Tissemsilt University

Faculty of Foreign Languages

English Department

Course: CCL
Teacher: RAFA Larbi
Level: First year
First Semester syllabus:
Academic year : 2023-2024

An Introduction to
British Civilization and Culture
Course objectives:
During The first semester, we will concentrate on the various aspects of Anglo-Saxon history
and culture. It takes you on a chronological journey, exploring the movements and
development of the different waves of conquerors and settlers in Britain. Alongside, we will
search the political, cultural, social, and economic effects of the diverse governments and
ethnic groups that ruled the British Isles, as well as their interactions with the broader
European world. By comprehensively covering these topics, we aim to lay a solid foundation
and set the stage for a deeper understanding of the American civilization in the second
semester.
This 1 st semester course is an introduction to British culture and civilization. It aims to give
first year students a general knowledge of life in the United Kingdom. The course is
structured around cultural, social and political ideas. The British context would serve as an
example to explain the different institutions that form the country.
A language sums up the civilization of a given people in any given country. To know people
is first of all to speak their language. Conversely, to learn a language is to learn about people,
about their history, achievements, struggles, weaknesses, and their hopes.
Civilization and history are more than a compilation of facts. A historian does not only
describe and tell stories of the past as they were recorded. The interpretation often
influences the finished product. To understand the world, students need to know history,
have their own interpretation of it and develop critical thinking skills decisive in shaping their
future.
Assessment: assessment takes place at the end of the first semester with a re-sit session:
1st semester exam: A ninety minutes written exam with various exercises and related
written expression regarding course syllabus. For those who fail in the exam, there is catch-
up exam: a 90 minutes written exam with a topic regarding the course syllabus.
How to contact the teacher:
to explain the different ideas and reach the above stated objectives , the teacher may rely on
online explanation , social media , facebook , moodle , youtube videos , paper envelopes
with guidelines about CCL given to each student , oral lectures, gifted books , reading and
analysis of both primary and secondary sources, discussion of video documentaries, quizzes
and writing assignments.
GLOSSARY
Acculturation: the process of changing so that you become more like people from a
different culture, or of making someone changes in this way.
Affiliation: a connection with a political party or religion, or with a larger organisation.
Alien: someone who lives in a country of which he/she is not a legal citizen.
Ancestor: a person from whom one is descended; forebear; progenitor.
Anthem: a song that has special importance for a particular group of people or country,
often sung on special occasions.
Approach: a way of dealing with something.
Art: the quality, production, expression, or realm, according to aesthetic principles, of
what is beautiful, appealing, or of more than ordinary significance.
Assimilation: the process of becoming similar to others by taking in and using their
customs and culture.
Asylum: protection or safety, or a protected and safe place, given especially to someone
who has left a country or place for political reasons.
Attitude: the way of thinking and feeling about somebody or something.
Behaviour: the way that somebody acts, especially towards other people.
Belief: something that you believe, especially as part of religion.
Brexit: an exit (= act of leaving) by the United Kingdom from the European Union (short
for "British exit").
Britishness: the fact of being British, or qualities that are considered typical of British
people. Capitalism: an economic system in which a country’s businesses and industry are
controlled and run for profit by private owners rather than by the government.
Citizenship: the state of having the rights of a person born in a particular country. It is
also carrying out the duties and responsibilities of a member of a particular society.
Civilisation: is composed of many systems: political, economic, social, etc. related to
human beings’ different aspects of life. It is a set of characteristics associated to
intellectual, artistic, moral and materialistic way of life specific to mankind.
Cohesion: the situation when the members of a group or society are united.
Commonwealth: an organised group of independent self-governing countries.
Communism: a political movement that believes in an economic system in which the
state controls the means of production on behalf of the people. It aims to create a
society in which everyone is treated equally.
Community: a group of people who have the same interests, religion, etc.
Constitution: the system of laws and basic principles that a state, a country or an
organisation is governed by.
Consumerism: a situation involving large amounts of goods being sold to individuals
rather than businesses, especially when this is very important to an economy.
Culture: the customs and beliefs, art, way of life and social organisation of a particular
country or group. It might be defined as the ideas, customs, skills, arts and tool which
characterise a given group of people in a given period .It is a repertoire of socially
transmitted and intra-generationally generated ideas about how to live, to think and to
behave. Cultural models are thus inherited from the preceding generation through
socialisation and they are learned intra-generationally and through imitation, teaching
and from the media.
Custom: an accepted way of behaving or of doing things in a society or a community.
Democracy: the belief in freedom and equality between people, or a system of
government based on this belief, in which power is held by elected representatives.
Difference: the fact of not being the same.
Discrimination: prejudice against people and a refusal to give them their rights.
Diversity: the mixture of races and religions that make up a group of people.
Economy: the management of the resources of a community, country, etc., especially
with a view to its productivity.
Education: the process of teaching or learning, especially in a school or college, or the
knowledge that you get from this.
Employment: the number of people who have jobs.
Englishness: the quality of being English or of having characteristics regarded as typically
English.
Ethnology: the scientific study and comparison of human races.
Ethnicity: relating to or characteristic of a large group of people who have the same
national, racial, or cultural origins, and who usually speak the same language.
Expectation: a hope that something good will happen.
Feudalism: the social system that existed during the Middle Ages in Europe in which
people were given land and protection by a nobleman and had to work and fight for him
in return.
Globalisation: covering or affecting the whole world for example the globalisation of
American way of life.
Governance: the way that organisations or countries are managed at the highest level,
and the systems for doing this.
Government: the particular group of persons forming the cabinet, a council advising a
president, sovereign, etc., especially the group of ministers or executives responsible for
the government of a nation. In the United Kingdom.
Heterogeneous: consisting of many different kinds of things or people.
Housing: buildings for people to live in, this concept is used especially when talking
about their price or condition.
Hybridity: a person whose background is a blend of two diverse cultures or traditions.
Identity: the characteristics, feelings or beliefs that distinguish people from others.
Ideology: a set of ideas that an economic or political system is based on.
Immigration: the process by which people come in to a foreign country to live there, or
the number of people coming in.
Integration: to mix with and join society or a group of people, often changing to suit
their way of life, habits, and customs.
Intercultural Understanding: going beyond your own culture, understanding others’
perspectives and points of view, assisting each other worldwide .A profound change in
thoughts, perceptions and values can lead to changing how one views culture and one’s
place in it.
Interpretation: the particular way in which something is understood or explained.
Labour: workers, especially people who do practical work with their hands
Language: the use by humans of a system of sounds and words to communicate.
Legislation: a law or set of laws suggested by a government and made official by a
parliament. Liberalism: the political belief that there should be free trade, that people
should be allowed more personal freedom, and that changes in society should not be
made in an extreme way.
Map: a representation, usually on a flat surface, as of the features of an area of the
earth or a portion of the heavens, showing them in their respective forms, sizes, and
relationships according to some convention of representation.
Media: the means of communication, as radio and television, newspapers, magazines,
and the internet, that reach or influence people widely.
Migration: to move from one country or region to another, often temporarily.
Modernisation: to make a system, methods, etc. more modern and more suitable for
use at the present time using the latest technology, designs, materials, etc.
Monument: any building, megalith, etc., surviving from a past age, and regarded as of
historical or archaeological importance.
Multiculturalism: the belief that different cultures within a society should all be given
importance.
Nation: a country considered as a group of people with the same language, culture and
history, who live in a particular area under one government.
Nationalism: a feeling of love and pride in your country; a feeling that your country is
better than any other.
Otherness: being or feeling different in appearance or character from what is familiar,
expected, or generally accepted.
Palace: the official residence of a king, queen, bishop, or other sovereign or exalted
personage.
Pluralism: the existence of people of different races, religious beliefs, and cultures within
the same society.
Policy: a set of ideas, or a plan of what to do in particular situations, that has been
agreed officially by a government, or a political party.
Politics: having a definite policy or system of government.
Populism: political ideas and activities that are intended to get the support of ordinary
people by giving them what they want.
Practice: used to describe what really happens as opposed to what you think will happen
in a particular situation.
Prejudice: Someone or something that prejudices influences you unfairly so that you
form an unreasonable opinion about something.
Principle: a belief that is accepted as a reason for acting or thinking in a particular way.
Propaganda: information or ideas that are spread by government to influence people’s
opinions, especially by not giving all the facts or by secretly emphasising only one way of
looking at the facts.
Racism: the belief that some races are better than others, or the unfair treatment of
someone because of his or her race.
Recognition: official agreement that an organisation has authority to do things.
Reflection: careful thought about something, sometimes over a long period of time.
Reform: a change that is made to a social system, an organisation, etc. in order to
improve or correct it.
Refugee: a person who has escaped from his/her own country for political, religious, or
economic reasons or because of a war.
Regulation: to check that the activities of a business or organisation are legal and follow
official laws.
Religion: a set of beliefs concerning the cause, nature, and purpose of the universe,
especially when considered as the creation of a superhuman agency or agencies, usually
involving devotional and ritual observances, and often containing a moral code
governing the conduct of human affairs.
Ritual: a series of actions that are always carried out in the same way, especially as part
of a religious ceremony.
Socialism: a set of political and economic theories based or the belief that everyone has
an equal right to a share of a country’s wealth and that the government should own and
control the main industries.
Societal: connected with society and the way it is organised as an entity.
Society: a large group of people who live together in an organised way, making decisions
about how to do things and sharing the work that needs to be done. All the people in a
country, or in several similar countries, can be referred to as a society.
Stereotype: a fixed idea or image that many people have of particular type of person or
thing, but which is often not true in reality. When one judges people one naturally
generalises, simplifies and categorises them. The classification is called stereotyping.
Such stereotyping limits one’s width of perception, while at the same time slowly killing
one’s ability to inquire and learn about others. Stereotyping is very useful in
perpetuating self-fulfilling myths about people. So everybody is an agent of change, the
inner self should be allowed to modify and recreate.
Structure: the way in which the parts of something are connected together, arranged or
organised; a particular arrangement of parts.
Symbol: a sign, shape, or object that is used to represent something else
System: a way of doing things.
Theory: a formal statement of the rules on which a subject of study is based or of ideas
that are suggested to explain a fact or event or, more generally, an opinion or
explanation.
Tradition: a belief, custom or way of doing something that has existed for a long time
among a particular group of people.
Understanding: understanding oneself, one’s action, thought, behaviour, mind, feelings,
surrounding, nature, is a process. The natural learning occurs when there is interest,
curiosity and enthusiasm.
University: an institution of learning of the highest level, having a college of liberal arts
and a program of graduate studies together with several professional schools, as of
theology, law, medicine, and engineering, and authorized to confer both undergraduate
and graduate degrees.
Values: beliefs about what is right and wrong and what is important in life.
Xenophobia: a strong feeling of dislike or fear of people from other countries.
 Lecture One
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern
Ireland

Introduction
“What exactly is Britain? And who are the British?” asked O’Driscoll. A question worth asking and
finding the answer would certainly clarify important things to learners of English as a foreign
language. According to the author trying to give a single name to the country would be misleading, as
it does not reflect the simple fact of using one name that refers to one nation. The matter is much
more complex than many would think. Therefore, and to provide a clearer view, the present chapter
is supposed to unveil the truth behind the naming of the country and why different names are used
when we talk about Britain.
Geography and Borders
The United Kingdom is an island country located off the northwestern coast of mainland Europe. The
United Kingdom forms an archipelago that comprises the whole of the island of Great Britain which
contains England, Wales, and Scotland as well as the northern portion of the island of Ireland. The
name Britain is sometimes used to refer to the United Kingdom as a whole. Collectively, the group of
islands is known as the British Isles. The only land border of Britain is with the Irish Republic. The
United Kingdom is surrounded by the sea like the Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea, the English Channel,
and the Irish Sea. The geography is mainly rocky hills and low mountains. At its broadest, the United
Kingdom is 500 km across. From the northern tip of Scotland to the southern coast of England, it is
about 1,000 km. No part is more than 120 km from the sea. The capital, London, is situated on the
tidal River Thames in southeastern England. The capital London is among the world’s leading
commercial, financial, and cultural centers. Other major cities include Birmingham, Liverpool,
Manchester in England, Belfast and Londonderry in Northern Ireland, Edinburgh and Glasgow in
Scotland, and Swansea and Cardiff in Wales.
Geography of Britain: Land and Climate Although Britain’s landscape lacks impressive nature like
towering mountain ranges, large rivers, plains, or forests, this does not mean that the scene is
boring. Variety of the scenery over short distance makes it attractive. A journey of 100 miles might
seem twice as far.
Terrain of the UK In general, the low-lying regions in Britain are the south and east of the country.
They consist of either flat plains or gently rolling hills. Mountainous areas are found only in the north
and west, although these regions also have flat areas. To the north of the United Kingdom lies
Scotland making up the third of Northern Great Britain. It shares a southern border with England. The
mountainous north of Scotland is called the Highlands. The Lowlands on the other hand present a
beautifully district of valleys and plains. Most of England, with few exceptions, is characterized with
flat land. Abundant valleys and small rolling hills are drawing a nice picture of the southeast.
Cotswold Hills, the Chilterns, are among the significant elevations of the region. The East and
Midlands of England are predominantly flat and low lying which makes of them great agricultural
regions. A mixture of valleys, rugged hills, and moorland characterize The West Midlands. Fertile
plains in the west and the Pennine Hills in the east are making up the Northwest terrain of England.
Cambria’s Lake District contains 15 large lakes, including the biggest, lake Windermere. Landscape in
Wales is predominantly mountainous. Northern Ireland is largely flat except such mountainous
regions as the Mourne Mountains, Glens of Antrim, and Sperrin Mountains.
Natural Resources of Britain Coal, petroleum, natural gas, iron ore, tin, limestone, chalk, sandstone,
gypsum, salt, clay, lead, silica are the main natural resources found in the UK. Britain’s most valuable
mineral is petroleum. Oil wells provide the country with all the petroleum needed and supply
petroleum for export. From deposits below the North Sea, Natural Gas is obtained, and it is satisfying
most of the country’s needs. The richest soils are found in the Eastern regions of England. Important
reserves of iron ore are found in Cumbria, Staffordshire, and Lancashire. Waterpower resources are
small and mostly concentrated in the highlands of Cumbria, in Northern England. Scotland’s main
natural resources are coal and zinc (found in the South of the country). Fertile lands are concentrated
mainly in the Central Lowlands. Northern Scotland boasts great hydroelectric power potential and
offshore oil deposits that are found in the North Sea, near Aberdeen. In Wales the chief natural
resources are: Coal, slate, limestone, and limited amounts of manganese, zinc, copper, gold, lead,
uranium, and fireclays. Soil in Wales is infertile and rocky, yet the most fertile lands are found in the
southeast and in several coastal areas. Natural resources of Northern Ireland include small-scale coal,
peat, limestone, and gravel.
The Weather in Britain : Britain’s climate can be often cited as unpredictable, rain and sun come in
quick succession. It is difficult to predict it within a rather predictable range. Existing variety of
microclimates within the UK is caused by such factors as elevation, proximity to the Atlantic Ocean,
and, to a lesser extent, latitude. Furthermore, Britain enjoys long days in the height of summer, and a
very short period of sunlight in wintertime. Southwesterly winds, blowing from the North Atlantic
Drift makes weather patterns subject to change. Without any extremes in temperatures all year
round, it never gets very cold , nor does it become truly hot. In general, the south is warmer and
drier than the north. The east of Britain is considerably cold, while the west is wetter and milder in
winter and cooler in summer than the east. Winter temperatures rarely fall below 5ºC while summer
highs do not normally exceed 35ºC. July and August are the hottest as well as the wettest months of
the year. January and February are the coldest months and there’s often much snow in mountainous
parts of Britain. Upland areas are colder and wetter: the very tops of the Scottish Highlands may
retain snow throughout the year, although this is unusual. Snow can fall anywhere in winter but
rarely remains for more than two 2 days at lower levels where it evokes media hysteria and transport
chaos. But even while the weather isn’t biblical, the British talent for talking about it surely is it’s the
default icebreaker in conversation with friends or strangers.
The Environment and Pollution Being the world’s first industrialized country, Britain’s cities were
the first to suffer an atmospheric condition called smog (a mixture of smoke and fog). The thick fogs
have become a famous theme in the works of Charles Dickens and in the Sherlock Holmes stories.
The situation in London reached its worst point in 1952 when a bad smog, which lasted for several
days, was estimated to have caused between 4,000 and 8,000 deaths. Water pollution was also a
problem. “In the nineteenth century it was once suggested that the Houses of Parliament should be
wrapped in enormous wet sheets to protect those inside from the awful smell of the River Thames.”
And “The first thing that happened to people who fell into the Thames in London was that they were
rushed to hospital to have their stomachs pumped!”. The situation required the passage of laws in
the 1960’s and 1970’s which forbade the heating of homes with open coal fires and which stopped
much of the pollution from factories. A scene of fog which once a symbol of the atmosphere in
London in a Hollywood film is now out of date. However, eliminating the sources of pollution
requires providing for Britain’s energy needs, and especially as the country’s oil reserves in the North
Sea will not last much longer. Thus, there has been various attempts at using ‘green’ energy sources.
Solar power is one of them, but its implementation in Britain is limited due to several reasons. Other
sources of energy are tidal power and wave power. The one which has really developed is wind
power.
Politics
The government is a constitutional monarchy and a commonwealth. The chief of the state is the
queen/king and the head of the government is the prime minister. Politically speaking, there are two
states in the British Isles. One of them is the Republic of Ireland which took its independence in 1922.
Its capital is Dublin. The second state in the British Isles is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Northern Ireland. This state governs the remaining isles (Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland, England,
and most of the smaller islands) and its capital is London.
Ethnicity and Religion
For centuries people have migrated to the British Isles from many parts of the world, some to avoid
political or religious persecution, others to find a better way of life or to escape poverty. In historic
times migrants from the European mainland joined the Celtic indigenous population of Britain during
the Roman Empire and the invasions of the Angles, Saxons, Jutes, Danes, and Normans. The Irish
have long made homes in Great Britain. Many Jews arrived in Britain toward the end of the 19th
century and in the 1930s. Christianity with its diverse branches is the dominant religion in UK, 59 per
cent. Nevertheless, other religions co-exist together in the country like Islam 4, 4 percent, Hindu 1, 3
percent, and others, like non-religious people exist in the UK.
Languages
Some earliest languages still survive in the two forms of Celtic: the first is Goidelic, from which Irish,
Manx, and Scottish Gaelic are derived. The second one is Brythonic, from which the old Cornish
language and modern Welsh have developed. Among the contemporary Celtic languages, Welsh one
is the strongest and still spoken in Wales. Modern English is derived mainly from the Germanic
dialects spoken by the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes (whom all arrived in Britain in the 5th century AD.1)
and heavily influenced by the language of the Danes (Vikings), who began raiding the British Isles
about 790 and subsequently colonized parts of northern and eastern England.

Physical Identity of the Country

A group of islands called The British Isles with a total area of 315,134 km are lying off the northwest
coast of continental Europe. The two largest islands which constitute this great archipelago are Great
Britain and Ireland and both constitute 95,6 % of the total area. The remaining islands, hundreds of
much smaller ones, including the Hebrides, the Orkneys, the Shetlands, the Anglesey, the Isle of Man,
the Channel Islands, etc. are occupying only 4,4 % or 13,950 km of the overall territory.
British islands (not isles) is the name given to the smaller islands that are also parts of England,
Scotland and Wales. Great Britain is the largest island of the British Isles, comprising England,
Scotland and Wales. However, GB is not a geographical name, but rather a political one, formed in
1801, and it substitutes the official name of the country — the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Northern Ireland. Ireland is the second largest island of the British Isles and is also divided into two
sections: The Republic of Ireland, and Northern Ireland which is sometimes
referred to as Ulster. The Republic of Ireland, also called ‘Eire (its Irish language name). is informally
referred to as just ‘Ireland’ or ‘the Republic’. In everyday speech, the official name of the country The
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, seems to be too long for practical purposes,
so it is usually shortened to other names: ‘the UK’ and in internet and email addresses it is ‘UK’. In
other contexts, it is referred to as ‘Great Britain’.
BRITISH ANCESTORS
The United Kingdom, also known as Britain or the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Northern Ireland, is a European region with a long and storied history. The first modern
humans (Homo sapiens) arrived in the region during the Ice Age (about 35,000 to 10,000
years ago), when the sea levels were lower and Britain was connected to the European
mainland. It is these people who built the ancient megalithic monuments of Stonehenge and
Avebury. Between 1,500 and 500 BCE, Celtic tribes migrated from Central Europe and France
to Britain and mixed with the indigenous inhabitants, creating a new culture slightly distinct
from the Continental Celtic one. This came to be known as the Bronze Age. The Romans
controlled most of present-day England and Wales, and founded a large number of cities
that still exist today. London, York, St Albans, Bath, Exeter, Lincoln, Leicester, Worcester,
Gloucester, Chichester, Winchester, Colchester, Manchester, Chester, and Lancaster were all
Roman towns, as were all the cities with names now ending in chester, -cester or -caster,
which derive from the Latin word castrum, meaning "fortification”. In the fifth century, the
Romans progressively abandoned Britannia, as their Empire was falling apart and legions
were needed to protect Rome. With the Romans vacated, the Celtic tribes started warring
with each other again, and one of the local chieftains had the (not so smart) idea to request
help from some of the Germanic tribes from the North of present-day Germany and South of
Denmark. These were the Angles, Saxons and Jutes, who arrived in the 5th and 6th
centuries.
When the fighting ceased, the Germanic tribes did not, as expected by the Celts, return to
their homeland. In fact, they felt strong enough to seize the whole of the country for
themselves, which they ultimately did, pushing back all the Celtic tribes to Wales and
Cornwall, and founding their respective kingdoms of Kent (the Jutes), Essex, Sussex and
Wessex (the Saxons), and further northeast, the kingdoms of Anglia, Mercia and
Northumbria (the Angles). These 7 kingdoms, which ruled over the United Kingdom from
about 500 to 850 AD, were later known as the Anglo-Saxon heptarchy. Towards the dawn of
the 10 century, the Danes invaded the Northeast of England, from Northumerland to East
Anglia, and founded a new kingdom known as the Danelaw. Another group of Danes
managed to take Paris, and obtain a grant of land from the King of France in 911. This area
became the Duchy of Normandy, and its inhabitants were the Normans (from 'North Men' or
'Norsemen', another term for 'Viking'). After settling in to their newly acquired land, the
Normans adopted the French feudal system and French as the official language. During that
same period, the Kings of Wessex had resisted, and eventually vanquished the Danes in
England in the 10th century. However, the powerful Canute the Great (995-1035), king of
the newly unified Denmark and Norway and overlord of Schleswig and Pomerania, led two
other invasions on England in 1013 and 1015, and became king of England in 1016, after
crushing the Anglo-Saxon King, Edmund II.
During the 11 century, the Norman King Edward the Confessor (1004-1066) nominated
William, Duke of Normandy, as his successor, but upon Edward’s death, Harold Godwinson,
the powerful Earl of Wessex, crowned himself king. William refused to acknowledge Harold
as King and invaded England with 12,000 soldiers in 1066. King Harold was killed at the
battle of Hastings and William the Conqueror became William I of England. The Norman
rulers kept their possessions in France, and even extended them to most of Western France
(Brittany, Aquitaine...). French became the official language of England, and remained that
way until 1362, a short time after the beginning of the Hundred Years' War with France.
English nevertheless remained the language of the populace, and the fusion of English (a
mixture of Anglo-Saxon and Norse languages) with French and Latin (used by the clergy)
slowly evolved into the modern English we know today.

UNITED KINGDOM Brief History

The United Kingdom, a constitutional monarchy in northwestern Europe, is officially the
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. People often confuse the names for
this country, and frequently make mistakes in using them. United Kingdom and UK are
proper terms for the entire nation, and the term Britain is also often used when talking
about the island of Great Britain, which does not include Northern Ireland. The term England
should never be used to describe Britain because England is only one part of the island. It is
always correct to call people from England, Scotland, or Wales British, although people from
England may also properly be called English, people from Scotland Scottish and people from
Wales Welsh. However, the names “United Kingdom”, “Great Britain”, and “England” are
often used interchangeably.
England and Wales were united administratively, politically, and legally by 1543. The crowns
of England and Scotland were united in 1603, but the two countries remained separate
political entities until the 1707 Act of Union, which formed the Kingdom of Great Britain
with a single legislature. From 1801, when Great Britain and Ireland were united, until the
formal establishment of the Irish Free State in 1922, the kingdom was officially designated
the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. At present the UK comprises England,
Scotland, Wales and North Ireland. The capital and largest city is London.
Many nations around the world have been influenced by British history and culture. With
each passing year, English comes closer to being a world language for all educated people, as
Latin once was. The prominence of English can be traced to the spread of the British Empire
during the last three centuries. In the early 20th century, a quarter of the world's people and
a quarter of the world's land surface were controlled in some way by Britain. Some parts of
the world received substantial numbers of British emigrants and developed into what were
called daughter nations. These colonies eventually became self governing areas called
dominions. Canada, Australia, and New Zealand fit this pattern. For a long time India was the
most important colony in the British Empire, but after a long anti colonial struggle with
Britain, independent India today is the world's most populous 11 democracies. The British
Empire once included substantial portions of southern, western, and eastern Africa;
important areas in Asia, such as Hong Kong; a few holdings in the Americas; and a large
number of islands in the Pacific. Today most of these are independent nations, but many
retain some British law, institutions, and customs. Weisser, 2001
The Commonwealth
The Commonwealth is a union of fifty-four independent states which originated in the
process of dismantling of the British Empire, the largest empire in history. After India and
Pakistan were given their independence, the process of decolonizing important states began,
thus bringing an end to this British empire. This voluntary association, called the
Commonwealth, is organized
according to basic principles among which democracy, economic development and
international understanding are the most important. Its members are not tied by any legal or
constitutional organization, although the British monarch is head of state of the UK, and a
monarch of fifteen other independent Commonwealth countries, such as Canada, Australia,
New Zealand, etc. A degree of self-government is enjoyed by fourteen British Overseas
Territories. Responsibility is shared with the UK only in defense matters, internal security
and foreign relations.
Britain and the Four Nations
Britain is sometimes referred to as England. However, this use is wrong. “England is only one
of the four nations in this part of the world. The others are Scotland, Wales, and Ireland”.
The whole area became a single state in 1800 when the Irish parliament joined with the
parliaments of England, Scotland and wales, after a long process of unification that took
hundreds of years. The result was a single state called the United Kingdom of Great Britain
and Ireland. However, in 1922, most of Ireland became a separate state.
The four nations, though united under the umbrella of the UK, have very little in common.
Culture and lifestyle vary enormously. In Ireland, Wales and Highland Scotland, the dominant
culture is Celtic, and people speak Celtic languages; while in England and Lowland Scotland,
it is a Germanic culture and people living there speak Germanic languages. The economic,
social, and legal systems of the four nations are also different, although they are under the
rule of one government. Ethnic identity is strongly felt by the Welsh, Scottish and Irish
people. That is why they have separate teams in many kinds of international sport.
Confusing Britain for England by many people may have its reasons. The English culture is, in
fact, the dominant culture in Britain. Language, politics and many aspects of life of the four
nations have their origins in English custom and practice. This, however; was not achieved
peacefully. The military and economic power of England enabled her to assert her
dominance, which can be felt in the many ways aspects of British life are portrayed and
described. For example, the Bank of England is controlling the supply of money in Britain.
Also, using the term “Anglo” in different contexts to mean Britain and not just England
(Anglo-American relations). There is, in fact, a tendency to treat the other nations as
different entities while England as the norm. this attitude encouraged the English people to
use English and British alternatively forgetting that this can be offensive to people who are
British but not English.
And although most of the British people live in England, many would certainly display their
pride in being Scottish, Irish or welsh. Their ethnic identity counts a lot for them and
displaying loyalty to it defines exactly who they are in this large area. The English, on the
other hand would not regard an Irish, a Scottish or a welsh as a foreigner like other
foreigners and they may identify for example with a Scottish team plying against another
team from a different part in the world.
 Lecture Two:
The Earliest Settlers of Britain

1. The Iberians The first settlers who came to settle England about 3000 or 2500 BC or
during the Bronze Age, are called the Iberians. They are initially from the Iberian
Peninsula (nowadays Spain and Portugal). Very little is known about them except some
information extracted from archaeological research about their physical appearance;
they were dark-haired and dark-skinned people. They were primitive and lived on
hunting and later they learned to farm and used bronze to produce weapons. They
raised animals and used them as a source of food and clothing and energy. They settled
in the western part of Britain and Ireland. It is said that they raised Stonehenge which is
known as a centre of religious worship. Other smaller Henges are found in different
parts of the country.
2. The Celts From around 750 BC to 12 BC, the Celts were the most influential people in
central and northern Europe. There were many groups (tribes) of Celts, speaking a
vaguely common language. The word Celt comes from the Greek word, Keltoi, which
means barbarians and is correctly pronounced as "Kelt". No one called the people living
in Britain during the Iron Age Celts until the eighteenth century. The Romans called
these people Britons, not Celts. The name Celt is a 'modern' name and is used to
collectively describe all the many tribes of people living during the Iron Age. The Iron
Age Celts lived in Europe 750 years before Jesus was born. The Iron Age ended on AD43
(43 years after Jesus was born) when the Romans invaded Britain. The Celts are called
Iron Age Celts. The Celts lived across most of Europe during the Iron Age. Several
hundred years before Julius Caesar, they occupied many parts of central and Western
Europe, especially what are now Austria, Switzerland, southern France, and Spain. Over
several years, wave after wave, they spread outwards, taking over France and Belgium
and crossing to Britain. Northwest Europe was dominated by three main Celtic groups: 
the Gauls  the Britons  the Gaels. Life was hard for the Celtic tribes. They were mainly
 farmers who grew, gathered, or hunted for their food. They were also fierce warriors
who were often at war with each other.
3. Famous Celtic Queen Warrior Queen Boudicca was the wife of the ruler of the Iceni, a
Celtic tribe who lived in eastern England. After her husband's death, the Romans claimed
the Iceni lands. When Boudicca protested, she was beaten and her daughters attacked.
In revenge, Boudicca led an army to attack London in AD 60. Boudicca's army caused
vast amounts of damage to the Roman legions before being defeated.
4. What Clothes Did The Celts Wear? The Celts loved bright dazzling colours. They dyed
their woollen trousers and tops in bright colours. Their clothes were made from wool
and dyed with natural vegetable dyes (plants and berries) and woven by hand on a
vertical loom2 (pictured below). Jewellery: The Celts also loved to wear jewelry made
from bronze, gold, tin, silver, coral, and enamel. Important people like chieftains, nobles,
and warriors wore a Torc (neck ring), a circular twisted metal neckband. It was made
from gold, silver, electrum (a gold-silver alloy), bronze, and copper. Bracae (trousers):
were worn underneath tunics. Tunics: Tunics were mainly worn by men. They were a
simple 'T' shape and worn at any length from the knee to the ankle. Men would wear a
tunic with a belt, a cloak, and trousers.
5. Dresses: Women wore floor-length skirts or dresses made of wool or linen and wore
shawls or cloaks. They are capes or mantles called Bratt which were made from wool.
What Did The Celts Eat? There were no supermarkets or shops to buy food so the Celts
ate what food they could grow or hunt. They ate Plants products like Vegetables, wild
nuts, berries, grains to make bread and also porridge, herbs, and leaves They also lived
on Animal and fish meat like : Wild animals, e.g. deer, wild boar, fox, beaver, and bear.
Fish, e.g. trout, mackerel, and salmon. Domesticated animals like chickens, goats, sheep,
and pigs. They also consumed Eggs taken from hens and wild birds.
6. Celtic Beliefs The Celts of Britain were very superstitious people. They believed in many
gods and goddesses: over 400 in fact . Among them were: Sucellos is the sky God, with a
hammer that causes lightning. Nodens is the God who made clouds and rain. Many gods
had no names but lived in springs, woods, and other places. Offerings to the gods were
thrown into lakes, rivers and left by springs and wells.
7. Celtic priests, called Druids, were the link between the supernatural world and the
ordinary human one. They could to predict what would happen in the future by
 interpreting nature. They likely knew how to read and write, and they certainly had a
good grasp of mathematics. They knew something of medicine and law, and they could
trace the stars and the planets. The main centre of the druids in Britain was Anglesey, in
Wales.
8. Celtic Weapons and Warriors Many Celts went into battle unprotected by helmets or
armour. They often fought naked and it is believed that women fought as well.
9. Celtic Invasion Thanks to their use of iron and their developed techniques of farming,
they imposed themselves on the Iberians. They came in successive waves and savagely
killed and chased the Iberians and settled their lands by force. They brought with them
their dialects and culture. In the end, they could mix and co-exist together and
developed new dialects which some of them still exist like Erse, Gaelic, and welsh .the
Celts did not trade with other people in Europe except their relative in the north of
France who taught them to use coins instead of iron bars. They also helped them to
push out the roman invasion of northern France. It is there where Julius Caesar saw for
the first time the British Celts and decided to hold a military campaign to invade Britain
later on.
The Romans After Julius Caesar saw the Celts in the north of France where the Celts of
Britain were fighting with the Celts of Gaul against the Romans, he decided to invade Britain.
He made two expeditions in 55 and 54 BC. These two military expeditions were pushed
down by fierce Celtic resistance and the Romans were forced to retreat. Yet, the actual
successful Roman invasion was held by the emperor Claudius in 43 AD3. They came to
colonize and exploit Britain by right of superior civilization. To fulfill their objective, they
induced and subdued the Celts and assimilated the Latin language, culture, and roaming
lifestyle. They encouraged the Celtic tribe chiefs to Romanize and Latinize them. These were
the roman conditions to leave them live as chiefs. The name Britain comes from the Greco-
Roman word “Pretani”, the Romans mispronounced the word and called the island
“Britannia”.
Roman effects on Britain - The Romans brought the skills of reading and writing to Britain -
The roman could not conquer “Caledonia” as they call her Scotland; they were pushed out
by the Caledonian Picts who continued raiding over the Romanized cities and Celtic tribes.
Finally, they built a protective wall to prevent them from causing damage to their cities. It
was erected by the emperor Hadrian between 122 127 which later marked the frontiers
between Scotland and Britain. - The Romans built about twenty large towns and cities. Like
Winchester, Chester, Lancaster, York, bath, London which became the greatest center of
trade and government. These cities were decorated with villas and gardens and surrounded
by forts for protection. In the roman manors or farms, they recruited workers to sow the
crops and sold them in the markets. The workers were called the serfs. - Besides, many
popular baths were built which introduced a water culture to the British people.
They connected towns with roads which continued to be used a long time after the roman
departed from Britain. - The roman introduced Christianity to the different parts of the
British Isles and succeeded in Christianizing the Celts through the Christian missionaries and
Saint Augustine.
The Roman Departure from Britain The fall of the Roman Empire started in the second half
of the 4th century AD. In Britain, it was precipitated by the Celtic resistance revival and the
different raids over the Romans from both Ireland and Scotland. In the first half of the 5th
century AD, the Roman Empire could no more protect its subject in Britain and many other
wars broke out in the different parts of the empire and they needed more legions to face
them. Finally, they left Britain and the Romanized Celts unprotected; their withdrawal made
another wave of conquerors came to invade Britain. These were the Anglo-Saxon.
 Lecture Three
The Anglo-Saxons Invasion of Britain
(410-1066AD)
Introduction The Anglo-Saxon period in Britain spans approximately six centuries from 410
1066AD. The period used to be known as the Dark Ages, mainly because written sources for
the early years of the Saxon invasion are scarce. However, most historians now prefer the
terms 'early middle ages' or 'early medieval period'. The Anglo-Saxon period was a time of
war, of the breaking up of Roman Britannia into several separate kingdoms, of religious
conversion, and, after the 790s, of continual battles against a new set of invaders: the
Vikings.
Anglo-Saxon mercenaries had for many years fought in the Roman army in Britain, so they
were not total strangers to the island. Their invasions were slow and began even before the
Roman legions departed. When the Roman legions left Britain, the Germanic-speaking
Angles, Saxons, Jutes, and Frisians began to arrive – at first in small invading parties, but
soon in increasing numbers. Initially, they met little firm resistance from the relatively
defenceless inhabitants of Britannia. Around 500 AD, however, the invaders were resisted
fiercely by the Romano-British, who might have been led by King Arthur, if he existed – and
there is no hard evidence that he did. However, the monk Gildas, writing in the mid-6th
century, talks about a British Christian leader called Ambrosius who rallied (grouped or
assembled) the Romano-British against the invaders and won twelve battles. Later accounts
call this leader Arthur.
The Celtic areas of Britain regarded the Saxons as enemies and foreigners on their borders:
their name became Sassenachs to the Scottish and Saesneg to the Welsh. The various Anglo-
Saxon groups settled in different areas of the country. They formed several kingdoms, often
changing, and constantly at war with one another. These kingdoms sometimes
acknowledged one of their rulers as a ‘High King'. By 650-850 AD, there were seven separate
kingdoms called the Heptarchy which are: Kent, settled by the Jutes. 2. Mercia, whose best-
known ruler. This large kingdom stretched over the Midlands. 3. Northumbria, where the
monk Bede (c. 670-735) 4. East Anglia, made up of Angles. 5. Essex (East Saxons). Here the
famous Battle of Maldon was fought against the Vikings in 991. 6. Sussex: the South Saxons
settled here. 7. Wessex (West Saxons), later the kingdom of King Alfred, the only English king
ever to have been called ‘the Great', and his equally impressive grandson, Athelstan, the first
who could truly call himself ‘King of the English'. By 850 AD the seven kingdoms had been
consolidated into three large Anglo Saxon kingdoms: Northumbria, Mercia, and Wessex. The
Anglo-Saxons had become a Christian people.
1. Languages of the Anglo-Saxons
2. The Anglo-Saxons spoke the language we now know as Old English, an ancestor of
modern-day English. Its closest cousins were other Germanic languages such as Old
Friesian, Old Norse, and Old High German. The surviving Anglo-Saxon manuscripts from
Anglo-Saxon England show the different dialects spoken in different parts of the
country, such as West Saxon, Northumbrian, and Mercian. The oldest English poem,
Cædmon’s Hymn, was composed in the Northumbrian dialect of English. The old epic
poem Beowulf is written in Old English.
3. Houses and Daily Activities The Anglo-Saxons were farmers and did not like the stone
houses and streets left by the Romans, so they built their villages. They looked for land
with lots of natural resources like food, water, and wood to build and heat their homes
and practice agriculture, and Britain’s forests had everything they needed. They
surrounded each village with a high fence to protect cattle from wild animals like foxes
and wolves, and to keep out their enemies, too. The Anglo-Saxon attacked the villages
and the monasteries and took all their properties. They disliked everything related to the
Romans.
4. Food They grew wheat, barley, and oats (cereals) for making bread and porridge, grew
fruit and vegetables like carrots and apples, and kept pigs, sheep, and cattle for meat,
wool, and milk. 4.4 Clothes Anglo-Saxons made their clothes out of natural materials.
The men wore long sleeved tunics (coats) made of wool or linen, often decorated with a
pattern. Their trousers were woollen and held up by a leather belt from which they
could hang their tools such as knives and pouches (bags). Shoes were usually made out
of leather and fastened with laces. The women would wear an under-dress of linen or
wool and an outer dress like a pinafore called a “peplos” held onto the underlayer by
two brooches on the shoulders. Anglo-Saxon women loved beaded necklaces, bracelets,
and rings.
5. Beliefs Many of today’s Christian traditions came from the Anglo-Saxons, but they were
not always Christians. When they first came over from Europe they were Pagans,
worshipping lots of different gods who they believed looked different parts of their life,
such as family, crop growing, weather, and even war. The Anglo-- 20 - Saxons would pray
to the Pagan gods to give them good health, a plentiful harvest, or success in battle.
When the Pope of Rome sent over a missionary, led by a monk called Augustine, to
England in 597AD, the Anglo-Saxons became Christians. Augustine convinced the Anglo-
Saxon King Ethelbert of Kent to convert to Christianity and slowly the rest of the country
followed him. Pagan temples were turned into churches and more churches (built of
wood) started popping up all over Britain.
 Lecture 4
The Viking invasion of Britain (793-1066)

Historical Facts
The Viking Age in Britain began about 1,200 years ago in the 9th Century AD and lasted
for just over 200 years. The Vikings first invaded Britain in AD 793 and lasted until 1066
when William the Conqueror became King of England after the Battle of Hastings. These
bands of fierce raiders began to attack the British coasts. They were also called the
Danes although they did not just come from Denmark. The Vikings came from the three
countries in Scandinavia (in Northern Europe) Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. Vikings
were also known as the Norsemen. Norsemen means 'people from the North'. They
were great travellers and sailed to other parts of Europe, where they traded, raided, and
often settled. The Vikings came across the North Sea, just as the Anglo-Saxons had done
400 years earlier. They drove the Saxons out of part of the country and took it for
themselves. King Alfred, Saxon king of Wessex, fought them in a great battle, but he
could not drive them right away and had to let them have part of the country after
signing a peace treaty; the area they settled in is called Danelaw. The first place the
Vikings raided in Britain was the monastery at Lindisfarne, a small holy island located off
the northeast coast of England. This raid on Lindisfarne marks the start of the Viking
migration from Scandinavia in 793. Some of the monks were drowned in the sea, others
killed or taken away as slaves along with many treasures of the church. In the years that
followed, villages near the sea, monasteries, and even cities found themselves
dominated by these sea-based foreign intruders. Soon no region of the British Isles
(Britain and nearby islands) was safe from the Vikings. They attacked villages and towns
in Wales, Scotland, Ireland, the Isle of Man, and England. By - 22 - 866, the Vikings had
arrived in York. They made York (or Jorvik as they called it) the second biggest city in the
country after London.
2. Danelaw areas The areas the Vikings settled in were known as Danelaw. It covered an
area roughly east of a line on a map joining London and Chester. The Saxons lived south
of the line, mainly in Wessex, governed by Alfred the Great The Vikings settled in: 
Islands off the coast of Scotland - Shetland, Orkney, and The Hebrides  Around the
north and northwest coast of Scotland  Parts of Ireland - Dublin is a Viking city  The Isle
of Man  Small parts of Wales  Northumbria (which included modern Yorkshire)  East
Anglia  Leicester, Nottingham, Derby, Stamford, and Lincoln
3. Cultural Facts on the Vikings 3.1 Vikings Religion Like the type of religion in ancient
Greece or Rome, the Vikings worshipped many different Gods and Goddesses. Their
religion was an important part of everyday life. The three most important Viking Gods
are: - Odin is the leader of the gods. The god of magic, poetry, and war. His wife was
Frigg - Thor (Tor in Scandinavian languages) was the god of thunder. Thor had iron
gloves, a magic belt, and a hammer. He was also the god of protection. He protected
them from cold, hunger, giants, and other dangers. Freyr (or Frej in Swedish) is the god
of agriculture and fertility. Frey was worshipped regularly all throughout the year for
future prosperity. He was the twin of Freyja (goddess of love and fertility). Freyja wept
golden tears when she was unhappy.
3.2 Norse Myths (Sagas) The Vikings told many stories about gods, giants, trolls, and
dragons. They were full of magic, adventure, dishonesty, and trouble. They describe
people living in Midgard (Middle Earth) and gods and goddesses living in a sky world
called Asgard. A beautiful rainbow bridge linked Midgard with Asgard.
3.3 Vikings’ Houses and Food Vikings lived in a long, narrow building called a longhouse.
They were built of wood. The longhouses had curved walls in the plan, forming a ship-
like outline. The walls were lined with clay or consisted of wooden planks. The Vikings
were also farmers and people of agriculture. Therefore, they ate fruits, vegetables, and
cereals for bread and kept animals for meat, milk, cheese, and eggs. They had plenty of
fish as they were sea-fairer and hunters. The bread was made using quern stones, stone
tools for hand-grinding grain.
3.4 Vikings’ Clothes Viking clothes were made from wool, linen, and animal skins. The
Vikings were skilful weavers and made their clothes. Women, with the help of children,
made the wool into yarn (thread) and used natural dyes from plants to give it colour.
Men wore tunics and trousers and women wore a long dress with a pinafore over it
Vikings Timeline The Vikings came to Britain in two waves the first wave in 793 and the
second one in 980. 793 The first invasion by the Vikings. They raided monasteries on the
coast, including Lindisfarne, 794 First raids on Scotland and Ireland. 820 Viking raids
continued around the English coast 821 Wessex, reigned by Alfred the Great became the
Supreme Kingdom 865 Great Viking Army from Denmark Invaded England 866 Danes
captured York (which the Vikings called Jorvik) and make it their kingdom (land ruled by
a king) 871 King Ethelred, the West Saxon king, and his brother Alfred defeated the
Viking army at the Battle of Ashdown (in Berkshire). 876 Vikings from Denmark, Norway,
and Sweden settled permanently in England. 886 King Alfred the Great defeated the
Vikings but allows them to settle in Eastern England (the Kingdoms of York and East
Anglia) This area of England became known as Danelaw and was ruled by the Viking King
Guthrum. 901 937 Eastern England (Danelaw) was conquered by the English 950 Vikings
from Ireland, the Isle of Man, and the Hebrides raided on Wales, particularly the coastal
monasteries. 954 Eric Bloodaxe, the last Viking King of Jorvik, was thrown out of York.
980 New Viking Raided on England 994 Olaf of Norway and Sven 'Forkbeard', son of the
Danish king, led an invading Danish army in an unsuccessful siege of London and
subsequently ravaged the south-east. 1014 King Canute (Cnut) of Denmark captured the
English Crown (became king) 1042 Edward the Confessor became King (A Saxon King)
 Lecture 5
The Norman Invasion of Britain (1066)

1. Normans Origin :
To understand who the Normans were, we have to go back a little to 911. This year,
a rather powerful Viking chief called Rollo attacked the north of France after some
battles and negotiations with French authorities, he accepted the offer of a large
area of Northern France from the then king of France, Charles II, as part of a peace
treaty. Rollo and his Norsemen settled in this area of northern France, now known
as Normandy. Rollo became the first Duke of Normandy and over the next hundred
years, the Normans adopted the French language and culture and lived in harmony
with the French people.
2. Historical Facts on The Norman Invasion On 5th January 1066, Edward the
Confessor, King of England, died. The next day the Anglo-Saxon Witan (a council of
high-ranking men) elected Harold Godwin, Earl of Essex (and Edward’s brother-in-
law) to succeed him. The crown had scarcely been put on his head when King
Harold’s problems started with other opponents over the British crown. In
Normandy, Duke William did not agree with the voting of the Witan. William
claimed that years earlier, Edward had promised the crown of England to him.
Besides, he believed that he had strengthened his claim further when in 1063, he
made Harold swear to support his claim to the English throne. He was very annoyed
because he felt that Harold Godwin betrayed him. Therefore, William prepared to
invade and conquer Britain. King Harold Godwin also had problems in the north of
England – sibling rivalry. Harold’s brother Tostig had joined forces with Harold
Hardrada, King of Norway, - 27 - and had landed with an army in Yorkshire. Harold
Godwin marched his English army north from London to drive back the invaders.
Arriving at Tadcaster on 24th September, he seized the opportunity to catch the
enemy off guard. His army was exhausted after the forced march from London, but
after a bitter, bloody battle to capture the bridge at Stamford, Harold won a
decisive victory on 25th September. Harold Hardrada and Tostig were both killed.
On October 1st Harold Godwin and his tired army marched three hundred
kilometres south to fight Duke William of Normandy, who had landed at Pevensey,
East Sussex on the 28th of September. Harold’s sick, exhausted Saxon army met
William’s fresh, rested Norman troops, on October 14th at Battle near Hastings, and
the great battle began. At first, Harold's army was victorious over the Normans, but
slowly, the Normans began to gain control. King Harold was struck in the eye by a
Norman arrow and was killed, but the battle continued until all of Harold’s loyal
bodyguards were slain (killed). Although William of Normandy had won the Battle of
Hastings, it would take a few weeks longer to convince the good folk of London to
hand over the keys of the city to him. Anglo-Saxon resistance blocked the Norman
advance at the Battle of Southwark. This battle was for control of London Bridge,
which crossed the River Thames allowing the Normans easy access to the English
capital of London. Thus, the Norman troops were forced to find access to London
from Wallingford in December 1066, where he was crowned king of England by
Archbishop Ealdred, and he was called William the first.
3. The Norman’s Conquest Impact on Britain The consequences of the Norman
Conquest were many and varied. Further, some effects were much longer-lasting
than others. It is also true that society in England was already developing along its
path of history before William the Conqueror arrived yet; the momentous political,
social, and economic changes of the Middle Ages had their roots in the Norman
invasion. The following list summarizes what - 28 - most historians agree on as some
of the most significant changes the Norman Conquest brought to England:  The
Anglo-Saxon landowning elites were almost totally replaced by Normans, who took
their lands and properties.  The ruling system was centralized, with power and
wealth being held in much fewer Norman hands.  Most of Anglo-Saxon bishops
were replaced with Norman ones and many religious headquarters were relocated
to urban centres.  Norman castles were introduced, which reshaped warfare in
England, reducing the necessity for and risk of large-scale field engagements.  The
system of feudalism developed as William gave out lands to his vassals in return for
military service and protection in case of war.  Manors and large farms developed
and spread further, where labourers worked on their lord’s estate for his benefit.
They were called serfs.  The north of England was devastated for a long time
following William’s constant attacks against the probable remaining resistance of
the Anglo Saxons of the area in 1069-70 CE.  Domesday Book, a detailed and
systematic catalogue of the land and wealth in England, was compiled in 1086-7 CE.
 The contact and especially trade between England and European countries greatly
increased.  The two countries of France and England became historically
intertwined, initially due to the crossover of land ownership, i.e. Norman nobles
holding lands in both countries. - 29 -  The syntax and vocabulary of the Anglo-
Saxon Germanic language were significantly influenced by the French language and
a considerable number of French words were introduced to the English language. 
The French language was designated as the language of the church, schools, and
literature and the language of the elite. However, the English language was spoken
by the English common people only.  Norman genius was also expressed in
architecture. Saxon buildings had mostly been wooden structures. Massive stone
castles, churches, cathedrals, and monasteries were erected, these imposing
structures again clearly demonstrating just who was in charge. Richmond Caste 11th
c, Rochester Castle 12th c, and Windsor Castles 11th century are among the
surviving Normans castles.  The Bayeux Tapestry was probably commissioned in
the 1070s by Bishop Odo of Bayeux, half-brother of William the Conqueror. It is over
70 meters long and although it is called a tapestry it is embroidery, The Tapestry
tells the story of the events surrounding the conquest of England by the Duke of
Normandy.
4. Feudal System or Feudalism in Britain The feudal system was a way of
organizing society into different groups based on their roles. It had the king at the
top with all of the control, and the peasants at the bottom doing all of the work. All
medieval people did homage, a promise to be loyal, to their 'lord' and there were no
rules or restrictions on the power of the king. He was the absolute ruler and owner
of everything in the country. Under the feudal system, the British society was
organized in a peculiar hierarchy as follows: monarchs (the king, queen), barons or
lords (landowners and nobles), knights (army), and peasants (serfs). - 30 - After his
conquest of Britain, by 1085, William had a shortage of money and needed to raise
taxes, to pay for his army. Also, many Norman Barons had begun to disagree
amongst themselves over the land they had been given as a reward for helping
conquer England. William wanted to settle these disputes once and for all. Thus, he
decided to order a survey. Therefore, he created the Domesday Book (1085). He
sent official inspectors and agents all over England to assess and value the wealth of
the land and who owned it. Through this survey, he recorded every property in
England. The Domesday Book shows how Normans came to dominate the country
and how less than 250 Normans controlled the whole country. William granted
most of the land to Normans and only a few Anglo-Saxon lords who owned lands
during the time of Edward the Confessor were able to keep their land.