WEEK 4

FUNGI

Fungi may be unicellular, such as yeasts, or multicellular, such as the familiar molds and
mushrooms. Most fungi are saprophytes (also called saprobes); that is, they live on dead organic
matter and decompose it to recycle the chemicals as nutrients. The pathogenic fungi cause
infections that are called mycoses, which may be superficial or systemic. A fungus has a
vegetative filament called hypha (plural is hyphae). A mat of interwoven hyphae is called
mycelium. Fungi reproduce both sexually and asexually. Sexual reproduction is accomplished by
two mating strains. They have cells or gametes that undergo cytoplasmic fusion. The nuclei from
both cells divide independently. Asexually, fungi reproduce through spore formation. Another
method of asexual reproduction is by fragmentation. It is a process by which the hyphae break
apart.
>are “garbage disposers” of nature, the “vultures” of microbial world
>in plants, they are harmful if parasitic forms harm the host organisms and cause diseases
(example: rusts, smuts that attack agricultural crops)
>by secreting digestive enzymes into dead plant and animal matter, they decompose this
material into absorbable nutrients for themselves and other living organisms thus, they are the
original “recyclers”
>also live as parasites on living animals and plants
>often incorrectly referred to as plants
a) not photosynthetic – no chlorophyll or other pigments
b) cell wall contains chitin
c) store food as glycogen
d) grow as filaments called hyphae – mycelium

Yeasts have been used by people for thousands of years in baking and brewing. In small
numbers, yeasts such as Candida Albicans are part of the skin, mouth, intestines, and vagina. In
larger numbers, however, yeasts may cause superficial infections of mucous membranes or the
skin, or very serious systemic infections of internal organs. An all-too common trigger for oral or
vaginal yeast infections is the use of an antibiotic to treat a bacterial infection. The antibiotic
diminishes the normal bacterial flora, thereby removing competition for the yeast, which are then
able to overgrow. Yeasts may also cause skin infections in diabetics, or in obese people who have
skin folds that are always moist. In recent years, Candida has become an important cause of
nosocomial infections. The resistance of hospital patients is lowered because of their diseases or
treatments, and they are more susceptible to systemic yeast infections in the form of pneumonia
or endocarditis. Another superficial mycosis is ringworm (tinea), which may be caused by several
species of fungi. The name ringworm is misleading, because there are no worms involved. The
systemic mycoses are more serious diseases that occur when spores of some fungi gain access to
the interior of the body. Most of these fungi grow in a mold-like pattern. The molds we sometimes
see on stale bread or overripe fruit look fluffy or fuzzy. The fluff is called mycelium and is made of
many thread-like cellular structures called hyphae. The color of the mold is due to the spore cases
(sporangia) in which the productive spores are produced. Each spore may be carried by the air to
another site, where it germinates and forms another mycelium. (Essentials of Anatomy and
Physiology 5th edition by Scanlon and Sanders).

Classes of Fungi:
1. Basidiomycetes – mushrooms
2. Oomycetes – some aquatic forms
3. Zygomycetes – bread molds
4. Ascomycetes –common antibiotic producing fungi, yeasts
5. Deuteromycetes – molds, yeasts
Economic Importance:
1. Yeasts are used to make bread to rise
2. Used in laboratory for research purposes
3. Used in brewing and fermentation process
4. Fungi release Carbon, Nitrogen and Phosphorus when they digest dead plants and animals,
reused for life to survive
5. Mushrooms are edible and used as delicacies
6. Penicillium is a fungus that gave us “wonder drug” penicillin
7. Make the soil available for absorption

Antifungal medications

One of the most effective drugs used to treat serious, systemic mycoses, amphotericin B,
has great potential to cause serious side effects. Patients receiving this medication should
have periodic tests of liver and kidney function. Newer medications include ketoconazole,
fluconazole, and caspofungin, which are less toxic to the recipient and may prove to be as
effective as amphotericin B. Superficial mycoses such as ringworm may be treated with certain
oral medications. Taken orally, the drug is incorporated into living epidermal cells. When these
cells die and reach the stratum corneum, they are resistant to the digestive action of the
ringworm fungi. An effective topical spray has also been developed. There are several effective
medications for mucosal yeast infections, but is important that the trigger for the infection
(such as antibiotic therapy) be resolved as well. If it is not, the yeasts infection may recur
when the medication is stopped.

DISEASES CAUSED BY FUNGI

1. Microsporum, Trichophyton, Epidermophyton – Ringworm (tinea): scaly red patches on the

skin or scalp; loss of hair. Tinea pedis is athlete’s foot. May also infect damaged nails.
Spores of these fungi are acquired from people or animals.
2. Candida albicans (and other species) – Yeast infections: mucosal infections are called
thrush; may be oral or vaginal; yeast have come from resident flora. Systemic infections
include pneumonia and endocarditis. Important nosocomial pathogens.
3. Cryptococcus – Cryptococcosis: pulmonary infection that may progress to meningitis,
especially in AIDS patients. Spores are carried in the air from soil or pigeon droppings.
4. Histoplasma – Histoplasmosis: pulmonary infection that is often self-limiting; Progressive
disease involves ulcerations of the liver, spleen, and lymph nodes; usually fatal. Spores are
carried by the air from soil.
5. Coccidioides: - Coccidioidomycosis: pulmonary infection that is often self-limiting.
Progressive disease involves the meninges, bones, skin, and other organs; high mortality
rate. Spores are carried by the air.
6. Rhizopus – Common bread mold that is harmless to most people, but may cause invasive
disease in those with compromised immune systems or poorly controlled diabetes. The
spores may be inhaled or ingested and establish themselves in tissues, leading to systemic
infection characterized by clotting and necrosis. Also cause digestive diseases in cats and
pigs.
7. Aspergillus – A common mold found in fruits, harmless to healthy people. In those who are
immunocompromised it may cause sinusitis, otitis, pneumonia, or more invasive disease.
8. Pneumocystis jiroveci – Pneumonia: only in very debilitated or immunosuppressed persons,
such as people with AIDS. Although its antibiotic susceptibility is that of a protozoan, its
DNA sequences are more similar to those of fungi. Many people become infected during
childhood, but a normal immune system prevents any damage. Such a latent infection may
become symptomatic and very serious when cell-mediated immunity is impaired.
PROTOZOA

Protozoa are eukaryotes, unicellular animals, single cells, ranging in length from 3-2000
micrometer that are adapted to life in freshwater (including soil) and salt water. Most are free
living organisms found in soil and water. They have no chlorophyll so they cannot make their own
food by photosynthesis. Some are human pathogens and are able to form cysts, which are
resistant, dormant cells that are able to survive passage from host to host.

Classification according to locomotion/presence or absence of cilia and flagella:

1. Sarcodina – move by pseudopodia, move and take food by means of “false feet”, feed by
phagocytosis (cell membrane engulfs its prey or any food material, puts it inside its cell
and forms food vacuoles), example is amoeba which are freshwater organisms, bottom-
dwelling scavengers that feed on decaying organic matter especially in streams, rivers,
lakes
2. Ciliophora – move by cilia (short hair-like projections); marine and freshwater habitat;
mostly free living or live inside hot animals as parasites, example is Balantidium coli that
causes severe intestinal infections in pigs and humans
3. Mastigophora – move by flagella (whip-like structure); mostly free living inhabiting
freshwater like ponds and lakes, others are parasites, examples are Trichomonas vaginalis
that causes Trichomoniasis infections of male and female genital tracts, and Giardia
lamblia that causes persistent intestinal infection (giardiasis)
4. Sporozoa – no organs for locomotion, generally non-motile, are parasitic and causes
diseases in humans, examples are Plasmodium species that causes malaria in humans (via
female Anopheles mosquito), the Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium falcifarum

Intestinal protozoan parasites of people include Entamoeba histolytica, which causes amoebic
dysentery, and Giardia lamblia, which causes diarrhea called giardiasis. People acquire these by
ingesting food or water contaminated with the cysts of these species. Giardiasis can become a
problem in daycare centers if the staff is not careful concerning hand washing and food
preparation. Plasmodium, the genus that causes malaria, affects hundreds of millions of people
throughout the world and is probably the most important protozoan parasite. The Plasmodium
species are becoming increasingly resistant to the standard antimalarial drugs, which are used to
prevent disease as well as cure it. Work is progressing on several malaria vaccines, and some
have shown promise. Medications are available that can treat most protozoan infections. Intestinal
protozoans, for example, may be treated with metronidazole or furazolidone.

DISEASES CAUSED BY PROTOZOA:

1. Entamoeba histolytica – Amebic dysentery; ulcerative lesions in the colon, bloody diarrhea;
abscesses may form in the liver, lungs, or brain. Spread by the fecal-oral route I water or
food.
2. Naegleria species – Amebic meningoencephalitis: inflammation of the meninges and brain;
Amoebas in fresh water are acquired when swimmers sniff water into nasal cavities; the
amoebas move along the olfactory nerves into the brain.
3. Balantidium coli – Balantidiasis: abdominal discomfort and diarrhea; often mild. Reservoirs
are pigs and other domestic animals; spread by fecal-oral route.
4. Giardia lamblia – Giardiasis: fatty diarrhea; may be mild. Reservoirs are wild and domestic
animals and people. Spread by fecal-oral route in water or food prepared by people with
mild cases. An important cause of diarrhea in daycare centers.
5. Trichomonas vaginalis – Trichomoniasis: a sexually transmitted disease. Women: causes
cervicitis and vaginitis; men are often asymptomatic.
6. Trypanosoma species – African sleeping sickness: lethargy progressing to coma and death.
Reservoirs are wild and domestic animals; vector is the tsetse fly. No vaccine.
 7. Plasmodium species – Malaria: the protozoa reproduce in red blood cells, causing
hemolysis and anemia. The vector is the Anopheles mosquito. Cerebral malaria is the most
severe form, and it is often fatal for children. Several promising vaccines are in the testing
stages.
8. Toxoplasma gondii – Toxoplasmosis: asymptomatic infection in healthy people. Congenital
infection: miscarriage or mental retardation, blindness. Reservoirs are cats and grazing
animals. Pregnant women may acquire cysts from cat feces or from ingestion of rare bef or
lamb.
9. Cryptosporidium species – Diarrhea: ranges from mild to severe; spread by the fecal-oral
route. An important cause of diarrhea in daycare centers and in AIDS patients. Is very
resistant to chlorine, may contaminate municipal water supplies or swimming pools and
cause extensive epidemics.
10. Babesia microti and other species – Babesiosis: first symptoms similar to influenza; the
protozoa reproduce in and destroy RBCs. In severe cases, the haemolytic anemia may lead
to renal failure. The vectors are Ixodes ticks. No vaccine.

ALGAE

Algae are numerous eukaryotic, microscopic or macroscopic, plant-like organisms. They are
also classified as autotrophic protists because they possess the ability to perform photosynthesis.
Algae produce gametes that are protected by unicellular gametangia. Plants have their
reproductive cells in multicellular gametangia. Reproduction in algae is through sexual and asexual
means. Generally, an alga has a thallus or body. It can be unicellular, colonial, filamentous, or
thalloid.

There are five divisions of algae. They have been grouped primarily according to color, food
storage substances, and composition of cell walls. They also vary according to methods of
reproduction:
1. Chlorophyta – green algae
2. Phaeophyta – brown algae
3. Rhodophyta – red algae
4. Pyrrophyta – fire
5. Chrysophyta – gold algae

ARTHROPODS

Arthropods such as the scabies mite and head lice are ectoparasites that live on the surface of
the body. The infestations they cause are very itchy and uncomfortable but not debilitating or life
threatening. Of greater importance are the arthropods that are vectors of disease. Mosquitoes,
fleas, lice, and flies are all insects. Ticks are not insects but are more closely related to spiders.

ARTHROPOD VECTORS AND DISEASE(S) CAUSED:

1. Mosquito – Malaria (protozoan), Encephalitis (virus), Yellow fever (virus)

2. Flea – Plague (bacterium), Endemic typhus (rickettsia)
3. Body louse – Epidemic typhus (ricketssia), Tularemia (bacterium), Relapsing fever
(bacterium)
4. Tick – Lyme disease (bacterium), Rocky Mountain spotted fever (rickettsia), Tularemia
(bacterium)
5. Tsetse fly – Afrivan sleeping sickness (protozoan)
6. Deer fly, Horse fly – Tularemia (bacterium)
WORMS (HELMINTHS)

Most worms are simple multicellular animals. The parasitic worms are even simpler than the
familiar earthworm, because they live within hosts and use the host’s blood or nutrients as food.
Many of the parasitic worms have complex life cycles that involve two or more different host
species. (Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology 5th edition by Scanlon and Sanders)