, under
from having a larger range of destinations the appropriate cost and demand assump-
and airlines at the airport. Thus the utility tions, there would be an effect just as Starkie
function does not exhibit any cross relation- (2001) described, which means that there
ships between the two groups. Moreover, would be an incentive for the airport to
the aforementioned definition by Roche lower the aeronautical prices (below the
/ Tirole (2003) does not apply. Even if the normal monopoly level) in order to boost
aeronautical output increased if the price of non-aeronautical revenues to maximize
non-aeronautical products was lowered and profits.
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Earlier this paper argued that externalities The implications for policy are that non-
might arise since airports and airlines are aeronautical revenues are important and
within a vertical structure. The downstream should be taken into account concerning
airlines pay charges to the upstream air- price regulation of airports. If, for example,
port for the provision of infrastructure and only aeronautical revenues are subject to
passenger and baggage handling processes. price regulation (and non-aeronautical reve-
Just as in any vertical structures this can give nues are not), this could have a detrimental
rise to double marginalization problems effect on non-aeronautical prices, which
(cf. Rey / Vergé, 2008). This problem arises might increase in the process and thus lead
because both the up-and-downstream levels to distortions in demand. On the other hand
maximize their profits individually instead Starkie’s (2001) argument might be valid
of jointly. Compared to a situation with a that price regulation is not at all warranted
vertically integrated monopoly, in the non- because the incentive to lower aeronauti-
integrated case final consumer prices would cal prices might suffice for airports not to
be lower and quantities larger. Ideally, the exploit their market power. This would be
airport would charge a price that is equal to true for airports with big non-aeronautical
its marginal costs, but since it sets its price demand and strong cross-price elasticities
above marginal costs – although the afore- between aeronautical and non-aeronauti-
mentioned complementarity effects could cal demand. With respect to the vertical
lessen and theoretically offset this effect constraints of airports, it should be kept in
– the downstream airlines receive a price mind that in a free market environment the
that sends the wrong incentives concerning up- and-downstream parties would have
their own price setting. The outcome is bad incentives to find optimal price structures
for airports, airlines and the consumers. (such as two-part prices) on their own.
Furthermore, efforts to increase demand In the case of airports, the usual practice is
by one party will also be beneficial for the to have ex-ante posted, aircraft weight
other party, but the former will receive no based landing charges, which are not able
compensation from the latter. One might to avoid, for example, double marginaliza-
think of an airline at a particular airport tion. However, this business practice is chan-
increasing its quality, network or reliability. ging. At Sydney airport, for example, light
If so, then more passengers are likely to use handed regulation has enabled the airport
that airline and consequently more passen- to change its pricing policy drastically and it
gers use that airport, which will experience now strikes individual and secret contracts
a windfall in profits (also through non-aero- with the airlines operating at that airport
nautical revenues). Yet, the airline receives (see, for example, Schuster, 2009). Yet there
no compensation for its efforts from the are more and more airports that use con-
airport. tracts and negotiated prices as their domi-
nant business practice to cooperate with
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ITD ANNUAL REPORT 2011 I 2012
airlines. Regulatory schemes should enable this is only achieved under certain assump-
airports and airlines to find optimal price tions (complementarity effects must work
structures that help vertical coordination strongly in one particular direction and/or
and oversight should prevent restrictive and strong economies in production must be
abusive behavior. present) and that the scope of this effect
could be different from airport to airport
(depending largely on the demand para-
Conclusion
meters). Although aeronautical and non-
Problems that arise in vertical structures, aeronautical activities of airports are not an
such as double marginalization, are usually example of a two-sided market, the connec-
solved differently from industry to industry tion between the two still has similar effects
and, for example, non-linear tariffs are not and has implications regarding the pricing
uncommon. In the airport industry the prac- of the two products.
tice has become to strike individual deals
with airlines that establish the terms of use The concept of two-sided markets does not
and the pricing system, which may include seem to enrich the discussion regarding
two-part prices (see Schuster, 2009). Airports airport regulation and competition. Yet, the
and airlines should be allowed to find their connection between aeronautical and non-
own ways to internalize the vertical externa- aeronautical activities and the vertical coor-
lities that arise because of their business ac- dination effects do matter and they matter
tivities. Restrictive price regulation as well as in a way that is quite similar to what a two-
public ownership that is not geared towards sided market analysis would have concluded
commercial practices potentially hinder such if it were applicable, yet the concept itself
vertical coordination strategies. is not needed for analysis. Instead the tools
needed to analyze airport economics are al-
Furthermore, it was argued that the con- ready at hand, but they need to be applied
nection between aeronautical and non- in a correct manner. The arguments brought
aeronautical activities is not an example of a forward in the previous section indicate
two-sided market. The implications from the that the need for regulation can be very
standard model a multi-product monopolist case-specific and should take into account
are very similar, if not identical, to those by vertical coordination effects.
Starkie (2001) and Morrison (2009). They
argued that profit maximizing airports have
a built-in tendency to lower the price for
the aeronautical product below the point
they would have charged in the absence of
the connection to the non-aeronautical side
of the business. This paper pointed out that
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ITD ANNUAL REPORT 2011 I 2012
Another serious problem highlighted in the cheap, low grade foreign fuels and exports
literature is the prevalence of traffic acci- high quality sweet crude oil, because Viet-
dents in Vietnam. Up until 2007, according nam lacks the capabilities to refine its sweet
to the World Health Organization (WHO crude. According to Vietnamese Vehicle
2010), Vietnam did not have helmet wear- Manufacturers Association (VVMA) cheap
ing requirements for motorcyclists. In 2007, fuel hurts vehicle engines. Low grade fuel
a law was implemented, accompanied by also provides worse fuel economy and con-
heavy advertising and enforcement efforts. tributes to greater vehicle emissions.
Growth of traffic related accidents has since
stalled. A high concentration of drivers con- The main problem for inland waterways is
tributes to congestion during peak commu- neglect on the part of government by way
ting hours. The Government of Vietnam has of under-funding and under-prioritizing.
sought to address the matter by restricting Vietnam could shift some of its human and
motorcycle usage, but the measures have material traffic flows onto inland water-
been considered a failure by the Asian Deve- ways, but the possibility has largely not
lopment Bank. been pursued. At present the priority for
the government of Vietnam is to upgrade
Transport policy for road transport can be loading facilities along its main rivers.
described in parts to be inconsistent. Policy Inland waterways could be used for feeder
makers have made exceptions for motor- traffic in the form of commuter ferry
cyclists (the majority of road users), while services freight transport by boat, but that
seeking to regulate car. This has served to would require greater investment into this
contradict the base aims of the government. particular mode of transport.
As of 2007 cars are supposed to be subject
to fuel and emission standards comparable Rail transport in Vietnam largely focuses
to EURO-2 norms. Motorcycles appear to on North-South transit between Hanoi and
have been exempted from this. Given that Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC). Smaller regional
Vietnam has a much greater share of mo- rail links are said to exist, but metropolitan
torcycle users (approximately 500 per 1000 rail transport has not been realized as of
persons) than car owners (13.5 per 1000 yet. Currently, a metropolitan rail transport
persons) the policy is unable to accomplish project is being considered for Hanoi, aided
what it is meant to, namely contribute to by the French government.
better air quality and fuel usage.
Town planning problems
An example for adverse policy maker be-
havior and capability restraints would be Key problems faced by Vietnamese cities are
fuel quality in Vietnam, which is tied to fuel (1) infrastructure related problems, (2) com-
economy and emissions. Vietnam imports munal waste management and (3) slums.
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The high concentration of urban vehicles sets policy and goals and delegates the
contributes to rapid road infrastructure de- implementation to lower levels of govern-
gradation. Municipal waste management is ment. According to the World Bank (2006)
unsafe and not sustainable. Sewage systems the planning process in Vietnam is reminis-
are aging and in need repair and expansion. cent of wish lists. Each agency puts forward
Air and water pollution is prevalent. Muni- a range of desired projects, which then are
cipal waste management is unsafe in terms either granted or denied funding. These lists
of unchecked dumping. Waste management do not necessarily reflect the needs of the
facilities are not setup in a manner that agency. Agencies compete for funds. The
addresses potential groundwater contami- agency that attracts the most funds holds
nation. Groundwater contamination in turn the greatest relative prestige.
may contribute to water borne skin and
respiratory diseases. When funding reflects desires rather than
needs agencies may not be adequately
Another issue faced by municipalities are funded, either under- or over-funded. Funds
slums. According to UN Habitat, growth of may not be optimally allocated. The World
urban areas (app. 3 per cent per annum) Bank further cites weakness on the part of
exceeds the growth rate of slums (app. 1 per Vietnam in implementation. Policy may be
cent), but estimates a slum-to-urban ratio of determined by the central government, but
47 per cent. Slums are characterized by re- implementation is left to lower levels of
duced access to safe drinking water, durable government. This ties in with coordination
housing and sanitation, as well as a host of and information related problems. This also
social problems such as potential for crime. applies more directly to ongoing govern-
ment projects. Lack of oversight, accounta-
The main challenge for municipalities, bility, reporting and intervention, when and
aside from managing traffic flows and where needed, contributes to time- and cost
congestion, is infrastructure investment. overruns.
Infrastructure at present is primarily funded
by municipalities. Sustainable municipal In terms of funding Vietnam spent 4.5 per
planning must address funding issues by cent of its GDP on transport between 2001
seeking to improve access to non-govern- and 2005, which is a comparatively high per
ment (here: central government) funding. centage by international standards
(2 to 3 per cent). The majority of these
expenditures (> 80 per cent of total) were
Institutional problems
spent on road transport, more specifically
The present planning process in Vietnam is on the building of new roads. One may
mostly characterized by a top-down safely conclude that the Government of
approach, wherein the central government Vietnam exhibits a mode bias, in the form
of preference, toward road transport.
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ITD ANNUAL REPORT 2011 I 2012
Perspectives
Vietnam currently finances its expenditures
on transport through government revenues
and official development assistance. The
World Bank and the Asian Development
Bank view this method of funding as un-
sustainable and recommend drawing on
private sector stakeholders, i.e. the busi-
ness community and the population for
funding assistance. Involving stakeholders
may increase public support of government
strategies, when these broadly overlap with
the interest of the public and the business
community.
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ITD ANNUAL REPORT 2011 I 2012
and cargo. The non-aeronautical side may ports that are influenced by external effects
operate car parking facilities, restaurants or such as geographical and environmental
retail. A number of quantitative techniques constraints. Instead, frontier approaches are
have emerged that assess the productivity more appropriate to estimate an efficient
and efficiency of decision making units production or cost frontier.
(DMU). One-dimensional approaches are
the simplest form to assess the productivity Parametric stochastic frontier analysis (SFA)
by dividing one output by one input. Being assesses the efficiency utilizing econometric
skeptical towards sophisticated overall analysis. The parameters of a production or
quantitative techniques, airport managers cost function are estimated utilizing regres-
mostly prefer partial productivity measures. sion analysis or maximum likelihood estima-
However, this measure should be treated tion. The model of the stochastic production
with caution. As discussed by Forsyth et frontier was first introduced by Aigner,
al. (1986), partial measures should only be Lovell and Schmidt (1977) and independent-
applied if data for overall measures is not ly by Meeusen and van den Broeck (1977).
available. Results obtained from partial It allows for a separation of the unobserv-
measures can mislead as they fail to capture able random error from technical ineffi-
substitution effects between different in- ciency based on assumptions as to the
puts. In order to receive an overall picture of distribu-tional forms of the efficiency
the airport’s performance multi-dimensional function and error term.
approaches should be applied instead.
Based on the initial cross-section model
Three well-documented quantitative me- by Aigner, Lovell and Schmidt, panel data
thods have often been applied to analyze model were proposed that allow for time-
the productivity and efficiency of govern- invariant and time varying inefficiencies
ment and private enterprises. A non-para- (Pitt and Lee 1981; Battese and Coelli 1992).
metric, index number approach has been To further capture unobserved cross-firm he-
used to measure the total factor produc- terogeneity which is not related to technical
tivity (Caves, Christensen and Diewert inefficiency Greene (2005) introduced an ad-
1982a). The application of index-number ditional model to shift time-invariant effects
approaches is most common in measuring to unobserved heterogeneity whereas the
price and quantity changes over time; the inefficiency term varies over time.
consumer price index (CPI) is the most po-
pular economic indicator. However, in order Observed heterogeneity such as geogra-
to aggregate multiple inputs and outputs phical differences or ownership forms is
to an index, market prices are required as integrated in the functional form, either
weights. Furthermore, the measurement of assuming to affect the production technolo-
indices assumes that all units operate effici- gy or the inefficiency. Advanced models that
ently, which is likely to be untrue for air- account for different production technolo-
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gies across units have recently been develo- or outputs equi-proportionally. In order
ped including the latent class model by Orea to rank efficient airports and improve the
and Kumbhakar (2004) which clusters the discriminatory power of efficiency estimates,
data into different groups and then esti- Andersen and Petersen (1993) introduced
mates the frontiers separately. Although SFA the super-efficiency model where airports
benefits from disentangling random noise with rather unique input-output combina-
from managerial inefficiency prior assump- tions receive excessively high rankings and
tions on their separation may heavily affect are identified as outliers. A sophisticated
the results (Stone 2002). approach to reduce the curse of dimensio-
nality is principal component analysis (PCA)
Non-parametric data envelopment analysis combined with DEA. PCA-DEA is applied to
(DEA) measures the relative efficiency of replace the original inputs and/or outputs
DMUs utilizing multiple inputs and out- with a smaller group of principle compo-
puts. DEA was first published in Charnes et nents (PCs), which explain the variance
al. (1978) under the assumption of con- structure of a matrix of data through linear
stant returns-to-scale and was extended combinations of variables with minimal
by Banker et al. (1984) to include variable information loss (Adler and Golany 2001,
returns-to-scale. With linear programming, 2002).
it compares each DMU to the efficient set of
observations, with similar input and output Panel data models assess productivity and
ratios, and assumes neither a specific func- efficiency changes over time. The most
tional form for the production function nor popular tool is the Malmquist index which
the inefficiency distribution. This non-para- was introduced by Caves, Christensen and
metric approach solves the linear program- Diewert (1982b). Utilizing DEA with distance
ming formulation per DMU and the weights functions the approach compares two adja-
assigned to each linear aggregation are the cent time periods with each other. Different
results of the corresponding linear program. to econometric techniques non-parametric
The weights are chosen in order to show approaches does not allow for statistical
the specific DMU in as positive a light as inference. In order to examine the sensitivity
possible, under the restriction that no other of the estimated frontier bootstrapping, a
DMU, analyzed under the same weights, is re-sampling technique developed by Efron
more than 100% efficient. Consequently, (1979), has been introduced to DEA by Simar
a Pareto frontier is attained, marked by and Wilson (1998, 2000).
specific DMUs on the boundary envelope of
input-output variable space. Numerous studies explain efficiency dif-
ferences across airports with factors be-
Over the years, the basic model has been yond managerial control which is crucial
continuously developed. Non-radial mo- for airports typically enjoying uniqueness.
dels remove restrictions to optimize inputs Among other factors, ownership forms, hub
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ITD ANNUAL REPORT 2011 I 2012
or size effects and the location are assumed The wave of airport privatizations in the
to substantially impact the efficiency results. past two decades motivated the assessment
Whereas parametric techniques integrate of its empirical effects however, as in other
environmental variables in the production industries, the results were rather inconclu-
or cost function, DEA utilizes a two-stage sive (Megginson and Netter 2001). Parker
approach where the first-stage efficiency (1999) utilizes DEA on the British airports
estimates are regressed against a set of owned by the BAA covering a period pre-
environmental variables in a second step and post privatization. No evidence is found
in order to evaluate their significance. The that full privatization improves technical ef-
advantage of second-stage approaches is ficiency. In contrast, Yokomi (2005) reviews
that environmental variables are not inclu- six BAA airports from 1975 to 2001 utilizing
ded in the DEA model, hence not affecting Malmquist DEA. As opposed to Parker,
the discriminatory power of the first stage. Yokomi find that the BAA airports exhibit
However, as with all parametric approaches, positive changes in efficiency and technolo-
it may require the specification of a functio- gy as a result of the privatization.
nal form.
The effects of ownership on efficiency have
further been analyzed by comparing dif-
Benchmarking of airports:
ferent ownership forms. Barros and Dieke
a review of previous research (2007) analyze 31 Italian airports using DEA
in the first stage and Mann-Whitney hypo-
Within academic benchmarking a number thesis testing in the second stage, revealing
of studies emerged since the late nineties that private airports operate more efficient-
to assess the productivity and efficiency of ly than their partially private counterparts.
airports with DEA, SFA and index number Lin and Hong (2006) find no connection
TFP. To-date DEA proved to be the dominant between ownership form and efficiency
application requiring neither prior assump- after analyzing a dataset of worldwide
tions on the functional form nor price airports utilizing DEA and hypothesis
information to aggregate multiple inputs testing.
and outputs. Common objectives of empiri- Oum et al. (2006) assess a sample of 100
cal studies are the examination of efficiency airports worldwide utilizing variable factor
changes over time or aiming to explain ef- productivity and reach the conclusion that
ficiency differences with exogenous factors the productivity of a public corporation is
and thereby accounting for the heterogene- not statistically different from that of a
ous character of airports. Especially the lat- major private airport.
ter receives increasing importance in order However, airports with major public shares
to provide consistent efficiency estimates. or multiple government involvement appear
Nevertheless, previous research indicates to operate significantly less efficiently than
inconsistencies among the results thereby other ownership forms.
encouraging for future research.
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Very often, changes in ownership form are activities may vary among the airports. Lum-
accompanied by changes towards light- py investments which are typical for airports
handed economic regulation and complicate efficiency comparisons when
restructuring processes. Consequently, airports are in different life cycles (Forsyth
changes in efficiency may be attributable 2000). Nevertheless, following the Econo-
to multiple explanations in addition to the mist Peter Drucker ’what you cannot measu-
change in ownership structure. Following re, you cannot manage’ airport benchmar-
Vickers and Yarrow (1991) privatization is king received increasing interest by various
not a universal solution and should not be airport stakeholders.
separated from the economics of compe-
tition and regulation which are all deter- Airport benchmarking may be utilized for
minants of corporate incentives. managerial purposes. Airport managers
compare overall or partial processes such
as ground handling activities with poten-
Users of airport benchmarking
tial competitors or best-practice airports in
Although benchmarking was already ap- order to develop new strategies. In order to
plied in other transport sectors and regu- avoid a comparison of apples and oranges,
lated utilities in the nineteen seventies, Frankfurt may include other European hubs
it only became important in the airport such as Amsterdam, London-Heathrow, Paris
industry twenty years later. Graham (2005) or outstanding airports worldwide such as
argues that the increasing interest in airport Hong Kong, Singapore and Dubai rather
benchmarking is a result of the changes in than nearby airports in their scope of com-
ownership and the liberalization, commer- parison (Tretheway and Kincaid 2006).
cialization and globalization trends which
have influenced airport business growth, Customers, shareholders and investors are
complexity and competitiveness. interested in benchmarking as decision-
making instrument. Airlines as the inter-
The late interest may also be explained mediate between airports and passengers
with the unique character of airports that prefer efficient airports at low costs and
challenges comparability. Some airports are high service standards with low delays.
heavily affected by factors that are beyond Moreover, passengers prefer airports with
managerial control such as geographical low queue lengths that are located close to
constraints, weather conditions and political the city centre and are equipped with shop-
decisions. Furthermore, a heterogeneous ping and entertainment facilities. Private
mix of services is offered by airports. Some shareholders and investors expect high and
are highly integrated and offer handling rapid returns on their investments.
services whereas other outsourced this acti-
vity to independent providers. In addition, National and regional governments mostly
the increasing importance of commercial assess the airports performance from an
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ITD ANNUAL REPORT 2011 I 2012
economic perspective. They may examine However, the airport industry proves to be
the effects of policy changes, privatization highly affected by external heterogeneities
or regulation processes. Further, to promote that are at least in the short-term beyond
the region, municipalities need competitive managerial control. Hence, meaningful
airports to attract passengers and business comparison among airports proved to be a
opportunities (Francis et al. 2002). difficult task.
Also known as yardstick competition, bench- The aim of this paper was to discuss impor-
marking may serve for regulatory purposes tance of benchmarking and its application
in order to compare the cost level of identi- to airports. The comprehensive overview of
cal firms and determining the price of pas- previous studies suggests a rather unclear
senger and landing charges. The intention is definition of the inputs and outputs that de-
to stimulate an airport to operate efficiently fine the production process to-date and may
(Shleifer 1985). Whereas yardstick compe- encourage airport stakeholders and acade-
tition evolved to a standardized approach mics for future research. The comparison
in the British water and railway industry it of empirical findings may give recommen-
has rarely been applied to airports to-date dations to airport managers as on commer-
(Reinhold et al. 2010). The Civil Aviation cialization and restructuring (in particular
Authority (CAA) in the UK explains this ground handling); both proving to increase
reluctance with the heterogeneous cha- the airports’ efficiency.
racter of airports and the challenge to find
appropriate data (CAA 2000). Beyond doubt, airport benchmarking recei-
ved increasing importance since the libe-
In order to improve the use of benchmark- ralization of the aviation industry and will
ing and provide a valuable instrument for remain an important instrument for airport
managers, governments, regulators and regulatory purposes, managers and political
other stakeholders, academic research con- decisions. However, communication
tinuously aims to refine methods to assess between management, research and policy
the productivity and efficiency which will be in the future is crucial to further improve
outlined below. the application of airport benchmarking.
Concluding Remarks
With the deregulation of the aviation indus-
try, airport benchmarking became an impor-
tant instrument for airports, customers and
political institutions. In order to improve its
application, a number of academic studies
emerged during the last two decades.
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Regulation of Airports:
What can India learn from Germany?
by Hans-Martin Niemeier
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German and Indian airports – stake in a German airport and of the main
airports only Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Ham-
a quick overview burg and Hannover are partially privatised.
Also India has been quite hesitant to fully
This chapter does not analyse passenger
privatise its airports, but have at least given
numbers, growth and other important as-
a majority share to the private sector. In
pects. In this regard the airports of the two
1999 the airport of Cochin was privatised, in
countries differ substantially. For example,
2004 Bangalore and Hyderabad and finally
Frankfurt Airport serves about as many
in 2006 Delhi and Mumbai. 74 % are hold by
passengers as the two largest India airports
private investors among them Zürich airport
of Delhi and Mumbai together. More im-
and Fraport. The state owned Airport
portant are the similarities and differences
Authority of India still holds a share of 26
in regard to competition and regulation
per cent in these airports and manages
and to public versus private ownership. The
about 90 airports (Graham, 2008).
latter will be discussed in turn.
Competition and Regulation. From an
Ownership. Germany and India differ to
economic viewpoint, ex-ante regulation is
some extent in their response to the wave
justified if an industry has persistent market
of privatisation of airports which started 25
power and regulation increases economic
years ago. Although the first privatisation
welfare. The absence of any close substitute
of a (major) airport occurred in 1987, when
due to barriers of entry creates persistent
the British government privatised the three
market power. This might be due to legal
London airports together with the BAA’s
and planning restrictions leading to a lack
Scottish airports, the trend to privatise
of attractive locations or to a production
airports took off a few years later in the mid
technology of a natural monopoly characte-
90s. BAA’s performance and its rising share
rized by a combination of economies of
prices were widely seen as a success, making
scale and scope and sunk cost. The latter is
it a kind of role model for the privatisation
due to the fact that assets are highly specific
of airports. Most importantly, the relative-
and cannot be easily redeployed.
ly stable and high profitability of airports
made them an attractive object for investors
Regarding the strength of competition, Ger-
to buy and for governments to sell. Germa-
many and India differ substantially. In India
ny has been reluctant to immediately follow
there is little scope for direct competition
the trend of privatisation. In the mid-nine-
between airports as catchment areas do not
ties a plan was proposed to build a new
overlap. Competition from new entrants will
fully privatised Berlin airport. The entire
also be rather ineffective. This is largely due
project had a number of setbacks and had
to the policy of the Government of India not
been delayed by many political scandals. Fi-
to allow any new airport to be built within
nally, privatisation was given up. Up to now
150 kms distance of an existing airport.
no private investor has acquired a majority
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This policy gives only room for hub compe- Regulatory institutions. Regulatory institutions
tition and competition for base of aircraft. should fulfil the following criteria (Niemeier,
Both types of competition are most likely 2010):
insufficient to reduce the market power
(Forsyth and Niemeier, 2011). legislative mandate from elected
legislature;
Germany has roughly 20 international air-
independence and accountability to
ports and about 30 regional airports. It has
democratic bodies. The function of regu-
a relative high density of airports compared
lator and ownership should be separated.
to India and also to most EU countries. In
Parliament should control the regulator if
some local markets like North Rhine West-
he fulfils its statutory obligations.
phalia, airports are so close to each other
It should not intervene directly in
that airports are good substitutes. In other
day-to-day business;
regional markets, for example Hamburg or
Berlin, established airports have a local mo- the regulation should be a fair,
nopoly. According to Malina (2010) nearly accessible and open process;
half of the 35 German airports face substan- the legislative mandate is efficiently
tial competition (among them Düsseldorf), implemented without high bureaucratic
while the other half has substantial market costs.
power among them (Berlin, Frankfurt, Ham-
burg, Munich and Stuttgart). In respect to these criteria German airport
regulation does not perform well. The fede-
In short, in both countries airports become ral states actually regulate charges, but the
more commercialised and due to partial Department of Transport (DoT) can inter-
privatisation (in the case of India with a vene. Regulation by the states creates pe-
majority share) more profit orientated. In culiar problems because the states also own
both countries at least some airports, espe- airports. It has lead Stefan Schulte (Fraport)
cially the major ones, have persistent market to adopt a very peculiar way of defining
power so that the question arises how to independence: “As for Frankfurt Airport,
regulate these airports. the Hesse Ministry of Economics, Transport,
Urban and Regional Development (HM-
WVL) – which is the responsible government
Regulation of airports entity for aviation – is clearly separated and
acts independently from the Hesse Ministry
In the following the discussion is confined to of Finance, which represents the state’s 30
two key aspects of regulation, namely how per cent shareholder interest in Fraport.,
well the regulatory institutions are designed 2009, p. 8) What Schulte calls independency
and what kind of incentives are set. is usually called dependency or in economic
terms “regulatory capture” (Stigler, 1971).
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ITD ANNUAL REPORT 2011 I 2012
The users of an airport are consulted, but Regulatory incentives. The central problem for
the users have a weak position, because the regulation is that the regulator has asym-
reasons for approval or disapproval of a de- metric information about the demand and
cision are neither made public to the airlines cost functions and that the regulator must
nor to the general public. design a contract to set incentives for the
regulated firm. While high powered regula-
Contrary to Germany, India has not only tion sets incentives for cost reductions and
privatised airports but has also established productive efficiency and an efficient price
an independent regulator. Airports Econo- structure, low powered regulation does not.
mic Regulatory Authority of India (AERA) There are currently two regulatory forms
is an authority separated from ministries practised.
owning or managing fully or partly public
airports. AERA regulates 14 airports out of The first one in cost based regulation. The
89 operational civil airports with a passen- vast majority of authorities in Europe regu-
ger throughput of more than 1.5 million. late airport charges according to principles
The chairperson and members of AERA can of cost relatedness. The charges should
be only be removed from office in cases of a create just enough revenues to cover total
proven abuse of their position or physically costs including the depreciation of capi-
or mentally incapability. AERA is accounta- tal and a normal rate of return on capital.
ble to the Parliament. Among other things, There are two problems with cost based
accounts of the Authority certified by the regulation: Firstly, incentives are set for cost-
Comptroller and Auditor General of India padding leading to productive inefficiency.
together with the Audit Report have to be Secondly, cost based leads to an inefficient
annually laid before each House of Par- price structure. Under cost based regulation
liament on an annual basis. Furthermore, the airport has no incentive to adopt peak
airports, airlines and other users have the pricing, but instead may overprice off-peak
right to appeal against regulatory decisions demand and under-price peak demand.
by being able to take the regulator to court.
India has established a specially constituted The alternative to cost based regulation
Appellate Tribunal which is headed by a is price cap regulation. A price caps sets
former Judge of the Supreme Court of India. charges over a certain period in accordance
with the rate of inflation (PRI) minus pro-
In summary, the regulatory institutions in ductivity gains (X). Unlike cost based regula-
India are well designed and superior to tion, price caps do not regulate profits, but
Germany and the majority of European set incentives to cost reduction. The gains
countries which with the notable exceptions from cost reduction can be kept by the re-
of Austria, Ireland, the Netherlands, and the gulated airport within the regulation period
United Kingdom have dependent regula- and might be then passed to the users via
tors. lower charges.
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Pure and hybrid price caps differ in the way If India will go in this direction regulation
that the X is set in the price cap formula. will become similar ineffective as in
The X should reflect the productivity growth Germany although even such a system is still
of the regulated industry in excess of the superior because it will be more transparent
rest of the competitive industry. Pure price and cost padding will not as easily achieved.
caps set the X without reference to the costs
of the regulated firm by benchmarking Summary
while hybrid set the X with reference to the
regulated cost base. Hybrid price caps The answer to the question what can India
provide less incentives for cost reductions learn from German airport regulation is
as for e.g. the regulated could be a high simple. It can learn a lot, namely how to
cost firm at the regulated period in order to avoid regulatory capture and failure. The
raise prices and profits. German regulatory regime sets incentives
for inefficiency and rent seeking. It does not
Legally, the German regulatory system does guarantee a fair process of regulation and it
not define exactly how airport charges must will create tensions between airlines and air-
be regulated. But cost based regulation has ports which easily can lead to high transac-
been a common practice for the last two de- tion costs. India can avoid this and obviously
cades and only Hamburg airport is currently is heading in the right direction in particular
price capped. The prevalence of traditional if it continues to price cap and avoids cost
cost based regulation has strong negative based regulation.
effects on efficiency. Regulation in Germany
sets systematically incentives for inefficient
provision and management of airports Acknowledgements
resulting in too high costs for airlines and an
I am grateful to Peter Forsyth and Mark
inefficient use of existing capacity
Winzler for comments on earlier version.
(Niemeier, 2009).
The responsibility for any remaining short-
comings remains the author’s.
Indian regulation has reformed its airport
regulation towards incentive regulation by
adopting a hybrid price cap model. How-
ever, reforms are usually piecemeal and this
is also the case with the current regulatory
approach in India. One of the of problems
to be addressed in the near future is how to
avoid that the hybrid cost based system will
be applied to mechanically so that it be-
comes a forward looking cost based regu-
lation (see on this Forsyth and Niemeier,
2011).
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References
Forsyth. P. / Niemeier, H.-M. (2011), Assessment of the
regulatory philosophy of Airports Economic Regulatory
Authority of India (AERA), mimeo, Bremen
Graham, A. (2008), Managing airports an international
perspective, 3rd edition, Amsterdam Elsevier
Malina, R. (2010), Competition in the German airport
market – An empirical investigation, in P. Forsyth, D.
Gillen, J. Müller, H. M. Niemeier (eds.), Competition in
European Airports, Ashgate, Aldershot, pp. 239- 260
Niemeier, H-M. (2009), Economy Regulation of Large
Airports: Status Quo and Options for Reform, Paper
given at the Workshop Gateway Airport Investment &
Development of Airline Services for a Global Economy
at the International Transport Forum Leipzig Congress
Centre, Germany 26 May 2009
Niemeier, H-M. (2010), Effective Regulatory Institutions
for Air Transport – A European Perspective, Paper
prepared for the Round Table on Effective Regulatory
Institutions: The Regulator’s Role in the Policy process”
of the OECD/ITF Transport Research Centre Dec. 2 and
3, 2010 Paris
Schulte, S. (2009), Financing Airport Infrastructure
– the Fraport Perspective, paper for the International
Transport Forum 2009, 26-29 May 2009, Leipzig
Stigler, G. (1971), The Theory of Economic Regulation,
Bell Journal of Economics 2 (1), 3-21
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The key factor in offering a route is the cost was the first to compare airline data from
of the flight. Not only the total cost of the eight European countries. He found, that
flight, but the marginal cost of an additio- the market structure has no significant in-
nal seat, an additional passenger is very im- fluence on the ticket price for leisure
portant. If there is perfect competition, the passengers. Peters (2003) compared six US
marginal cost should be equal the price of merger cases from the 1980´s and showed
the airline ticket. The fewer competitors we how the post merger prices were developed.
have, the more concentrated is the industry. He suggested – as first in the literature –
High concentration is described with higher using cross-price elasticity and concluded
market shares, which can harm passengers if that actual price increases were definitely
the airlines have significant market power. higher, than the predicted prices with all
On the other side, concentration can be po- of the available economic models. Kwoka
sitive, since the merged airlines have higher and Shumilkina (2008) analyzed the USAir
economies of scale and traffic density. A big (now US Airways) – Piedmont Airlines case
airline with cost efficiencies can keep the from 1987. The authors showed that air
marginal costs lower, offer cheaper tickets fares increased by 10-12 per cent on over-
and benefit the passengers. lapping routes. They also proved that there
is another new anti-competitive effect of
The main part of the literature is concerning mergers, the incumbent pricing. This allows
with price changes after merger. Werden, the merged airlines to deter entry and raise
Joskow and Johnson (1991) compared the the prices by 5-6 per cent on affected routes
first US merger cases (NW-RC and TW-OZ) by eliminate of potential competition.
and found evidence of the increased fares
from 1985 to 1987, fares increased by 5.6 While airlines always benefit from the mer-
per cent on the overlap market. Kim and ger (increased producer surplus), consumers
Singal (1993) compared 14 US airline mer- might be worse off. The purpose of the
ger cases in the period of 1985-1988. The European competition policy is to maintain
authors found that in this time the merged competition and not to harm consumers.
airlines increased fares by 9.44 per cent Morrison and Winston (1989) analyzed six
compared to other routes unaffected by the US merger cases from the welfare point of
merger. Evans and Kessides (1994) analyzed view. The authors appointed that if there
collusive multimarket contracts among 33 had not been an extended Frequent Flyer
US airlines during 1984-1988. The authors Program, all of the mergers would harm the
concluded that if the structure moves from passengers, by around annual $335 million.
the monopoly situation to a duopoly, prices If the competition policy focuses only on
fall by 11 per cent, but from the four-airline price effects, they will always find proves
to the five-airline oligopoly the change in again the merger. Brueckner and Pels (2005)
prices is only 1.1 per cent. Carlsson (2002) examined the European airline mergers and
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alliances and their effects on consumer wel- authors found that this merger had a “total
fare. The conclusion shows that the effects annual consumer benefit … of USD 3.54
of the analyzed merger (KLM/Air France) to USD 4.79 million.” However, one should
were anticompetitive. The overall decrease point out that this case happened before
in consumer surplus was even higher than the deregulation.
the increase in producer surplus due to effi-
ciency gains. EU Commission decisions in the light
Werden, Joskow and Johnson (1991) mea- of the literature
sured the market share on a new way: taken
into account not only incumbents (previous In July 2002, the European Commission
HHI measure), but also new entrants. With authorized, till the end of 2005, the coo-
their results they criticize the DOJ decisions, peration agreement between AuA and LH
not predicting the significant anticompeti- concluded within the framework of the
tive effects regarding the NW-RC case. How- Star Alliance. The decision mentions almost
ever, the authors concluded, “no economic exclusively alliance benefits of a qualitative
model could ever hope to accurately predict nature. ‘Improved possibility of transfer
effects on individual city pairs”. Carlsson and connections’, ‘attractive connections’,
(2002) defined the market share as the ‘a more comprehensive European network’,
airline’s share of the aggregate number of ‘better planning’, ‘extension of network’ are
seats. The paper concluded that due to the rather abstract and not easily quantifiable
significantly different coefficient values, the effects. Furthermore, the Commission did
Herfindahl index is restrictive. Peters (2003) not try to balance the potential negative
concluded that due to the anticompetitive effects against these undefined positive ef-
post-merger entry deterrence behavior, new fects. Furthermore the Commission did not
entry had very small effects on price reduc- assess whether the imposed remedies would
tion. He suggested the policy should not be really restore competition on the Austrian /
expected to yield large gains from expected German markets. It simply accepted that the
new entries. almost complete elimination of competition
on Austrian / German markets served the
While airline mergers mostly harm consu- achievement of better connections, impro-
mers, Carlton, Landes and Posner (1980) ved transfer or extension of network. It also
found evidence on the welfare-increasing tried to reduce barriers to entry on these
role of code-share agreements. By analysing markets to incentives new competition that
the North Central Airlines and Southern would produce a downward pressure on
Airways merger from 1977 they declared the prices without actually making sure that
fares to be 9 per cent lower, while the achie- based on the economic reality of the parti-
ved timesaving was even 12 per cent. The cular O&D markets an equally competitive
alternative would appear up front.
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In the light of the results of the LH / power: evidence from the airline industry, The
Austrian merger case, the Commission needs American Economic Review, Vol. 83, No. 3 (June 1993),
to consider again, whether it used the eco- pp. 549-569.
nomics in its decision right and whether his Kwoka, J. E. Jr. / Shumilkina, E. (2008), The price effect
forecast due to new entries was really of eliminating potential competition: evidence from an
established by the theory. We recommend airline merger, www.ssrn.com.
to do further research according to the Morrison, S. / Winston, C. (1989), Enhancing the
anticompetitive effects of the previous performance of the deregulated air transport system,
European airline mergers. Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, Vol. 1989, pp.
61-123.
Peters, C. (2003), Evaluating the performance of merger
References simulation: evidence from the US airline industry.
Economic Analysis Group discussion paper, U.S. DoJ,
Brueckner, J. / Pels, E. (2005), European airline mergers,
Antitrust Division
alliance consolidation, and consumer welfare, Journal
Werden, G. J. / Joskow, A. S. / Johnson, R. (1991), The
of Air Transport Management 11, pp. 27-41.
effects of mergers on price and output: two case
Carlsson, F. (2002), Price and Frequency Choice under
studies from the airline industry. Managerial and
Monopoly and Competition in Aviation Markets.
Decision Economics, Vol. 12, pp. 341-352.
Working Papers in Economics No. 71., Dep. of
Economics, Göteborg University.
Carlton, D. W. / Landes, W. M. / Posner, r. A. (1980),
Benefits and costs of airline mergers: a case study, The
Bell Journal of Economics, Vol. 11, No. 1, pp. 65-83.
EU COM (1997), Commission Notice on the definition
of the relevant market for the purposes of Community
competition law. Official Journal, 1209(01), 0005
– 0013.
EU COM (2004), COUNCIL REGULATION (EC) No
139/2004 of 20 January 2004 on the control of
concentrations between undertakings. Regulation,
1-24.
EU COM (2009): Case No COMP/M.5440 – Lufthansa/
Austrian Airlines. Regulation (EC) No 139/2004 Merger
Procedure. 28/08/2009.
Evans, W. N. / Kessides, I. N. (1994), Living by the
„golden rule”: multimarket contact in the US airline
industry. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 109,
No. 2, pp. 341-366.
Kim, E. H. / Singal, V. (1993), Mergers and market
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previous year (ATAG 2003). Intra-African air Africa and Kenya have several radar instal-
cargo traffic represents only approximately lations and are able to actively monitor traf-
7 per cent of the overall African cargo fic. Ethiopia, with the third most important
market. This illustrates an underdeveloped airport in SSA, has no air traffic surveillance
trade pattern and deficiencies in infrastruc- technology (Bofinger 2008).
tures. African airlines carried 800,000
tonnes freight in 2008 (EU-Africa Aviation Air transport development in the region is
Conference 2009). Just as with the flow of linked with the matter of harmonization of
international passenger traffic, most of the air transport policies. It is generally assumed
cargo traffic is concentrated in a few coun- that restrictive regulations in the aviation
tries, with the top five countries accounting industry has harmful effect on competition,
for more than 70 per cent of Africa’s total. availability of seats, number of routes
Out of the inter-continental cargo traffic flown and the scope for airlines to reduce
in Africa, 65 per cent is related to trade costs (Forsyth 1997). While progress in air
with Europe and 14 per cent to trade with transport technology and other favourable
the Middle East. The dominance of Europe conditions, such as the liberalization of air
could be explained by its proximity to Africa services contributed to creating an efficient
and by long-standing historical and invest- air transport in other regions, the African
ment ties. Cargo traffic is mainly long-haul air transport industry is associated with high
with Europe being the major cargo route costs, unreliability, restrictive regulatory po-
(ATAG 2003). licies, poor safety and lack of infrastructure.
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Yamoussoukro Declaration of 1988 and the wages that come from secondary spending
Yamoussoukro Decision of 1999 (ECA 2002). that result from the direct and indirect
The gradual liberalization of the internal benefits.
African market has resulted in better intra-
African connectivity and the airlines which One of the benefits of air transport is its
are benefiting from this include Ethiopian, positive effect on international trade, being
Kenya Airways and South African Airways. particularly important for countries that
adopt an outward-oriented development
strategy. Kenya as a major exporter of fresh
Poverty reduction effects of Aviation
produce (vegetables to Europe and the Gulf,
One of the most pressing problems in the cut flowers to Europe) needs a comprehen-
world at large and particularly in SSA today sive air traffic system to support its agricu-
is Poverty reduction. Sub-Saharan Africa lture. Air transport facilitates companies’
is the developing region with the highest global reach and provides better access to
number of people living in extreme pover- markets, enhances communications and in-
ty. Most of the studies addressing the issue teractions between businesses and therefore
focus on the contribution of the agriculture increases the opportunities of operating in
and manufacturing sectors. Service sector a global economy. Air transport plays an
contribution in general and air transport increasingly important role in lower income
contribution to poverty reduction in particu- countries as it enables the movement of pe-
lar have been somehow neglected. Traditi- rishable goods. Export freight in SSA largely
onally the contribution of the air transport consists of perishable goods (fruits, vegeta-
industry has been measured by looking at bles, cut flowers and fish) and apparel, tex-
the direct, indirect and induced spending tiles and fabrics. Import freight consists of
using a multiplier effect analysis. Direct spare parts and highly manufactured items
economic benefits include salaries of airline (e.g. computers and peripherals, telecom-
personnel, fuel purchased, landing fees, sa- munication and transport of hardware and
laries of airport personnel, and other similar pharmaceutical goods).
purchases and expenditures.
Arguably, the major potential contribution
Indirect benefits account for the financial of the expansion in air transport to econo-
benefits that are attributed to airport and mic development in SSA is through develo-
airline activities ranging from services pro- ping and promoting international tourism
vided by travel agencies, rental car com- (ATAG 2003). Air transport in SSA is an
panies, hotels, restaurants to other retail essential part of the infrastructure required
activities. Finally, induced economic benefits for domestic and international tourism
are the multiplier effects of the direct and development. This is so for domestic tourism
indirect benefits. Induced economic benefits because land transport is often insufficient
consist of the increased employment and or unfeasible and for international tourism
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because it is often the only or dominant and tourism industry can help raise living
mode of transport. standard by stimulating the growth of in-
frastructure, providing good opportunities
Tourism and air transport have a clear for women and young people, the unskilled
dependency: making tourism development and people in rural and remote areas, who
sustainable is a good way of adjusting sup- might otherwise have few opportunities
ply and demand for air transport for tourism (WTTC 2002). As one of the fastest-growing
purposes. Therefore, while air transport industries, tourism generates approximately
infrastructure in itself cannot reduce pover- 10 per cent of the global economic output
ty, it has a key role to play as a facilitator of and roughly 10 per cent of total global em-
and complement to policies that aim to im- ployment (UNWTO). For Sub-Sahara Africa
prove living standards. Gómez and Sinclear countries only, the travel and tourism sector
(1991) argue that air transport plays a key is expected to contribute about 6.9 per cent
role in the distribution of tourism earnings of total gross domestic product (USD 75.7
and benefits since the use of national air- bn) and 5.0 per cent of total employment
lines and local services and commodities by in 2010 (WTTC 2010). In SSA, around 51 per
tourists contribute significantly in increasing cent of international tourism is by air.
the developing country’s share of tourism
receipts. Furthermore, air transport has an important
impact on other industries as it acts as a ca-
Air transport opens new destinations and talyst in investment, innovation, competiti-
new forms of tourism such as long-haul on and productivity. The existence of aviati-
excursions. Tourism development is being on services in a region can be of paramount
portrayed as one of the few profitable eco- importance to companies when investment
nomic sectors for developing countries (UN- decisions are being taken. A lack of good
WTO 2002). The positive impact of tourism connections may lead to investment being
as a major export and a powerful tool for made elsewhere.
enhancing growth, redistributing income
and alleviating poverty is a truism that has Generally speaking, air transport is a power-
recently received theoretical and empirical ful factor in economic growth and can also
support in a number of well-known studies support efforts to reduce poverty. None-
(Dubarry 2004, Kweka et al. 2001, Sugiyarto theless, in the case of Africa, air transport is
et al. 2003). Tourism has also been reco- fettered by a number of constraints which
gnized as an industry capable of playing can in some cases hinder the development
an important role in the achievement of of trade and international tourism.
Millennium Development Goals.
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Prospects for the future of aviation in lop their market access and to increase the
number of connections to international tou-
Sub-Saharan Africa rist-generating markets, which would pro-
bably support the region’s potential for tou-
A number of problems that are likely to
rism development and poverty reduction.
have a negative impact on the development
The expansion of budget airlines is another
of aviation have arisen. These include pro-
way of developing regional connections in
blems relating to aviation policies, the ina-
Sub-Sahara Africa by taking advantage of
dequacy of aviation infrastructures, aviation
the possibilities offered by the liberalization
safety, and, last but not least, the lack of
of intra-African air transport resulting from
macroeconomic and political sustainability.
the Yamoussoukro Decision.
Factors that favourably impact the develop-
Privatization and the promotion of public-
ment of air transport include sustainable
private-partnerships could help to overcome
macroeconomic conditions which result in
the problem of aviation finance. Sub-Sahara
rapid growth in trade and investment op-
African airports and airlines are predomi-
portunities and higher disposable incomes
nantly owned by governments. This con-
on the demand side, and access to new tech-
sequently results in an inept management
nology on the supply side.
caused by bureaucratic controls. Some
countries have in recent years embarked on
The contribution of aviation expansion to
airport privatization, or are at least pur-
economic development and poverty re-
suing corporatisation and commercialisation
duction in SSA largely hinges on conditions
of their assets in the sector, notably Côte
inherent in the air transport sector that are
d’Ivoire, Senegal, and South Africa. Kenya
likely to benefit both airlines and passen-
Airways has also been successfully partial-
gers and also on the conditions inherent in
ly privatized since 1995. Investment in air
the international tourism sector with regard
traffic facilities is necessary to cope with the
to African tourism destinations. Free mar-
problem of transport safety and security in
ket policies are all-important in this respect
SSA.
insofar as they contribute to increasing
competition and by extension, to increasing
capacity (airlines benefit from economies Conclusion
of scale, scope and densities) and lowering
prices (beside low prices the passengers also The impact that air transport can exert on
benefit from higher frequency of service the shape and welfare of SSA nations is
and better range of available destinations). often ignored. Civil Aviation is an important
engine of growth and will play a major role
The participation of African airlines in in any meaningful effort aimed at acce-
alliances and in hubs would serve to deve- lerating the pace of development of SSA
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countries. By expanding markets, increasing the living standard of the local population,
foreign direct investment, enabling the free then the effect of aviation policy on econo-
movement of people, boosting tourism mic welfare should be a key consideration.
within and into Africa, facilitating the trans-
fer of technology and boosting domestic To assume, for example, that economic
productivity, aviation creates employment welfare improves simply because more
and increases domestic income. money is spent by tourists is a big
assumption. Whether the benefits of
The expansion of air services and other aviation or tourism growth will trickle-
forms of transport infrastructures can con- down to the poor and pull them out of
tribute to poverty reduction by improving poverty, and the channels through which
access to services and markets, decreasing this will happen have not been given
transport costs (which could reflect in the enough attention so far in the literature.
prices of final goods), increasing mobility After all many of the jobs in tourism are
of people and goods by improving employ- low skilled, poorly paid and seasonal.
ment opportunities. The construction and Thus, government development strategy
maintenance of transport facilities tend to relating to aviation and tourism should be
demand relatively unskilled labour, provid- concerned about these issues.
ing a source of employment for the poor
(ATAG 2003). Inefficiencies at the level of These issues will be addressed by future
airports and air traffic infrastructures research with the aim of generating insights
coupled with limited competition in the air- that can have practical policy relevance. An
line market are making market access both integrated model in which direct and indi-
difficult and expensive. Although improving rect feedback mechanisms are taken into
land transport is a priority for SSA, the consideration, such as the Applied
potential of air transport’s contribution to General Equilibrium Model, appears to
the region’s economic growth and poverty be an appropriate tool for examining the
reduction should not be underestimated. income distribution impact of aviation
growth as it can capture most synergies and
Analyses of the contribution of the aviati- conflicts in various industries within the
on sector to economic development have country.
hitherto been partial in nature. Perhaps
there is a need to move beyond economic
multiplier type analyses and instead concen-
trate at first on local economic growth and
then establish who benefits and potentially
loses. If aviation policy is ultimately about
investing in public infrastructure to improve
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disadvantages resulting from the small size Flexible institutions, especially Financial
of their internal markets and bereft of the markets. Baltic States share low levels of
opportunity to develop into a diversified regulation, corporate and business taxes and
economy, they are able to exploit quick union density on labor markets (WEF 2010).
decision-making processes, benefit from
High degree of openness with focusing
flexibility and transparency – and are able
on trading partners in Scandinavia and
to concentrate on global niche markets,
Western Europe. The degree of trade
especially in the service sector, where econo-
openness in 2009 (Exports plus Imports in
mies of scale are not that important.
relation to GDP) was 1.26 in Estonia, 0.91 in
Furthermore, they have a pronounced
Latvia and 1.21 in Lithuania (Eurostat 2010).
ability to attract mobile factors of pro-
The main trading partners (> 10% of export
duction (capital, qualified labor) and are
or import share) in Estonia are Finland,
able to offer favorable conditions without
Sweden, and Germany. In Latvia and
having to fear countervailing measures by
Lithuania Russia, Germany, and Poland are
the heavyweights of the world economy
dominating partners in trade. Interregional
(Dehejia / Genschel 1999, Katzenstein 2003,
trade between the three Baltic States is of
Qureshi / te Velde 2007).
high importance, too (CIA 2010).
However, their high degree of specialization “Mocha cup” effect: High volatility of
usually implies a high degree of openness GDP, unemployment and price level. From
and often also a strong focus of small states 2002 to 2008, the Baltic States achieved GDP
on only a few select partners in internatio- growth rates over 10 per cent a year and
nal business (Armstrong / Read 2002). This an impressive reduction in unemployment.
can contribute to a high degree of vulne- Nevertheless, inflation boosted at double
rability to exogenous factors and a high digit-figure rates. Within one year (2009)
volatility in terms of economic performance: output declined and unemployment soared
a “mocha cup” effect (it takes only a light up to 20 per cent in all countries. Growth
shake to make a mess of things). of consumer prices stopped or even became
negative (EBRD 2010).
In the case of the Baltic States the following
of these theoretical assumptions are held to These “stylized facts” can be interpreted
be true: as a result of the transition path the Baltic
States followed after regaining their inde-
Small size of markets and a medium
pendence in 1991. With the early imple-
level diversification of economy. In all Baltic
mentation of the shock-therapy approach
States Population is below 5 Mio (CIA 2010).
the Baltic States benefited from a speedy
High stake in service sector. In all Baltic economic recovery at the turn of the millen-
States Service Sector expanded to over 70 nium, but at the price of a high vulnerability
Per cent as share of GDP (CIA 2010). to exogenous shocks.
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In this context the entering of the pre- Compared to 2009, performance of Baltic
accession stage to the Euro-zone in 2004 States in the Global Competitiveness Report
(and for Estonia the introduction of the (2010) decreased. Estonia lost 3 ranks (from
Euro in 2011) with the pegging of the local 32 to 35), Latvia lost 14 ranks (from 54 to
currencies to the Euro made a self-deter- 68), and Lithuania lost 9 ranks (from 44 to
mined monetary policy impossible. 53).
The combination of external necessities
(orientation towards openness to trade) and When the Global Financial Crisis (GFC) be-
past economic framework decisions gan, their economies nearly collapsed due
(transition via shock-therapy, Euro adoption to simultaneously deteriorating stability of
dogma) are leaving less room for policy the countries’ financial markets and de-
maneuvers to cope with the recent crisis. creasing world demand. In this very
situation the Baltic States were facing high
Pros and Cons of the internal unemployment and needed to regain their
competitiveness, but the ability to devalue
devaluation strategy their currency is not possible under the
Exchange Rate Mechanism II (ERM-II)
When hit by a global recession, economies regime. Fiscal policy is neither applicable
with a strong orientation towards foreign (due to restrictions of the stability and
trade have often used the devaluation of growth pact) nor sensible given the fact
their currencies to keep the worst from hap- that external devaluation is impossible.
pening. In 2009, Poland showed how effec- Fiscal stimuli without devaluation of the
tive this instrument can still be employed. currency could harm competitiveness once
At the peak of decreasing external demand more when the goal of activating weak
the Polish Zloty depreciated against the private demand overshoots. The policy
Euro, exports remained stable and deva- makers in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania
luation helped Poland to regain its export decided to pursue an alternative approach
competitiveness. to get their economies out of the recession:
an internal devaluation.
For more than one reason a devaluation of
the Baltic currencies would be reasonable as In the medium run the Baltic States are
well. In times of high growth the fairly un- trying to regain their competitiveness via
controlled lending activity of foreign banks, internal devaluation. This can only be
i.e. very large inflows of liquidity, resulted in achieved via decreasing labor costs and
an overshooting of private consumption and moderate growth of the inflation rate.
a spiral of demand-driven inflation com- Both variables cannot be influenced by
bined with increasing wages. As a result, the policy makers directly, but governments
Baltic States have lost ground in internatio- can support the change in real wages with
nal competitiveness:
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The oasis cities of Bukhara and Samarkand approach, the question arises as to whether
manifest different layers of culture and there is an impact of cosmopolitan harmony
beliefs, enriching the cosmopolitism of these and rationally-oriented belief on scientific
crossroad cities. As Buddhist pilgrims often innovation.
accompanied trade caravans, installing
monasteries along the Silk Road, we find in Arabic-Islamic envoys came to China in
Bukhara, for example, Buddhist fundaments 651 CE, and may have already gained
below what are nowadays mosques. Certain knowledge of papermaking at that time.
Islamic practices of Sufism trace back to The Sogdian capital Afrasiab (Markanda),
shamanism, such as to write magical sayings today’s Samarkand, was conquered by the
or Koranic verses on paper. Paper, while Arabs in 712 CE. However, after the battle
burning it, serves in the Far East till today of Talas, a river in today’s Kirgistan, in 751,
for communication with ancestors. Islam spread in Central Asia. The Chinese
Tang Dynasty had been defeated by the
The Chala, a former Jewish community, army of the early Abbasid Caliphate under
converted to Islam and coexisted alongside general Ziad Ibn Salih (Bosworth 1977, p. 3).
the Jews in Bukhara. A culture of tolerance Perhaps simply to stress the historic break,
is inscribed in several historical monuments, legend has it that Chinese prisoners of war,
like the Samanid mausoleum from the 10th now employed in Samarkand, brought the
century in Bukhara. Beside Islamic motives technology of paper production via the
it also shows Buddhist and Zoroastrian Silk Road to the Arabic-Islamic Civilization,
ones. As Samarkand and Bukhara had been which began to emerge with Baghdad as
crossroads of ideas it seems to be obvious its capital. The land between the rivers
that flourishing trans-culturality was stimu- Amu and Syr (Transoxiania) was inhabited,
lating the adaption of traveling scientific populated in part by nomadic Turks linked
inventions like silk culture or paper making. to specific shamanistic views of being, and
Any restrictions as we do find in nowadays Sogdians, speaking eastern Persian, some
intellectual property rights were unknown. of whom oriented towards Buddhism while
The openness towards cultures, beliefs and others were preachers of Manichaeism (Liu
ways of thinking was a guarantee not only 2010: 69). A Jewish community probably de-
for peace but also for transmitting the non- rived from the semi-nomadic Khazars whose
material treasures of knowledge and scienti- elite among a Uighur federation might once
fic inventions. have converted to Judaism (Minorsky 1978:
125). Nestorian Christians found their way
The “Bukhara Project – Cosmopolitism to China via the Silk Road. Samarkand and
and the City” is currently researching the Bukhara had been a crossroads of different
Central Asian model of coexistence (www. and overlapping beliefs and cosmologies,
cambridge-centralasia.org). Taking up this when Islam first spread among the populati-
on of the oasis cities.
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With the stabilizing of the Abbasid Cali- the Arab historian Abd al-Malik al-Thalibi
phate at the end of the 9th century in the wrote about paper, produced in Samarkand
time of the famous Harun al-Rashid, known as a specialty of the city, and its advantages
from many stories of the Thousand and One compared with papyrus and parchment used
Nights, Islam particularly flourished under in antiquity. Samarkand became a center
the philosophical school of the Mu’atazila for paper production. The quality of the
which unfolded the rational dimension in important export commodity was universally
Islamic spirituality. The ethical orientation recognized and people everywhere used it
towards knowledge, whatever its origins (Bloom 1999, p. 27).
(Coptic, Syrian, Greek, Indian etc.), and its
inculturation via translation into Arabic The etymology of the old Arabic word for
was the driving force behind the scientific paper kaghad, in modern Turkish kagit, is
revolution taking place during the Abbasid supposed to trace its origin via Uighur and
Caliphate (750-1258). Sogdian to the Chinese root shi (smooth).
Earliest archeological excavations brought
The science historian George Sarton saw in to light a kind of paper which dates back
the experimental orientation of Arabic-Isla- to the Han emperor Wu Di (140-87 BCE).
mic science, to which Greek science contri- Later, a huge number of paper rolls with
buted only little, a breakthrough to modern Chinese, Sanskrit, Sogdian, Persian, Uighur,
science: “Perhaps the main, as well the least and Tibetan texts were found in the Takla
obvious, achievement of the middle ages, Makan Desert. Some of these texts, such as a
was the creation of the experimental spirit, Chinese trade letter, go back to the late 3rd
or more exactly its slow incubation. This / early 4th century CE (Weber 2004, p. 39).
was primarily due to the Muslims down to
the end of the twelfth century, then to the The extensive creation of knowledge,
Christians. Thus in this essential respect, East science and literature during the Abbasid
and West cooperated like brothers. How- Caliphate required an early form of indus-
ever much one may admire Greek science, trial paper production which traveled from
one must recognize that it was sadly defici- Samarkand to Bagdad. In the metropolitan
ent with regard to this (experimental) point city with around 400,000 inhabitants, book
of view which turned out to be the funda- markets surrounded the warraqiyyun, a
mental point of view of modern sciences.” guild whose members specialized in all kinds
(Sarton 1969: 99) of arts and crafts related to book produc-
tion (papermaking, calligraphy, miniature
Paper is probably one of the most important painting, etc.). The increasing demand
discoveries of mankind, revolutionizing the for books paralleled the establishment of
quality of information carriers by paving the libraries (maktaba). In the mid-12th century
way for book binding. In the 11th century the technology of paper making reached
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Al-Andalus on the Iberian Peninsula via the The correspondence between Ibn Sina and
Arabic-Islamic knowledge routes. Biruni discussed the specific density of water
or minerals, the vacuum, the principles of
Often libraries were linked to high schools different climates etc. (Al-Biruni 1991).
and universities (madrasa), which brought Their scientific approach followed the ex-
forth famous scientists and philosophers like perimental methods (Strohmeier 2007: 25).
Ibn Sina (lat. Avicenna, 980-1037 CE) (philo- Ibn Sina and Biruni worked during the reign
sophy, medicine, psychology), who grew up of the Samanids (900-1000 CE) and the
in Bukhara. These historic institutions are emerging of the Turkish Seljuks.
part of the cities’ world cultural heritage Bukhara was the capital of the Samanid
today. State which extended to the vast historical
The opus of Ibn Sina, kanun fi tibb (canon region of Chorasan (modern Uzbekistan,
of medicine) was also the basic medical Turkmenistan, Tadzhikistan, Afghanistan,
literature in Europe until the early 20th and Iran). The Samanids traded as far as
century and is currently being rediscovered Northern Europe. The silver coins which
by recent approaches in medicine. are found all around the Baltic and even in
the North Sea are often of Samanid origin
There are many more scientists along the (Brentjes 1977: 92).
Silk Road to list, who, like Biruni (973-1043
CE) (mathematics, astronomy, geography /
geodesy, pharmacy, ethnography) from Kath,
enriched the knowledge of mankind with
scientific revolutions, for example,
ascertaining nearly the exact circumference
of the earth. Founding modern trigonometry,
he developed sine, cosine and trigonometric
tables, which were later transferred to the
west (Al-Hassani 2007: 69):
“The Determination of the Coordinates of
Cities was the first in the history of the field
to determine accurate geographic locales
with the techniques of spherical trigono-
metry. His exacting approach was designed
to replace the difficult and less reliable
method then in widespread use for the
determining differences in longitude: the
simultaneous observation of a lunar eclipse
from two distinct points.” (Lyons 2009, p.85).
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References
Al-Biruni (1991), In den Gärten der Wissenschaften,
transl. and commented by G. Strohmaier, Leipzig.
Al-Hassani, Salim (2007), 1001 Interventions, Muslim
Heritage in Our World, Manchester.
Bloom, Jonathan M. (1999), Revolution by the Ream
– A History of Paper, reprinted from ARAMCO World
magazine, Vol. 50, No. 3, May/June 1999, pp. 26-39.
Bosworth, C. E. (1977), The medieval History of Iran,
Afghanistan and Central Asia, London
Brentjes, B. (1977), Mittelasien, Eine Kulturgeschichte
der Völker zwischen Kaspischem Meer und Tien-Schan,
Wien.
Lions, J. (2009), The House of Wisdom. How the Arabs
transformed Western Civilization, Lonon, New York,
Berlin.
Liu Xinru (2010), The Silk Road in World History,
Oxford.
Minorsky, V. (1978), The Turks, Iran and the Caucasus in
the Middle Ages, London.
Sarton, G. (1962), The History of Science and the New
Humanism, Cambridge.
Stohmaier, G. (2007), Antike Naturwissenschaft in
orientalischem Gewand, Trier.
Weber, T. (2004), Die Sprache des Papiers, Berne.
www.cambridge-centralasia.org
www.nytimes.com/2011/03/08/arts/08iht-signshow08.
html
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export opportunities for the product. Since There are several limiting factors affecting
the 1990s, there has been a considerable effective cashew cultivation and processing
increase in demand for raw cashew nuts in in Nigeria. The factors can be classified into
the world market. This has contributed to three groups: supply-side factors, demand-
a steady increase in production and a rise side factors, and institutional factors.
in cashew nuts share in Nigeria’s exports.
The contribution of cashew nuts and edible Supply-side factors include barriers to an ef-
fruits to Nigeria’s non-oil exports increased fective cultivation and processing of cashew
from 4.12 per cent in 2006 to 5.43 per cent nuts as well as transport issues.
in 2007. However, it declined to 3.0 per cent
in 2008 as a result of a price shock and Generally, like other cash crops also cashew
increasing local demand (NEPC 2010). production was neglected in the period
Over half of the cashew production in Africa prior to market deregulation. Most trees
between 2005 and 2008 came from Nigeria. planted in the 1950s have been over-aged
The ratio of Nigeria’s cashew production while others grow wild. Production is also
to the World output increased from about negatively affected by a rapid deforestation
5 per cent in 1990 to about 18 per cent in and an increasing use of cashew wood as
2005. This suggests that cashew nuts have source of energy for households. Also, large-
become a major source of Nigerian non-oil scale farming especially in Southern Nigeria
export earnings. It also implies that the sub- is constrained by land acquisition problems.
sector has the potential to support sustain-
able development and Nigeria’s export Deficiency of soil nutrient contributes to
diversification efforts. low yields and poor quality. The nutritional
contents of the soil are often washed away
Cashew producing areas in Nigeria are during the raining season. Farmers have
grouped into major and minor producing little or no access to fertilizers. Regrettably,
areas. The minor areas are concentrated inadequate research funding also limits re-
in South-West, South-South and Northern search activities on how to improve produc-
states, while the major producing area are tivity (Hammed et al. 2008).
the South-Eastern states of Nigeria (Aik-
pokpodion et al. 2009). The total area of Absence of good storage facilities for raw
land planted with cashew in Nigeria is app. nuts has contributed to losses and de-
570,000 hectares (CBN 2007, Asogwa et al. teriorating product quality. In general, the
2008). dominance of smallholders has limited the
opportunities for large-scale production.
The smallholders and the small-scale pro-
Factors limiting effective cashew
cessing units have also limited access to
cultivation and processing in Nigeria investment capital to purchase modern
equipment.
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References
Aikpokpodion P. E. / Uloko B. / Edibo G. (2009), Nutrient
dynamics in soil and cashew (Anacardium occidentale
L.) leaf and kernel in Kogi State, Nigeria, in: Journal of
Applied Biosciences 25: 1573-1578, www.biosciences.
elewa.org
Asogwa, E. U. / Hammed, L. A. / Ndubuaku, T. C. N.
(2008), Integrated production and protection practices
of cashew (Anacardium occidentale) in Nigeria, in:
African Journal of Biotechnology Vol. 7 (25), pp. 4868-
4873, www.academicjournals.org.
Azam-Ali, S. H. / Judge, E C (2001), Small-scale cashew
nut processing, www.anacardium.info
CBN (2007) = The Central Bank of Nigeria (2007),
Annual Report & Statement of Accounts for the Year
Ended 2006.
Ezeagu, W. (2002), Nigeria: Assessment of the Situation
and Development Prospects for the Cashew nut sector:
UNCTAD/WTO (ITC), www.unctad.org.
FAO (2010), Cashew production in Africa, 1961-2008,
faostat.fao.org.
FAO (2010), Exports Commodities by Country, faostat.
fao.org.
Hammed, L. A. / Anikwe J. C. / Adedeji, A. R. (2008),
Cashew Nuts and Production Development in Nigeria,
in: American-Eurasian Journal of Scientific Research 3
(1): 54-61.
Kaplinsky, R. (2000), Globalisation and Unequalisation:
What can be learned from value chain analysis, in: The
Journal of Development Studies 37(2), pp. 117-146.
NEPC (2010), annual/monthly statistics, Export statistics
Non-oil Exports (2006-2008), www.nepc.gov.ng.
Porter, M. (1990), The Competitive Advantage of
Nations. London and Basingstoke: Macmillan.
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Africa and the Global Financial Crisis Bass, Hans H. / Christine Biehler/ LY
– Impact on Economic Reform Processes, Huy Tuan (Hrsg.), Auf dem Weg zu
African Development Perspectives Yearbook, einer nachhaltigen Gestaltung der
Münster: Lit 2011 (edited by Reuben Adeolu städtischen Transportsysteme. Ein deutsch-
Alabi, Joy Alemazung, Hans H. Bass, Achim vietnamesischer Dialog über die Zukunft der
Gutowski, Robert Kappel, Tobias Knedlik, Stadt und die Stadt der Zukunft, München:
Osmund Osinachi Uzor, Karl Wohlmuth). Hampp, 2011.
Bass, Hans H., Does Index Speculation on Bass, Hans H., Städtische Personentransport-
Futures Markets Contribute to Rising Prices systeme in Deutschland, 2010-2050:
on Spot Markets for Food? in: Bogdan Determinanten und Optionen, in: H.
Jelinski (ed.), The Global Economic Crisis, Bass / C. Biehler / LY Huy Tuan, Auf dem
Gdańsk: Fundacja Rozwoju Uniwersytetu Weg zu einer nachhaltigen Gestaltung
Gdańskiego (Universitätsverlag Danzig) städtischer Transportsysteme. Ein deutsch-
(forthcoming). vietnamesischer Dialog über die Zukunft der
Stadt und die Stadt der Zukunft, München:
Bass, Hans H. / Alabi, Reuben Adeolu Hampp 2011.
(editors): Potentials and problems of
processing and marketing of cashew, Bass, Hans H., Finanzmärkte als
karité, and indigenous fruits: Towards the Hungerverursacher? Die Auswirkungen der
promotion of agro-industry in West-Africa Finanzmarktspekulation mit Getreide und
(forthcoming). Soja auf die Ernährungslage in Haiti, Kenia,
Mali und Nepal, Wissenschaftliche Studie
Bass, Hans H., Cashew, karité, and im Auftrag der Deutschen Welthungerhilfe
indigenous fruits: The case of Mali, in: H. e.V., Bonn: Welthungerhilfe 2011.
Bass / R. A. Alabi, Potentials and problems
of processing and marketing of cashew, Bass, Hans H., Trading out of Poverty?
karité, and indigenous fruits: Towards the Challenges and chances of globalisation for
promotion of agro-industry in West-Africa one of the world’s poorest countries (Mali)
(forthcoming). and its cotton industry, in: Instytut Handlu
Zagranicznego Uniwersytetu Gdańskiego,
Bass, Hans H., Mali, in: Wohlmuth, K. et Wyzwania gospodarki globalnej, 28/1
al. (eds.) Developing Agro-industries and Gdańsk: Fundacja Rozwoju Uniwersytetu
Promoting Agribusiness in Africa, Country Gdańskiego (Universitätsverlag Danzig)
Case Studies, Vienna: United Nations 2010, pp. 201-212.
Industrial Development Organization
(UNIDO) (forthcoming).
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Bass, Hans H., Natürliche und sozioöko- Bass, Hans H., Arbeitsmärkte und
nomische Ursachen der Subsistenzkrise Arbeitsmarktpolitik in Deutschland und
Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts – eine Japan zwischen Globalisierung und globaler
Diskussion am Beispiel Preußens, in: Krise, in: Berliner Debatte Initial, 20 Jg.,
Bernd Herrmann (Hrsg.), Berichte aus 2009, Heft 3, S. 88-103.
dem umwelthistorischen Kolloquium der
Universität Göttingen, Göttingen 2010: Bass, Hans H., Arbeitsmärkte in Deutschland
Universitätsverlag, pp. 141-156. und Japan. Eine kurze Geschichte
mit offenem Ende, in: List-Forum für
Bass, Hans H. / Toshihiko Hozumi / Uwe Wirtschafts- und Finanzpolitik, Bd. 35, 2009,
Staroske (editors), Labor Markets and Labor Heft 1, S. 63-86.
Market Policies between Globalization and
World Economic Crisis. Japan and Germany, Niemeier, Hans-Martin, Price cap
München und Mering 2010: Hampp-Verlag. Regulierung von Flughäfen in kontinental
Europa – wie wirksam sind die Anreize für
Bass, Hans H., German and Japanese Effizienz wirklich?, with Jürgen Müller,
labor markets and labor market policies in: G. Knieps (Ed.), Anreizregulierung in
between globalization and world economic Netzwirtschaften: Theorie und Praxis,
crisis. Towards a comparison, in: H. Bass Freiburg /Breisgau, Universität Freiburg,
/ Toshihiko Hozumi / U. Staroske, Labor 2010, 13-45.
Markets and Labor Market Policies between
Globalization and World Economic Crisis. Niemeier, Hans-Martin, Alitalia – the failure
Japan and Germany, München und Mering of a national carrier, with Paolo Beria and
2010: Hampp-Verlag, pp. 11-41. Karsten Fröhlich, forthcoming Journal of Air
Transport Management 2010.
Bass, Hans H., Ragnar Nurkse‘s development
theory: Influences and perceptions, R. Niemeier, Hans-Martin, Airport Alliances
Kattel / J. Kregel / E. S. Reinert, Ragnar and Multi Airport Companies – Implications
Nurkse (1907-2007): Classical Development for Competition Policy, with Peter Forsyth
Economics and its Relevance for Today, and Hartmut Wolf, forthcoming Journal of
London / New York 2009: Anthem Press, pp. Air Transport Management 2010.
183-202.
Niemeier, Hans-Martin, The Importance
Bass, Hans H., Volkswirtschaftliche of Spatial Economics for Assessing Airport
Grundlagen, Stuttgart 2009: AKAD, Band Competition, with Karsten Fröhlich,
VWL 101, 166 Seiten. forthcoming Journal of Air Transport
Management 2010.
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carrier, with Paolo Beria, Paper given at the Niemeier, Hans-Martin, Price Cap Regulation
13th Air Transport Research Society World of Airports in Continental Europe – an
Conference Abu Dhabi 27-30 June 2009. Overview, Strategy and Regulation of
Airport Charges, GARS Workshop at the
Niemeier, Hans-Martin, Noise Budgets Université Paris Panthéon-Sorbonne,
at European Airports – an Economic 01 February 2010.
Evaluation, with Frank Borcherding and
Hansjochen Ehmer, Paper given at the Niemeier, Hans-Martin, Breaking up BAA
13th Air Transport Research Society World – Will it really improve performance?,
Conference Abu Dhabi 27-30 June 2009. with Peter Forsyth, paper given at the 51st
Annual Transportation Research Forum
Niemeier, Hans-Martin, Regulation of ADP Washington DC, USA, 11-13 March 2010.
Airports – An economic Assessment, with
Peter Forsyth, Jürgen Müller and Harald Niemeier, Hans-Martin, Airline Mergers in
Wiese, Paper given at the 13th Air Transport Europe – Implications for the Competition
Research Society World Conference Abu Policy: An Overview, with Adél Németh,
Dhabi 27-30 June 2009. Paper 14th Air Transport Research Society
(ATRS) World Conference Porto, Portugal,
Niemeier, Hans-Martin, Price-cap- 6-9 July 2010.
Regulierung von Flughäfen in
Kontinentaleuropa – wie wirksam sind die Niemeier, Hans-Martin, Benchmarking of
Anreize für Effizienz wirklich?, with Jürgen Airports – A Critical Assessment, paper
Müller, Paper given at the 42. Freiburger given with Vanessa Liebert WCTR World
Verkehrsseminar “Anreizregulierung in Conference, Lisbon 11-15 July 2010.
Netzwirtschaften: Theorie und Praxis” in
Freiburg /Breisgau, 1-2 October 2009. Pfannkuche, Alexander, Twice the pride,
double the fall – The Baltic States facing
Niemeier, Hans-Martin, State of the art: A the aftermath of Financial Instability,
review of empirical airport performance 14th Conference of the Research Network
studies, with Vanessa Liebert. Paper given Macroeconomics and Macroeconomic
at the GARS Workshop “Benchmarking of Policies (FMM): Stabilising an Unequal
Airports”, Berlin, 20-21 November 2009. Economy? Public Debt, Financial Regulation
and Income Distribution, Berlin, 29 October
Niemeier, Hans-Martin, Regulation 2010.
ADP Airports – A Preliminary Economic
Assessment, Strategy and Regulation of Quintern, Detlev, The Utopian City – A cross-
Airport Charges, GARS Workshop at the cultural history of ideas, Hanoi Workshop:
Université Paris Panthéon-Sorbonne, The Future of Cities, The Cities of the
01 February 2010. Future, Hanoi Viet Nam, 20-21 September
2010.
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Prühn, Christoph, Reforms of UK airport Bock, Andrea, Brazil’s Role in World Climate
regulation, Bremen 2010 (Supervisor: Prof. Policy, Bremen 2010 (Supervisor: Prof. Dr.
Dr. Niemeier). Bass).
Bachelor Theses
Azimi, Said, Eine Analyse möglicher Basis-
innovationen der nächsten Kondratieff-
Welle, Bremen 2009
(Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Bass).
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Kammesheidt, Anne, Das Projekt Otjivero Nieters, Anna Maria, Die Erste
– ein neuer Ansatz der Entwicklungspolitik Globalisierung aus Sicht der modernen
in Namibia: Entwicklungsökonomische Unternehmensgeschichte am Beispiel der
Voraussetzungen und Implikationen eines Nordwolle Delmenhorst, Bremen 2010
bedingungslosen Grundeinkommens, (Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Bass).
Bremen 2010 (Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Bass).
Rojas Ospinas, Maria, Neue internationale,
Köbinger, Fabian, Die Bedeutung Russlands nationale und privatwirtschaftliche
und anderer GUS-Mitglieder für die Strategien zur Förderung des
Energieversorgung der Europäischen Union, Entwicklungsbeitrags der Kaffeeproduktion,
Bremen 2009 (Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Bass). Bremen 2009 (Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Bass).
Nguyen Thanh Trung, Success Factors for Weddeler, Lars, Korruption – Ursachen,
Export-Oriented SMEs in Vietnam, Bremen Wirkungen und volkswirtschaftlicher
2009 (Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Bass). Schaden am Beispiel Indonesiens, Bremen
2010 (Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Bass).
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